CHAPTER 2

Pressure and Fluid Statics

Prepared by: Gashaw Minaye

March, 2020
 FLUID STATICS
 From previous classes we know that
 A static fluid have no shearing force acting on it, and
that
 Any force between the fluid and the boundary must be
acting at right angle to the boundary
 Or we can say that
 For an element of fluid at rest, the element will be in
equilibrium- the sum of components of forces in any
direction will be zero
 The sum of moments of forces on the element about
any point must also be zero
 PRESSURE
 As mentioned above a fluid will
exert a normal force on any  Other units include bar,
boundary it is in contact with. Since atm, kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.
these boundaries may be large and
the force may differ from place to
place it is convenient to work in
terms of pressure.
 Pressure is defined as a normal
force exerted by a fluid per unit
area.
 Units of pressure are N/m2, which is
called a pascal (Pa).
 Since the unit Pa is too small for
pressures encountered in practice,
kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and
megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are
commonly used.
 PASCAL LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT
 By considering a small element of  And, as the fluid is at
fluid in the form of a triangular rest, in equilibrium,
prism which contains a point P,
we can establish a relationship the sum of the forces
between the three pressures px in in any direction is
the x direction, py in the y zero.
direction and ps in the direction
normal to the sloping face.
 The fluid is a rest, so we know
there are no shearing forces, and
we know that all force are acting
at right angles to the surfaces .i.e.
 ps acts perpendicular to surface ABCD,
 px acts perpendicular to surface ABFE and
 py acts perpendicular to surface FECD.
 Cont...
 Summing forces in the x-direction:
Cont…
Cont…
 VARIATION OF PRESSURE VERTICALLY IN A FLUID UNDER GRAVITY

 Consider a fluid element of which is a

vertical column of constant cross sectional
area ,A, surrounded by the same fluid
density .
 The pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is
p1 at the level z1, and the top is p2 at level z2.
The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so all
the forces in the vertical direction sum to
zero. i.e.
 Force due to P1 on A ( upward)=p1A
 Force due to P2 on A( downward)=P2A
 Force due to the weight of element
(downward)=mg=gA(Z2-Z1)
 Taking upward as positive
P1A-P2A- gA(Z2-Z1) =0
P2-P1= - g(Z2-Z1)
 Thus in a fluid under gravity , pressure
decreases with increase in height; Z=(Z2-Z1)
Equality of pressure at the same level in a static fluid
 Consider the horizontal cylinder element
of fluid, with cross-sectional area A, in a
fluid of density , pressure P1 at the left
hand and end pressure Pr at the right
hand end.
 The fluid is at equilibrium so the sum of
the forces acting in the x direction is
zero.
P1A=PrA
P1=Pr
 This result is true for any continues
fluid. It is still true for two connected
tanks which appear to have any direct
connection.
 for example consider the tank shown in
figure below shows that (P1=Pr) and
from the equation for a vertical pressure
change.
P1=Pp+ gZ and
Pr=Pq+ gZ thus
 Variation of pressure with depth
 Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape
of the container.
 Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane
in a given fluid.
General equation for variation of pressure in a static fluid
 Here we show how the above observations for
vertical and horizontal elements of fluids can
be generalized for an element of any
orientation.
 Consider the cylindrical element of fluid in the
figure above, inclined at an angle  to the
vertical, length s , cross-sectional area A in a
static fluid of mass density  . The pressure at
the end with height z is p and at the end of
height z + z is p + p .
 The forces acting on the element are
 pA -acting at right - angles to the end of the face
at Z
 (p+ p)A acting at right - angles to the end of the
face at Z+ Z
 mg= A sg
 There are also forces from the surrounding
fluid acting normal to these sides of the
element.
 For equilibrium of the element the resultant of
forces in any direction is zero. Resolving the
forces in the direction along the central axis
gives
Cont…
 Fluid with variable density
 For a compressible fluid, where the density varies with the pressure, the above
equation cannot be simply integrated to give the value of the pressure at a
particular position. Density variations within the atmosphere are relevant to
aeronautics and meteorology; in oceanography similar considerations apply to sea-
water, since at great depths there is a small increase in the density.
 Let us consider the atmosphere, with air behaving as a perfect gas. The density
may be obtained from the equation of state p = RT (in which p represents the
absolute pressure).

i.e.

 If conditions are isothermal, T = constant, the previous equation may be integrated

to give

Where; po represents the (absolute) pressure when z = 0. That is,

 Cont…
 However, in the atmosphere the temperature varies with altitude. For
the first 11 km above the ground there is a uniform decrease, that is,
∂T/∂z = constant = −λ where λ is known as the temperature lapse
rate.
 The observed value of λ in this region is about 0.0065 K·m−1. From
11 km to 20 km the temperature is constant at−56.5 ◦C and then
beyond 20 km the temperature rises again.
 If the temperature lapse rate is constant, T = T0 − λz where T0
represents the temperature at z = 0. Substituting this relation and
integrating we obtain;
Example
 Pressure and Head
 In a static fluid of constant density  Most pressure-measuring
we have the relationship; devices are calibrated to read
dp/dz = -ρg zero in the atmosphere, &
This can be integrated to give; therefore indicate gage
p= -ρgz+ constant pressure, Pgage=Pabs - Patm.
 In a liquid with a free surface the
Pgage= ρgh
 Pressure below atmospheric
pressure at any depth z measured pressure are called vacuum
from the free surface so that z = -h
pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.
Thus; p= ρgh+ constant
 At the surface of fluids we are
normally concerned with, the
pressure is the atmospheric
pressure, patm
thus, p=ρgh+ patm
This pressure is often termed as
absolute pressure.
Absolute, Gage, and Vacuum Pressures
Cont…
 PASCAL’S LAW
 Pressure applied to a confined fluid
increases the pressure throughout
by the same amount.
 As shown in the figure, pistons are
at same height:
F1 F2 F A
P1  P2    2 2
A1 A2 F1 A1

 Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal

mechanical advantage
 Pressure measurement by manometer
 The relationship between pressure and head is
used to measure pressure with a manometer (also
know as a liquid gauge)
 The Piezometer Tube Manometer
 The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the
top, which is attached to the top of a vessel
containing liquid at a pressure (higher than
atmospheric) to be measured. An example can be
seen in the figure. This simple device is known
as a Piezometer tube. As the tube is open to the
atmosphere the pressure measured is relative to
atmospheric so is gauge pressure.
 pressure at A = pressure due to column of
liquid above A; pA=p gh1
 pressure at B = pressure due to column of
liquid above B; pB=p gh2
 This method can only be used for liquids (i.e.
not for gases) and only when the liquid height is
convenient to measure. It must not be too small
or too large and pressure changes must be
detectable.
 The U-Tube Manometer
 Using a U-Tube enables the
pressure of both liquids and gases
to be measured with the same
instrument.
 The U is connected as in the figure
and filled with a fluid called the
manometric fluid. The fluid whose
pressure is being measured should
have a mass density less than that
of the manometric fluid and the
two fluids should not be able to  For the left hand arm; pressure at B
mix readily - that is, they must be = pressure at A + pressure due to
immiscible. height h1 of fluid being measured 1
pB= pA+ gh1
 Pressure in a continuous static  For the right hand arm; pressure at
fluid is the same at any horizontal C = pressure at D + pressure due to
level so, height h2 of manometric fluid 2
pressure at B = pressure at C pC= patm + man gh2
pB= pC
Cont…
 Measurement of pressure difference using a U-tube manometer.

 If the manometer is arranged

as in the figure above, then
pressure at C = pressure at D
pC=pA+gha
pD=pB+ g(hb-h)+ mangh
Thus, pA-pB= g(hb-ha)+(man- ) gh
 Again, if the fluid whose
pressure difference is being
measured is a gas and man>>  ,
then the terms involving  can
be neglected, so
 pA- pB= man gh
MUTLIFLUID MANOMETER
  

p A  p2   Hg gh3   H 2O gh1   oil gh2

 EXAMPLE
 Two small vessels are connected to a U-tube
manometer containing mercury (relative density
13.56) and the connecting tubes are filled with
alcohol (relative density 0.82). The vessel at the
higher pressure is 2 m lower in elevation than the
other.
 What is the pressure difference between the vessels
when the steady difference in level of the mercury
menisci is 225 mm?
 What is the difference of piezometric head?
 If an inverted U-tube manometer containing a liquid of
relative density 0.74 were used instead, what would be
the manometer reading for the same pressure
difference?
Solution
THE BAROMETER
 Atmospheric pressure is measured
by a device called a barometer;
thus, atmospheric pressure is often
referred to as the barometric
pressure.
 PC can be taken to be zero since
there is only Hg vapor above point
C, and it is very low relative to
Patm.
 Change in atmospheric pressure
PC   gh  Patm
due to elevation has many effects:
Patm   gh Cooking, nose bleeds, engine
performance, aircraft
performance.
 FLUID STATICS
 Fluid Statics deals with problems associated with
fluids at rest.
 In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between
adjacent fluid layers.
 Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid trying
to deform it.
 The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress
 Normal stress is due to pressure
 Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the
fluid → fluid statics is only relevant in presence of
gravity fields.
 Applications: Floating or submerged bodies, water
dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.
HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON PLANE SURFACES

 On a plane surface, the

hydrostatic forces form a
system of parallel forces
 For many applications,
magnitude and location of
application, which is called
center of pressure, must be
determined.
 Atmospheric pressure Patm
can be neglected when it
acts on both sides of the
surface.
 RESULTANT FORCE

 The magnitude of FR acting on a plane surface of a

completely submerged plate in a homogenous fluid is equal
to the product of the pressure PC at the centroid of the
surface and the area A of the surface.
CENTER OF PRESSURE
 Line of action of resultant force
FR=PCA does not pass through
the centroid of the surface. In
general, it lies underneath
where the pressure is higher.
 Vertical location of Center of
Pressure is determined by
equation the moment of the
resultant force to the moment of
the distributed pressure force.
I xx ,C
y p  yC 
yc A
 Ixx,C is tabulated for simple
geometries.
 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON CURVED SURFACES

 FR on a curved surface is more involved since it requires

integration of the pressure forces that change direction
along the surface.
 Easiest approach: determine horizontal and vertical
components FH and FV separately.
 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON CURVED SURFACES

 Horizontal force component on curved surface: FH=Fx.

Line of action on vertical plane gives y coordinate of
center of pressure on curved surface.
 Vertical force component on curved surface: FV=Fy+W,
where W is the weight of the liquid in the enclosed block
W=rgV. x coordinate of the center of pressure is a
combination of line of action on horizontal plane (centroid
of area) and line of action through volume (centroid of
volume).
 Magnitude of force FR=(FH2+FV2)1/2
 Angle of force is a = tan-1(FV/FH)
BUOYANCY AND STABILITY
 Buoyancy is due to the fluid displaced by a body.
FB=rfgV.
 Archimedes principal : The buoyant force acting
on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it
acts upward through the centroid of the displaced
volume.
BUOYANCY AND STABILITY

 Buoyancy force FB is equal

only to the displaced volume
rfgVdisplaced.
 Three scenarios possible
 rbody<rfluid: Floating body
 rbody=rfluid: Neutrally buoyant
 rbody>rfluid: Sinking body
EXAMPLE: GALILEAN THERMOMETER
 Galileo's thermometer is made of a sealed glass
cylinder containing a clear liquid.
 Suspended in the liquid are a number of weights,
which are sealed glass containers with colored
liquid for an attractive effect.
 As the liquid changes temperature it changes
density and the suspended weights rise and fall to
stay at the position where their density is equal to
that of the surrounding liquid.
 If the weights differ by a very small amount and
ordered such that the least dense is at the top and
most dense at the bottom they can form a
temperature scale.
EXAMPLE: FLOATING DRYDOCK
Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock Resolute Submarine undergoing repair work on
(AFDM-10) partially submerged board the AFDM-10

Using buoyancy, a submarine with a displacement of 6,000 tons can

be lifted!
 EXAMPLE: SUBMARINE BUOYANCY AND BALLAST

 Submarines use both static and dynamic depth control.

Static control uses ballast tanks between the pressure hull
and the outer hull. Dynamic control uses the bow and
stern planes to generate trim forces.
EXAMPLE: SUBMARINE BUOYANCY AND BALLAST

Normal surface trim SSN 711 nose down after accident

which damaged fore ballast tanks
EXAMPLE: SUBMARINE BUOYANCY AND BALLAST

Damage to SSN 711

(USS San Francisco)
after running aground on
8 January 2005.
EXAMPLE: SUBMARINE BUOYANCY AND BALLAST
Ballast Control Panel: Important station for controlling depth of submarine
 STABILITY OF IMMERSED BODIES

 Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon

relative location of center of gravity G and center of
buoyancy B.
 G below B: stable
 G above B: unstable
 G coincides with B: neutrally stable.
 STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES
 If body is bottom heavy (G lower than B), it is always stable.
 Floating bodies can be stable when G is higher than B due to shift in
location of center buoyancy and creation of restoring moment.
 Measure of stability is the metacentric height GM. If GM>1, ship is
stable.
 RIGID-BODY MOTION
 There are special cases where a body of fluid can undergo rigid-body motion:
linear acceleration, and rotation of a cylindrical container.

 In these cases, no shear is developed.

 Newton's 2nd law of motion can be used to derive an equation of motion for a
fluid that acts as a rigid body
 
P   gk    a
 In Cartesian coordinates: P P P
   ax ,   ay ,     g  ax 
x y z
LINEAR ACCELERATION
Container is moving on a straight path
ax  0, a y  a z  0
P P P
  ax ,  0,   g
x y z
Total differential of P

dP    ax dx   gdz

Pressure difference between 2 points

P2  P1    ax  x2  x1    g  z2  z1 

Find the rise by selecting 2 points on free

surface P2 = P1
a
zs  zs 2  zs1   x  x2  x1 
g
ROTATION IN A CYLINDRICAL CONTAINER

Container is rotating about the z-axis

ar  r 2 , a  a z  0
P P P
  r 2 ,  0,   g
r  z
Total differential of P

dP   r 2 dr   gdz

On an isobar, dP = 0
dzisobar r 2 2 2
  zisobar  r  C1
dr g 2g
Equation of the free surface
2 2
zs  h0 
4g
 R  2r 2 
EXAMPLES OF ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
THE GOLDEN CROWN OF HIERO II, KING OF SYRACUSE

 Archimedes, 287-212 B.C.

 Hiero, 306-215 B.C.
 Hiero learned of a rumor where the
goldsmith replaced some of the gold
in his crown with silver. Hiero asked
Archimedes to determine whether the
crown was pure gold.
 Archimedes had to develop a
nondestructive testing method
THE GOLDEN CROWN OF HIERO II, KING OF SYRACUSE

 The weight of the crown and nugget are

the same in air: Wc = rcVc = Wn = rnVn.
 If the crown is pure gold, rc=rn which
means that the volumes must be the
same, Vc=Vn.
 In water, the buoyancy force is B=rH2OV.
 If the scale becomes unbalanced, this
implies that the Vc ≠ Vn, which in turn
means that the rc ≠ rn
 Goldsmith was shown to be a fraud!
HYDROSTATIC BODYFAT TESTING
 What is the best way to measure
body fat?
 Hydrostatic Bodyfat Testing using
Archimedes Principle!
 Process
 Measure body weight W=rbodyV
 Get in tank, expel all air, and measure
apparent weight Wa
 Buoyancy force B = W-Wa = rH2OV.
This permits computation of body
volume.
 Body density can be computed
rbody=W/V.
 Body fat can be computed from
formulas.
HYDROSTATIC BODYFAT TESTING IN
AIR?
 Same methodology as
Hydrostatic testing in water.
 What are the ramifications of
using air?
 Density of air is 1/1000th of
water.
 Temperature dependence of air.
 Measurement of small volumes.
 Used by NCAA Wrestling (there
is a BodPod on PSU campus).