PASCAL’S LAW

• An external pressure applied to an incompressible enclosed fluid is transmitted uniformly

throughout the volume of the fluid and act perpendicular to the enclosing walls. OR

• The intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid, at rest, is same in all directions.

Consider an arbitrary wedge shaped fluid element as shown in the figure. The fluid mass is at rest.

As shown in the figure, P1, P2 and P3 are the pressure intensities at faces AB, BC and AC respectively.
The angle of the wedge at vortex C is θ as shown. Let ‘t’ be the thickness of the wedge.

Then,

Forces acting on the wedge element are

i. Pressure force normal toe the surfaces

ii. Weight of the element in vertical direction

Considering the element to be in equilibrium,

ΣFx = 0

P1 X AB X t – P3sinθ X AC X t =0

P1 X AC sin θ X t – P3sinθ X AC X t =0 Considering geometry of the wedge

(P1 -P3) X AC sin θ X t =0

Since AC cannot be zero,

P1-P3 =0

Which implies, P1 = P3 (i)

Again, ΣFz = 0

P2 X BC X t – P3cosθ X AC X t – γ X V =0 Weight of the element = γ XV

 1
P2 X BC X t – P3cosθ X AC X t – γ X X AB X BC X t =0
2
Considering the element of the fluid, volume can be neglected.

Therefore, P2 X BC X t – P3cosθ X AC X t =0

P2 X AC Cosθ X t – P3cosθ X AC X t =0

(P2 – P3) X AC Cosθ X t =0

Again, P2 =P3 (ii)

Hence, P1 = P2 = P3, proved

2.3 HYDROSTATIC LAW OF PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

At any point inside a static fluid, the vertical rate of increase of pressure must equal the local specific
weight of the fluid.

The intensity of pressure is the function of depth only in static and incompressible fluid.

For any 3-dimensional element, pressure intensity at any point can be given mathematically as:

δP δP δP
P= . dx + . dy+ . dz
δx δy δz
Let us consider a fluid element as shown in the figure with sides dx, dy and dz. Since the size of the fluid
element is infinitesimal, we can assume that the fluid density within the element is constant throughout.

Let the pressure intensity at center point of the element be P. The forces acting on the element are:

i. Body force
ii. Force due to gravity
iii. Surface forces acting on sides of the element

Assuming the element is in static equilibrium, all the forces acting on the element should balance with
each other.

In x-direction, pressure forces acting are surface forces only.

ΣFx = 0

i.e. ( P− δPδx . dx2 ) . dydz - ( P+ δPδx . dx2 ) . dydz =0

−δP
. dxdydz=0
δx
The dimensions of the element cannot be zero, regardless of however small they are, therefore,
δP
=0
δx
Similarly, for y-direction,

ΣFy = 0

( P− δPδy . dy2 ) . dxdz - ( P+ δPδy . dy2 ). dxdz = 0

−δP
. dxdydz=0
δy
The dimensions of the element cannot be zero, regardless of however small they are, therefore,

δP
=0
δy
Similarly, for z-direction, the forces acting on the element are surface force and gravity force.

ΣFz = 0

i.e.

( P− δPδz . dz2 ) . dxdy - ( P+ δPδz . dz2 ). dxdy – Weight = 0

−δP
. dxdydz−γ . dxdydz=0
δz
−δP δP
=γ , which implies, =−γ
δz δz
The pressure intensity at any depth can be obtained by integrating this along the depth.

δP=δz(−γ )

∫ δP=−γ ∫ δz
P 2−P 1=γ ( z 2−z 1), and the depth z2 -z1 = h
Therefore, P = γ.h

Which proves that intensity of pressure in a fluid is dependent of depth only.

2.4 ABSOLUTE, GAUGE AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AT ANY POINT AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP

Pressure can be measured with reference to any datum. This creates a sense that there are more than
one ways to represent pressure.

 Absolute pressure: pressure measured with reference to absolute zero pressure

Used to measure pressure at space, caves, deep ocean, great heights etc.
  Gauge pressure: pressure measured with reference to atmospheric pressure
All practical devices that measure pressure at Earth surface
 Atmospheric pressure: pressure at sea level at 20°C; equals to 1 bar OR 101325 Pa OR 10.34 m
H2O
 Vacuum pressure: pressure below atmospheric pressure is called vacuum pressure;
Pressure at great heights, experimental set-up, pipelines etc.

e.g. Pressure of 50 kPa can be expressed as (101 kPa – 50 kPa) = 51 kPa vacuum pressure

Source: esi-tec

NUM: What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 3 m below the free surface of a
liquid having density of 1.53X10 3 kg/m3, if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent of 750 mm of
mercury? The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and density of water is 1000 kg/m 3.

PRESSURE HEAD AT A POINT AND UNITS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Pressure head is the height of the liquid column that corresponds to the pressure exerted by the liquid
at the base of the column.

It is expressed in height of liquid. E.g. 10 m of water head OR 76 mm of mercury

Common measurement units are meter (m), centimeters (cm) and millimeters (mm); but western
countries measure it in inches (in).

Mathematically,

P = ρ.g.h
 P
And, h =
ρ.g
So, instead of 150 kPa pressure, we can simply say 150,000/(1000 X 10) = 15 m of water OR

150,000 / (13500 x 10) = 1.11 m of mercury

150,000 / (900 X 10) = 16.67 m of oil

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

Pressure can be measured by various instruments, simplest being manometers to complex being
electronic devices.

Pressure
Measurement

Manometer Mechanical Electronic

Simple Differential Bourden tube Sensors

Diaphragm
Piezometer Strain Gauging
pressure gauge

Bellows
Single Column Pieezoresistive
pressure gauge

U-tube Dead Weight

Inclined

MIcro-
manometer

MANOMETER

Manometers are tubes partly filled with fluid, and based on fluid balancing principle to measure the
pressure at any point.

Generally, manometer refers to U-shaped columns that are filled with fluid to certain level.

SIMPLE MANOMETERS

A simple manometer consists of a tube with open end, the other attached to a point where pressure is
to be measured.

PIEZOMETER
It is the simplest form of manometer. One end of the tube is connected to point where pressure is to be
measured and the other end is open (exposed to atmospheric pressure). The height rise/ fall in the
column is measured and the pressure is computed simply by using the relation:

Pressure (P) = ρgh N/m2

U-TUBE MANOMETER

It is a tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to the point where pressure is to be
measured and the other end is open, exposed to atmospheric pressure. The fluid in the column is
generally taken as mercury or similar liquids with significantly high specific gravity. This reduces the
height of measurement to practical levels.

a. For gauge pressure b. For vacuum pressure

As shown in the figure, let B be the point of whose pressure is to be measured. Let X-X be the datum for
our reference. Now,

h1 = height of lighter liquid above the datum line

h2 = height of heavier liquid above the datum line
S1 = specific gravity of lighter liquid
S2 = specific gravity of heavier liquid
ρ1 = Density of lighter liquid
ρ1 = Density of heavier liquid
P = pressure at point
Then, we can generate the relation as:

For figure a),

Pressure above datum in left column = P+ ρ 1∗g∗h 1
Pressure above datum in right column = ρ 2∗g∗h 2
The pressure at datum X-X should be equal at both limbs. Therefore,
P+ ρ 1∗g∗h 1=ρ 2∗g∗h 2
i.e. P= ρ2∗g∗h2−ρ 1∗g∗h 1

For figure b),

Pressure above level O in left column = P+ ρ 1∗g∗h 1+ ρ 2∗g∗h 2
Pressure above datum in right column =0
The pressure at datum X-X should be equal at both limbs. Therefore,
P+ ρ 1∗g∗h 1+ ρ 2∗g∗h 2=0
i.e. P=−( ρ 2∗g∗h 2+ ρ 1∗g∗h 1)

NUM: A U-tube manometer is sued to measure the pressure of water in the pipeline, which is in excess
of atmospheric pressure. The right limb of the manometer contains mercury and is open to atmosphere.
The contact between water and mercury is in the left limb. Determine the pressure in the main line if
the difference in level of mercury in the limbs of U-tube is 10 cm and the free surface of mercury is in
level with the center of the pipe. If the pressure of water in pipe is reduced to 9810 N/m 2, calculate the
new difference in the level of mercury. Sketch the arrangements in both cases.

SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER

It is a modified version of U-tube manometer, one end of which is connected to the point where
pressure is to be measured and the other end is open, exposed to atmospheric pressure. The limb
connected to the point has a large cross-sectional reservoir as compared to the area of tube. For any
variation of pressure in the point, the level of reservoir changes insignificantly, therefore reading on the
other limb will only suffice to compute the pressure of the point.

There are two types of single column manometer due to construction:

a. Vertical single column manometer and

b. Inclined single column manometer

fluid in the column is generally taken as mercury or similar liquids with significantly high specific
gravity. This reduces the height of measurement to practical levels.

a. Vertical Single Column Manometer

In the above figure, let the initial level of pressure be represented by level X-X (before manometer is
connected to the point). Let Y-Y represent the new level of the fluid after the connection of manometer
in the pressure point. The area of reservoir in the left limb be represented by ‘A’, the change in level by
Δh and the change in level in right limb by ‘h2’. Then, by principle, change in pressure in both limbs
should be equal. Mathematically,

Δh∗A=a∗h 2
a∗h 2
Δh=
A
Pressure at new point, Y-Y on both limbs can be represented as:

Pressure in left limb = P A + ρ 1∗h 1+ ρ 1∗Δh

Pressure in left limb = ρ 2∗h2+ ρ2∗Δh

Equating these relations,

P A + ρ 1∗h 1+ ρ 1∗Δh= ρ2∗h 2+ ρ 2∗Δh

P A=ρ 2∗h 2+ ( ρ2−ρ 1 )∗Δh−ρ 1∗h1
 ( ρ 2− ρ1 )∗a∗h 2
P A=ρ 2∗h 2+ −ρ1∗h 1
A
Since a/ A is very insignificant compared to other expressions, we can neglect the value. And the new
relation becomes:

P A=ρ 2∗h 2−ρ 1∗h1

b. Inclined Single Column Manometer

In the above figure, let the initial level of pressure be represented by level X-X (before manometer is
connected to the point). Let Y-Y represent the new level of the fluid after the connection of manometer
in the pressure point. The area of reservoir in the left limb be represented by ‘A’, the change in level by
Δh and the change in level in right limb by ‘h2’. Then, by principle, change in pressure in both limbs
should be equal. Mathematically,

h∗A=a∗h 2
a∗h 2
Δh=
A
Pressure at new point, Y-Y on both limbs can be represented as:

Pressure in left limb = P A + ρ 1∗h 1+ ρ 1∗Δh

Pressure in left limb = ρ 2∗h2+ ρ2∗Δh

Equating these relations,

P A + ρ 1∗h 1+ ρ 1∗Δh= ρ2∗h 2+ ρ 2∗Δh

P A=ρ 2∗h 2+ ( ρ2−ρ 1 )∗Δh−ρ 1∗h1
( ρ 2− ρ1 )∗a∗h 2
P A=ρ 2∗h 2+ −ρ1∗h 1
A
Since a/ A is very insignificant compared to other expressions, we can neglect the value. And the new
relation becomes:

P A=ρ 2∗h 2−ρ 1∗h1

P A=ρ 2∗L∗Sinθ−ρ 1∗h 1
DIFFFERENTIAL MANOMETER

Generally, we require pressure difference measurement between two points. For such purposes,
differential manometers are handy.

It consists of an inverted tube, containing fluid of relatively lighter density. It is used to measure
relatively low pressure and / or vacuum pressure.

Taking X-X as datum line,

Pressure at left limb below X-X = P A−γ 1∗h1

Pressure at right limb below X-X = P B−γ 2∗h 2−γ s∗h

Equating these relations,

P A−γ 1∗h1=P B−γ 2∗h 2−γ s∗h

P A−P B=γ 1∗h 1−γ 2∗h 2−γ s∗h

MECHANICAL MANOMETER

1. Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

A mechanical pressure-measuring instrument used to measure pressure above or below the
atmospheric pressure. It is usually employed to measure relatively low pressures. A diaphragm pressure
gauge, in its simplest form, consists of a corrugated diaphragm as shown in the figure.

The gauge is connected to the fluid which is under pressure causes some deformation to the
diaphragm. With the help of pinion system, elastic deformation of the diaphragm rotates the
pointer. This pointer moves over a calibrated scale, which directly gives the pressure.

Advantages of Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

1. This is good for low pressure.

2. It is inexpensive.
3. It has a wide range
4. Used to measure gauge, atmospheric and differential.
5. it is very reliable.
Disadvantages of Diaphragm pressure gauge

1. Impact resistance is not good.

2. Difficulty in maintenance.
3. Lower measurement pressure.

2. Bourdon’s Tube Pressure Gauge

A mechanical pressure-measuring instrument employing as its sensing element a curved or twisted

metal tube flattened in cross-section and closed known as Bourdon tube.
It is a device for measuring the pressure of gases or liquids. It consisting of a semicircular or coiled,
flexible metal tube connected to a gauge, which records the degree to which the tube is straightened by
the pressure of the gas or liquid inside. Generally, it is used for measuring high pressures.

The instrument is connected to the fluid which is under pressure flows into the Bourdon’s tube. As a
result of the increased pressure, the tube tends to straighten itself. Since the tube is encased in a
circular cover, therefore it tends to become circular instead of straight.

With the help of a simple pinion and sector arrangement, the elastic
deformation of the Bourdon’s tube rotates the pointer. This pointer moves
over a calibrated .
Advantages of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

1. Construction is simple and the cost is low.

2. It has excellent sensitivities.
3. It has high accuracy.
4. This gauge is available for various ranges
Disadvantages of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

1. Slow response to a change in pressure.

2. Prone to shock and vibrations.
3. It is subjected to hysteresis.
4. Not available for the low-pressure condition.
Application of Bourdon Tube Pressure gauge

1. Gas distribution system.

 2. Used in the hydraulic installation.
3. Used in pneumatic installation.

3. Bellows Pressure Gauge

It is a device, the pressure responsive element is made of a thin metal tube with a deep circumference
when the pressure changes as the elastic elements increase or decrease.

A pointer is connected to it which indicates reading on the circular dial. It expands when the pressure
increases and when the pressure is low the elastic elements in the pressure gauge are contracts.