Fluid Statics

Lecture - 2
 Fluid Statics
 Fluid Statics means fluid at rest.
 At rest, there are no shear stresses, the only
force in action is the normal force due to
pressure.
 Pressure is defined as:
 “Force per Unit Area” Or
“The amount of force exerted on a unit area of a
substance or on a surface.”
 This can be stated by the equation:
F dF
p  (For Finite Area) p (For Infinitesimal Area)
A dA
 Units : N/m2(Pa), lbs/ft2 (psf), lbs/in2 (psi)
 Example
A load of 200 pounds (lb) is exerted on a
piston confining oil in a circular cylinder
with an inside diameter of 2.50 inches (in).
Compute the pressure in the oil at the
piston.
Solution:
 Principles about
 Pressure
Two important principles about pressure
were described by Blaise Pascal, a
seventeenth-century scientist:
1. Pressure acts uniformly from all
directions on a small volume of a fluid.
2. In a fluid confined by solid boundaries,
pressure acts perpendicular to the
boundary.
Direction of fluid pressure
on boundaries
 Pressure at a Point is same
in All direction
(Pascal’s Law)
1. Consider a wedge shaped element of fluid at rest.
2. Thickness  dy (perpendicular to plane of paper).
3. Let p  Avg. pressure in any direction.
4. p x and p z are avg. pressure in horizontal and vertical direction.
5. No shear force is involved, since the fluid is at rest.
6. Since the element is at rest, so the sum of the force components on element
in any direction must be equal to Zero.
7.  Fx 0; p cos dl dy - p x dy dz  0
Since dz  dl cos
Therefore;
p  px
 Pressure at a Point is same in All
direction
1
8.  Fz 0; p z dx dy - p dl dy sin   dx dy dz  0
2
Neglecting 3rd term due to higher order.
Since dx  dl sin
Therefore;
p  pz
9. We can also proof p p y by considering a 3- dimensional case.
Thus pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is same in all direction.
Variation of Pressure in a
Static Fluid
(Hydrostatic Law)
 It states:“Rate of increase of pressure
in vertical downward direction must
be equal to product of specific weight
of fluid at that point and depth.”
 Variation of Pressure in a
Static Fluid
(Hydrostatic Law)
1. Consider an element of static fluid.
2. Assume density of fluid to be constant within the element
(Since the element is very small).
3. Pressure at the center of element is p.
4. Dimensions of element are  x  y and  z.
5. Force acting in vertical direction are:
a. Body force: the action of gravity on the mass within the fluid.
b. Surface force: transmitted from the surrounding fluid.
6. If the forces are summed in the horizontal direction, that is x or y,
the only forces acting are the pressure forces on the vertical faces of
element.
7. To satisfy  Fx 0 and  Fy 0, the presssures on the opposite vertical
faces must be equal.
p p
8. Thus  0
x y
9. Summing forces in the vertical direction and putting it equal to zero.
 p z   p z 
 Fz  p  xy   p  xy  xyz 0
 z 2   z 2 
After simplification :
p
 
z
Since p is independent of x and y, we can write above equation as :
dp
 
dz
This is the general expression that relates variation of pressure in a
static fluid to vertical position. The minus sign indicates that as z gets larger
(increasing elevation), the pressure gets smaller.
To evaluate the pressure anywherein a fluid at rest, we must intergate previous
equation between appropriate chosen limits.

dp  dz

dp  dz
p  z
Say; z h
p  h
Or
p
h (Pressure Head)

Pressure expressed in
Height of Fluid
 The term elevation means the
vertical distance from some
reference level to a point of interest
and is called z.
 A change in elevation between two
points is called h. Elevation will
always be measured positively in the
upward direction.
 In other words, a higher point has a
larger elevation than a lower point.
 Fig shows the illustration of reference
level for elevation.
Relationship between
Pressure and Elevation:
 Pressure Head
 It is the pressure expressed in terms
of height of fluid.
p
h


 h=p/ represents the energy per unit

wt. stored in the fluid by virtue of
pressure under which the fluid exists.
This is also called the elevation head
or potential head.
 Example
An open tank contains water 1.40m deep
covered by a 2m thick layer of oil (s=0.855).
What is the pressure head at the bottom of
the tank, in terms of a water column?
Solution:
w 9.81kN / m 3
o 0.855 x9.81 8.39kN / m 3
For interface : p i o ho 8.39 x 2 16.78kN / m 2
for water equivalent of oil :
p 16.78
h oe  i  1.710m
w 9.81
So h we hw  h oe 1.40  1.710 3.11m
SOLUTION  2
pb o ho  w hw
(8.39)2  9.81(1.4)
30.51kN/m 2
p 30.51
hwe  b  3.11m
w 9.81
Exercises (Assignment):

1. An open tank contains 5 m water covered

with 2 m of oil 8kN/m3). Find the
gauge pressure (a) at interface between
the liquids and at bottom of the tank.
2. An open tank contains 7ft of water
covered with 2.2ft oil (s=0.88). Find the
gauge pressure (a) at the interface
between the liquids and (b) at the bottom
of the tank.
3. If air had a constant specific weight of
12N/m3and were incompressible, what
would be the height of air surrounding the
earth to produce a pressure at the
surface of 101.3 kPa abs?
 Absolute and Gage
Pressure
 Atmospheric Pressure: It is the force per unit
area exerted against a surface by the weight of
the air above that surface. It is also called as
barometric pressure.
 Gauge Pressure: It is the pressure, measured
with the help of pressure measuring instrument
in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as
Datum (reference from which measurements are
made).
 Absolute Pressure: It is the pressure equal to
the sum of atmospheric and gauge pressures. Or
 If we measure pressure relative to absolute zero
(perfect Vacuum) we call it absolute pressure.
 Vacuum: If the pressure is below the atmospheric
pressure we call it as vacuum.
pabs  patm  p gage
 Measurement of
Pressure
 There are many ways to measure pressure in a
fluid. Some are discussed here:
1. Barometers
2. Bourdon gauge
3. Pressure transducers
4. Piezometer Column
5. Simple Manometers
6. Differential Manometers
1. Barometers:
 To measure the atmospheric
pressure.
 This consists of a glass tube closed at
one end and filled with pure mercury.
 The tube is then inverted into an
open vessel of mercury.
 The mercury level in the tube drops
until the pressure due to the column
of mercury in the tube becomes
equal to the atmospheric pressure
acting outside the tube.
 The pressure due to mercury column
is equal to atmospheric pressure.
2. Bourdon Gauge:
 The pressure, above or below the atmospheric
pressure, may be easily measured with the help of a
bourdon’s tube pressure gauge.
 It consists on an elliptical tube: bent into an arc of a
circle. This bent up tube is called Bourdon’s tube.

 Tube changes its curvature

with change in pressure
inside the tube. Higher
pressure tends to
“straighten” it.
 The moving end of tube
rotates needle on a dial
through a linkage system.
3. Piezometer
Column/Tube:
 A piezometer tube is the simplest
form of instrument, used for
measuring, moderate pressure.
 It consists of long tube in which
the liquid can freely rise without
overflowing.
 The height of the liquid in the
tube will give the pressure head
(p/) directly.
 Not suitable for measuring high
pressure.
 Not suitable for measuring
vacuum pressure.
4. Manometer:

 Manometer is an improved form of a piezometer

tube. With its help we can measure comparatively
high pressures and negative pressure also.
Following are few types of manometers.
1. Simple Manometer
2. Micro-manometer
3. Differential manometer
4. Inverted differential manometer
Simple Manometer:
 It consists of a tube bent in U-Shape, one
end of which is attached to the gauge point
and the other is open to the atmosphere.
 Mercury is used in the bent tube which is
13.6 times heavier than water. Therefore it
is suitable for measuring high pressure as D
well.
Procedure: A
1. Consider a simple Manometer connected
to a pipe containing a light liquid under
high pressure. The high pressure in the
pipe will force the mercury in the left limb C
of U-tube to move downward, B
corresponding the rise of mercury in the
right limb.


Simple Manometer:

2. The horizontal surface, at which the heavy and light liquid

meet in the left limb, is known as datum line.
Let h1 = height of light liquid in the left limb above datum.
h2 = height of heavy liquid in the right limb
above datum.
PA= Pressure in the pipe.
s1=Sp. Gravity of light liquid.
s2=Sp. Gravity of heavy liquid.
3. Pressure in left limb above datum = P B= PA+gh1
4. Pressure in right limb above datum = PC = PD+mgh2
PD = Patm and can be neglected
PC = mgh2
Simple Manometer:

5. Since the pressure is both limbs is

equal So,
PB = P C
PA+gh1 = mgh2
PA= mgh2 – gh1
Simple Manometer:

To measure negative pressure:

In this case negative pressure will suck the light liquid
which will pull up the mercury in the left limb of U-
tube. Correspondingly fall of liquid in the right limb.

6. Pressure in left limb above datum = PA+gh1 + mgh2

7. Pressure in right limb = 0
8. Equating, we get
PA+gh1 + mgh2 = 0
PA= -(gh1 + mgh2 )
 Example
A simple manometer containing mercury is used to
measure the pressure of water flowing in a pipeline.
The mercury level in the open tube is 60mm higher
than that on the left tube. If the height of water in
the left tube is 50mm, determine the pressure in the
pipe in terms of head of water.
Solution:
Equaling the pressure above Z-Z,
we get

P + ρ1gh1 = ρ2gh2

P+1000x9.81x0.05 = 13600x9.81x 0.06

P =7514.46 N/m2

P= h

h = P/

h = 7514.46/9810 = 0.766 m
 Example
A simple manometer containing mercury was
used to find the negative pressure in pipe
containing water. The right limb of the
manometer was open to atmosphere. Find the
negative pressure, below the atmosphere in the
pipe.
Solution:

Equaling the pressure above Z-Z,

we get

P + ρ1gh1 + ρ2gh2 = 0

P+1000x9.81x0.020+13600x9.81x0.050 =0

P = - 6867 N/m2

P = 6.867 Kpa (Vacuum)

 Example
Figure shows a conical vessel having its outlet at A
to which U tube manometer is connected. The
reading of the manometer given in figure shows
when the vessel is empty. Find the reading of the
manometer when the vessel is completely filled with
Solution:
water.
A) vessel is empty:

Equating the pressure above X-X:

ρ1gh1 = ρ2gh2

1000 x 9.81 x h1 =13600 x 9.81 x 0.2

h1 = 2.72 m of water
 Solution (continued..)

B). vessel is completely filled with water

Equating the pressure above Z-Z:

y
1000 9.81 (3  h1  )
100
2y
13600  9.81  (0.2  )
100
 (h1 2.72 m)
 y 11.45 cm

The difference of mercury level in two limbs =20+2y=42.90 cm

Differential Manometer:

 It is a device used for measuring the difference of

pressures, between the two points in a pipe, or in
two different pipes.
 It consists of U-tube containing a heavy liquid
(mercury) whose ends are connected to the points,
for which the pressure is to be found out.
Procedure:
 Let us take the horizontal surface X-Y, at which
heavy liquid and light liquid meet in the left limb, as
datum line.
 Let, h=Difference of levels (also known as
differential manomter reading)
ha, hb= Pressure head in pipe A and B, respectively.
s1, s2= Sp. Gravity of light and heavy liquid
respectively.
Differential Manometer:
1. Consider figure (a):
Pressure in the left limb above datum
PX = PA+(H+h)

Pressure in the right limb above datum

PY = PB+H+mh
X Y
Equating we get,
PA+(H+h) = PB+H+mh
PA – PB =H+mh- (H+h)
PA – PB =mh- h = h (m- )
Differential Manometer:
Two pipes at different levels:
Pressure in the left limb above
datum
PX = PA+h1

Pressure in the right limb above datum

PY = PB+3h3+2h2
X Y
Equating we get,
PA+h1 = PB+3h3+2h2
PA – PB = 3h3+2h2-h1
 Example
A U-tube differential manometer connects two
pressure pipes A and B. The pipe A contains carbon
Tetrachloride having a Sp. Gravity 1.6 under a
pressure of 120 kPa. The pipe B contains oil of Sp.
Gravity 0.8 under a pressure of 200 kPa. The pipe A
lies 2.5m above pipe B. Find the difference of
pressures measured by mercury as fluid filling U-
tube.
Given : s a 1.6, p a 120kPa; s b 0.8, p b 200kPa;
Solution:
h1 2.5m and s 13.6
Let h Differnce of pressure measured by
mercury in terms of head of water.
We know that pressure head in pipe A,
p a 120
 12.2m of water
 9.81
p 200
Pressure head in pipe B, b  20.4m of water
 9.81
We also know that pressure head in Pipe A above Z - Z
12.2  (s a . h1 )  s.h
12.2  (1.6 x 2.5)  13.6 x h
16.2  13.6 h
Pressure head in Pipe B above Z - Z
20.4  s b h 20.4  (0.8 x h)
Equating;
16.2  13.6 h 20.4  (0.8 x h)
h 0.328 m 328 mm
Inverted Differential
Manometer:
 Type of differential manometer in which an
inverted U-tube is used.
 Used for measuring difference of low
pressure.
1. Pressure in the left limb above Z-Z = PA-1h1
2. Pressure in the right limb above Z-Z = PB-
2h2-3h3
Equating we get, PA-1h1 = PB-2h2-3h3
 Exercise (Assignment):
1. A simple manometer is used to measure
the pressure of oil (sp. Gravity = 0.8)
flowing in a pipeline. Its right limb is open
to the atmosphere and the left limb is
connected to the pipe. The centre of pipe
is 90mm below the level of mercury (sp.
Gravity = 13.6) in the right limb. If the
difference of mercury levels in the two
limbs is 150mm, find the pressure of oil in
pipe.
Exercise (Assignment):
3. A differential manometer connected at
the two points A and B at the same
level in a pipe containing an oil of Sp.
Gravity 0.8, shows a difference in
mercury levels as 100mm. Determine
the difference in pressures at the two
points.