Fluid Mechanics

Dimensional Analysis

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 Introduction
• In this chapter we discuss the planning, presentation, and interpretation of
experimental data.
• Experiments which might result in tables of output, might be reduced to a
single set of curves—or even a single curve—when suitably non-
dimensionalized.
• The technique for doing this is dimensional analysis.
• we have presented gross control-volume balances of mass, momentum, and
energy which led to estimations of global parameters: mass flow, force, torque,
total heat transfer.
• This covers analytical techniques, which are limited to fairly simple geometries
and well defined boundary conditions.
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 Introduction
• Most Engineering problems, especially Fluid Mechanics, are too complex and they
must be treated experimentally.
• Basically, dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number and
complexity of experimental variables which affect a given physical phenomenon,
by using a sort of compacting technique.
• If a phenomenon depends upon (n) dimensional variables, dimensional analysis
will reduce the problem to only (k) dimensionless variables, where the reduction
(n - k = 1, 2, or 3), depending upon the problem complexity.
• Generally (n – k) equals the number of different dimensions (sometimes called
basic or primary or fundamental dimensions) which govern the problem.

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 Introduction
• In fluid mechanics, the four basic dimensions are usually taken to be mass M,
length L, time T, and temperature , or an MLT system for short.
• Although its purpose is to reduce variables and group them in dimensionless
form, dimensional analysis has several side benefits.
• The first is enormous savings in time and money.
• Suppose one knew that the force F on a particular body immersed in a stream
of fluid depended only on the body length L, stream velocity V, fluid density ,
and fluid viscosity , that is,
• Suppose further that the geometry and flow conditions are so complicated
that our integral theories fail to yield the solution for the force. Then we must
find the function f(L, V, , ) experimentally.
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 Introduction

• Generally speaking, it takes about 10 experimental points to define a curve.

To find the effect of body length in the above Eq., we have to run the
experiment for 10 lengths L.
• For each L we need 10 values of V, 10 values of , and 10 values of , making
a grand total of 104, or 10,000, experiments.
• At $50 per experiment—well, you see what we are getting into.
• However, with dimensional analysis, we can immediately reduce this Eq. to
the equivalent form:

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 Introduction
• i.e., the dimensionless force coefficient F/( V2L2) is a function only of the
dimensionless Reynolds number  VL/ .
• The function (g) is different mathematically from the original function (f), but it
contains all the same information. Nothing is lost.
• And think of the savings: We can establish (g) by running the experiment for
only 10 values of the single variable called the Reynolds number.
• do not have to vary L, V, , or  separately but only the grouping VL/.
• This we do merely by varying velocity V in, say, a wind tunnel and there is no
need to build 10 different bodies or find 100 different fluids with 10 densities
and 10 viscosities.
• The cost is now about $500, may be less.
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 Introduction
• A second side benefit of dimensional analysis is that it helps our thinking and

planning for an experiment or theory.

• It suggests dimensionless ways of writing equations before we waste money

on computer time to find solutions.

• It suggests variables which can be discarded; sometimes dimensional analysis

will immediately reject variables, and at other times it groups them off to the

side, where a few simple tests will show them to be unimportant.

• Finally, dimensional analysis will often give a great deal of insight into the form

of the physical relationship we are trying to study. 7

 Introduction
• A third benefit is that dimensional analysis provides scaling laws which can

convert data from a cheap, small model to design information for an

expensive, large prototype.

• We do not build a million-dollar airplane and see whether it has enough lift

force.

• We measure the lift on a small model and use a scaling law to predict the lift

on the full-scale prototype airplane.

• When the scaling law is valid, we say that a condition of similarity exists

between the model and the prototype. 8

 Introduction
• In the simple case of the above Eq., similarity is achieved if the
Reynolds number is the same for the model and prototype
because the function (g) then requires the force coefficient to be
the same also:

• From the definition of force coefficient, this means that

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 Introduction

Wind tunnel test of an F-18 fighter plane model. Testing of models is

imperative in the design of complex, expensive fluids-engineering devices.
Such tests use the principles of dimensional analysis and modeling from
this chapter.
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 Example
• A copepod (tiny water organism which is an important food
source for many fish) is approximately 1 mm in diameter. We
want to know the drag force on the copepod when it moves
slowly in fresh water.
• A scale model 100 times larger is made and tested in glycerin at
V=30cm/s. The measured drag on the model is 1.3 N.
• For similar conditions, what are the velocity and drag of the
actual copepod in water? Assume that the temperature is 20°C.

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Solution

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Solution

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Thanks

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 The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity (PDH)

• If an equation truly expresses a proper relationship between variables in a

physical process, it will be dimensionally homogeneous; i.e., each of its
additive terms will have the same dimensions.

[Length] [L]

[L2 T-2]
• Dimensional variables are the quantities which actually vary during a given
case and would be plotted against each other to show the data. (P, V,..)
• Dimensional constants may vary from case to case but are held constant
during a given run. (e.g.: So, Vo, g)

• Pure constants have no dimensions and never did. (e.g. 2, 0.5,..etc)

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 The Choice of Variables and Scaling Parameters

• The variables are the things which we wish to plot, the basic

output of the experiment or theory: in the case of equation of

motion, S versus t.

• The parameters are those quantities whose effect upon the

variables we wish to know: in this case S0, V0, & g.

• Almost any engineering study can be subdivided in this manner.

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 The PI Theorem
• The foundation of the dimensional-analysis method rests on two
assumptions:
(1)The proposed physical relation is dimensionally homogeneous,
and

(2)all the relevant variables have been included in the proposed

relation.
• If a relevant variable is missing, dimensional analysis will fail,
giving either algebraic difficulties or, worse, yielding a
dimensionless formulation which does not resolve the process.
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 The PI Theorem
• The scheme given here was proposed in 1914 by Buckingham and
is now called the Buckingham pi theorem.
• The name pi comes from the mathematical notation , meaning a
product of variables.
• The dimensionless groups found from the theorem are power
products denoted by 1, 2, 3, etc.

• The method allows the PI’s to be found in sequential order

without resorting to free exponents.

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 The PI Theorem

• The first part of the pi theorem explains what reduction in

variables to expect:
(1)If a physical process satisfies the PDH and involves (n)
dimensional variables, it can be reduced to a relation between
only (k) dimensionless variables or ’s.
(2)The reduction (j = n – k) equals the maximum number of variables
which do not form a PI among themselves and is always less than
or equal to the number of dimensions describing the variables.

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 The PI Theorem
• Take the specific case of force on an immersed body:

• It contains five variables F, L, V, , and  described by three

dimensions {MLT}. Thus n = 5 and j = 3.
• Therefore it is a good guess that we can reduce the problem to k
PI’s, with k = n - j  5 - 3 = 2.
• This is exactly what we obtained: two dimensionless variables

(1 = CF) and (2 = Re)

• On rare occasions it may take more PI’s than this minimum.

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 The PI Theorem
• The second part of the theorem shows how to find the PI’s one at
a time:
(1)Find the reduction j,
(2)Select j scaling variables which do not form a PI among
themselves.
(3)Each desired PI group will be a power product of these j variables
plus one additional variable which is assigned any convenient
nonzero exponent.
(4)Each PI group thus found is independent.
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 Example
• Repeat the development of force Eq. using the pi theorem.

Solution

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Solution

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Solution

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Solution

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Solution

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Thanks

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 The PI Theorem
• Generally, suppose that the process involves five variables

• Suppose that there are three dimensions {MLT} and we search

around and find that indeed j = 3.
• Then k = 5 - 3 = 2 and we expect, from the theorem, two and only
two pi groups.
• Pick out three convenient variables which do not form a pi, and
suppose these turn out to be v2, v3, and v4.

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 The PI Theorem
• Then the two pi groups are formed by power products of these three plus one
additional variable, either v1 or v5 :

• Here we have arbitrarily chosen v1 and v5, the added variables, to have unit
exponents.
• Equating exponents of the various dimensions is guaranteed by the theorem to
give unique values of a, b, and c for each pi.

• And they are independent because only 1 contains v1 and only 2 contains v5.
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 The PI Theorem
• Typically, six steps are involved:

(1) List and count the (n) variables involved in the problem. If any important

variables are missing, dimensional analysis will fail.

(2) List the dimensions of each variable according to {MLT} or {FLT}. A list is given

in Table.

(3) Find (j), initially guess (j) equal to the number of different dimensions present,

and look for (j) variables which do not form a PI product. If no luck, reduce (j)

by 1 and look again. With practice and experience, you will find (j) rapidly.
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 The PI Theorem

(4) Select (j) scaling parameters which do not form a PI product. Make sure they please

you and have some generality if possible, because they will then appear in every one

of your pi groups. Pick density or velocity or length. Do not pick surface tension.

(5) Add one additional variable to your (j) repeating variables, and form a power

product. Algebraically find the exponents which make the product dimensionless.

Try to arrange for your output or dependent variables (force, pressure drop, torque,

power) to appear in the numerator, and your plots will look better. Do this

sequentially, adding one new variable each time, and you will find all (n - j = k)

desired PI products.

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(6) Write the final dimensionless function, and check your work to make sure all PI
groups are dimensionless.

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 Example
• Reduce the falling-body relationship, , to a function of

dimensionless variables. Why are there three different

formulations?

Solution

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 Example
1. There are only two primary dimensions (L, T), so that j  2.

2. By inspection we can easily find two variables which cannot be

combined to form a pi, for example, V0 and g.

3. Then j = 2, and we expect 5 - 2 = 3 pi products.

4. Select j variables among the parameters S0, V0, and g.

5. Avoid S and t since they are the dependent variables, which should not

be repeated in pi groups.

6. There are three different options for repeating variables among the

group (S0, V0, g).

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Example

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Example

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 Example

Three different formulations appeared, because we could choose

three different pairs of repeating variables to complete the pi theorem.
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 Example
At low velocities (laminar flow), the volume flow Q through a small-bore

tube is a function only of the tube radius R, the fluid viscosity , and the

pressure drop per unit tube length dp/dx.

Using the pi theorem, find an appropriate dimensionless relationship.

Solution

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Example The PI Theorem

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 Example The PI Theorem

The experiment shows that the value of the constant is /8.

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Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics

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Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics

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 Example
Assume that the tip deflection  of a cantilever beam is a

function of the tip load P, beam length L, area moment of

inertia I, and material modulus of elasticity E; that is,  = f (P, L,

I, E). Rewrite this function in dimensionless form.

Solution

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 Example

1. There are five variables (n = 5) and three primary dimensions

(M, L, T), hence j  3.

2. If j = 3, thus we can reduce the formula to include only two

dimensionless groups (PI)

3. Try to find any combination of three variables which does not

form a pi group.

4. The result is that, we cannot find any combination of three

variables that does not form a PI group.

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Thus j = 2, and we have to reduce the formula to include three

dimensionless groups (PI)

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 Home work
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Submit it within one week

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