Dimensional Analysis

Dr Neel Kanth Grover

Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
S.B.S College of Engg. & Tech.
Ferozepur
[email protected] (09855857900)

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Objectives

Understand dimensions, units, and

dimensional homogeneity
Understand benefits of dimensional
analysis
Know how to use the method of
repeating variables
Understand the concept of similarity and
how to apply it to experimental modeling
BOOK : Fluid Mechanics by CENGEL &
KIMBALA, McGraw Hill.

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DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

A dimension is a measure of a physical quantity
(without numerical values), while a unit is a way
to assign a number to that dimension.

Note: All nonprimary dimensions can be formed by some combination

of the seven primary dimensions.

DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
The law of dimensional homogeneity, stated as
Every additive term in an equation must have the same
dimensions. For example,

An equation that is not dimensionally

homogeneous is a sure sign of an error.

Nondimensionalization of
Equations
Dimensional homogeneity every term in
an equation has the same dimensions.
nondimensional divide each term in the equation
by
a collection of variables and constants whose
product has those same dimensions.
If the nondimensional terms in the equation are of order
unity called normalized.
Normalization is thus more restrictive than
nondimensionalization. (often used interchangeably).
Nondimensional parameters are named after a
notable scientist or engineer (e.g., the Reynolds number
and the Froude number). This process is referred to by
some authors as inspectional analysis.
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Nondimensionalization of Equations
example
An object falling by gravity
through a vacuum (no air
drag). The initial location of
the object is z0 and its initial
velocity is w0 in the zdirection.
Equation of motion:

Two dimensional variables: z

and t.
Dimensional constant: g
Two additional dimensional
constants are z0 and w0.

Nondimensionalization of Equations
example
The dimensional result is an expression for
elevation z at any time t:

The constant 1/2 and the exponent 2 are called

pure constants.
Nondimensional (or dimensionless) variables
are defined as quantities that change or vary in the
problem, but have no dimensions.
The term parameters for the combined set of
dimensional variables, nondimensional variables,
and dimensional constants in the problem.

Nondimensionalization of Equations
To nondimensionalize
equation, we need to select
scaling parameters
(Usually chosen from
dimensional constants),
based on the primary
dimensions contained in the
original equation.
In fluid flow problems there
typically at least three scaling parameters, e.g., L, V, and
are

P0 - P, since there are at least three primary dimensions

in the general problem (e.g., mass, length, and time).

Nondimensionalization of Equations
example
In the case of the falling object, there are only two
primary dimensions, length and time, and thus we
are limited to selecting only two scaling parameters.
We have some options in the selection of the scaling
parameters since we have three available
dimensional constants g, z0, and w0. We choose z0
and w0. You are invited to repeat the analysis with
other combinations.
Nondimensionalizing the dimensional variables z and
t.
The first step is to list the Primary dimensions of all
parameters:

Nondimensionalization of Equations
example
The second step is to use our two scaling
parameters to nondimensionalize z and t (by
inspection) into nondimensional variables z* and t*.

Using these nondimensional variables in our

equation, then we will get the desired
nondimensional equation.

Nondimensionalization of Equations
example
The grouping of dimensional constants in equation
is the square of a well-known nondimensional
parameter called the Froude number,

The Froude number can be thought of as the ratio

of inertial force to gravitational force. Sometimes,
Fr is defined as the square of the parameter.

Nondimensionalization of Equations
example
The eq of motion can be rewritten as

This equation can be solved easily by integrating twice. The

result is

If you redimensionalize the equation, you will get the same

equation as

Nondimensionalization of Equations
example
What then is the advantage of nondimensionalizing the
equation?
There are two key advantages of nondimensionalization.
First, it increases our insight about the relationships between
key parameters. for example, that doubling w0 has the same
effect as decreasing z0 by a factor of 4.
Second, it reduces the number of parameters in the problem.
For example, original problem contains one z; one t; and three
additional dimensional constants, g, w0, and z0. The
nondimensionalized problem contains one z*; one t*; and only
one additional parameter, Fr.

Nondimensionalization of Equations
example 7-3
An object falling by
gravity through a
vacuum (no air drag)
in a vertical pipe. The
initial location of the
object is z0 and its
initial velocity is w0 in
the z-direction.

EXAMPLE 74 Extrapolation of
Nondimensionalized Data

The gravitational constant at

the surface of the moon is only
about 1/6 of that on earth. An
astronaut on the moon throws
a baseball at an initial speed
of 21.0 m/s at a 5 angle
above the horizon and at 2.0
m above the moons surface.
(a) Using the dimensionless
data of Example 73, predict
how long it takes for the
baseball to fall to the ground.
(b) Do an exact calculation
and compare the result to that
of part (a).
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EXAMPLE 74 Extrapolation of
Nondimensionalized Data

Solution: (a) The Froude number is calculated based

on the value of gmoon and the vertical component of
initial speed,

From Fig. 7-13, we can find t* = 2.75, Converting

back to dimensional variables, we can get

Exact time to strike the ground:

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DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND

SIMILARITY
Nondimensionalization of an equation is
useful only when the equation is known!
In many real-world flows, the equations
are either unknown or too difficult to solve.
Experimentation is the only method of
obtaining reliable information
In most experiments, geometricallyscaled
models are used (time and money).
Experimental conditions and results must be
properly scaled so that results are meaningful
for the full-scale prototype. Therefore,
Dimensional Analysis
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DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND

SIMILARITY

Primary purposes of dimensional analysis

To generate nondimensional parameters that help in
the design of experiments (physical and/or
numerical) and in reporting of results.
To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance
can be predicted from model performance.
To predict trends in the relationship between
parameters.

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The concept of dimensional analysisthe

principle of similarity.
Three necessary conditions for complete
similarity between a model and a prototype.
Geometric Similarity the model must be the
same shape as the prototype. Each dimension must
be scaled by the same factor.
Kinematic Similarity velocity as any point in the
model must be proportional by a constant scale
factor.
Dynamic Similarity all forces in the model flow
scale by a constant factor to corresponding forces in
the prototype flow.
Complete Similarity is achieved only if all 3
conditions are met. This is not always possible, e.g.,
ship models.

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND

SIMILARITY
Complete similarity is ensured if the model and
prototype must be geometrically similar and all
independent groups are the same between model
and prototype.
What is ?
We let uppercase Greek letter denote a
nondimensional parameter, e.g., Reynolds number Re,
Froude number Fr , Drag coefficient, CD, etc.
In a general dimensional analysis problem, there is one
that we call the dependent , giving it the notation
1. The parameter 1 is in general a function of several
other s, which we call independent s. The
functional relationship is

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND

SIMILARITY
Consider automobile
experiment
Drag force is F = f (V, , ,
L)
Through dimensional
analysis, we can reduce
the problem to
where
and

= CD
=Re

The Reynolds number is the most well known and useful

dimensionless parameter in all of fluid mechanics.

EXAMPLE A: Similarity between Model

and Prototype Cars
Solution
The aerodynamic drag of a new
sports car is to be predicted at a
speed of 50.0 mi/h at an air
temperature of 25C.
Automotive engineers build a
one-fifth scale model of the car
to test in a wind tunnel. It is
winter and the wind tunnel is
located in an unheated building;
the temperature of the wind
tunnel air is only about 5C.
Determine how fast the
engineersThis
should
the high
wind(about 100 m/s), and the wind tunnel
Discussion
speedrun
is quite
tunnel
inable
order
to at
achieve
may
not be
to run
that speed. Furthermore, the incompressible
similarity between
approximation
may comethe
intomodel
question at this high speed.
and the prototype.

EXAMPLE B: Prediction of Aerodynamic Drag

Force on the Prototype Car
Solution
This example is a follow-up
to Example A. Suppose the
engineers run the wind
tunnel at 221 mi/h to
achieve similarity between
the model and the
prototype. The aerodynamic
drag force on the model car
is measured with a drag
balance. Several drag
readings are recorded, and
the average drag force on
the model is 21.2 lbf.
Predict the aerodynamic
drag force on the prototype
(at 50 mi/h and 25C).

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND

SIMILARITY
In Examples A and B use a water tunnel instead of a
wind tunnel to test their one-fifth scale model. Using
the properties of water at room temperature (20C is
assumed), the water tunnel speed required to achieve
similarity is easily calculated as

The required water tunnel speed is much lower than

that required for a wind tunnel using the same size
model.
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Method of Repeating
Variables

Nondimensional parameters can be generated by

several methods.
We will use the Method of Repeating Variables
popularized by Edgar Buckingham (18671940) and
first published by the Russian scientist Dimitri
Riabouchinsky (18821962) in 1911.
Six steps
List the parameters in the problem and count their total
number n.
List the primary dimensions of each of the n parameters
Set the reduction j as the number of primary dimensions.
Calculate k, the expected number of s, k = n j
(Buckingham Pi theorem).
Choose j repeating parameters.
Construct the k s, and manipulate as necessary.
Write the final functional relationship and check algebra.
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Method of Repeating
Variables

The best way to learn the method is

by example and practice.
As we go through each step of the
method of repeating variables, we
explain some of the subtleties of the
technique in more detail using the
falling ball as an example.
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Method of Repeating
Variables

Step 1: List relevant parameters.

z = f (t,w0, z0, g) n = 5
Step 2: Primary dimensions of each parameter

Step 3: As a first guess, reduction j is set to 2

which is the number of primary dimensions (L
and t). Number of expected s is k = n j =
52=3
Step 4: Choose repeating variables w0 and z0
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Guidelines for choosing Repeating

parameters

Never pick the dependent variable. Otherwise, it may

appear in all the s.
Chosen repeating parameters must not by themselves
be able to form a dimensionless group. Otherwise, it
would be impossible to generate the rest of the s.
Chosen repeating parameters must represent all the
primary dimensions.
Never pick parameters that are already dimensionless.
Never pick two parameters with the same dimensions
or with dimensions that differ by only an exponent.
Choose dimensional constants over dimensional
variables so that only one contains the dimensional
variable.
Pick common parameters since they may appear in
each of the s.
Pick simple parameters over complex parameters.
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Method of Repeating
Variables
Step 5: Combine repeating parameters into
products with each of the remaining parameters,
one at a time, to create the s.

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Method of Repeating
Variables
Step 5, continued
Repeat process for 2 by combining
repeating parameters with t.

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Guidelines for manipulation of

the s
We may impose a constant (dimensionless) exponent
on a or perform a functional operation on a .
We may multiply a by a pure (dimensionless)
constant.
We may form a product (or quotient) of any with
any other in the problem to replace one of the s.
We may use any of guidelines 1 to 3 in combination.
We may substitute a dimensional parameter in the
with other parameter(s) of the same dimensions.

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Method of Repeating
Variables
Step 6:
Double check that the s are dimensionless.
Write the functional relationship between s.

Or, in terms of nondimensional variables,

Overall conclusion: Method of repeating variables
properly predicts the functional relationship between
dimensionless groups.
However, the method cannot predict the exact
mathematical form of the equation.
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EXAMPLE: Pressure in a Soap

Bubble

Solution
Consider the relationship between
soap bubble radius and the
pressure inside the soap bubble.
The pressure inside the soap
bubble must be greater than
atmospheric pressure, and that
the shell of the soap bubble is
under tension, much like the skin
of a balloon. You also know that
the property surface tension must

be important in this problem.

Using dimensional analysis.
Establish arelationship between( Weber Number)
pressure difference
soap bubble radius R, and the
surface tension s of the soap film.

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EXAMPLE: Friction in a
Pipe
Consider flow shown in Fig.; V is
the average speed across the pipe
cross section. The flow is fully
developed, which means that the
velocity profile also remains
uniform down the pipe. Because of
frictional forces between the fluid
and the pipe wall, there

exists a shear stress w on the inside pipe wall. The shear stress is also
constant down the pipe in the region. We assume some constant
average roughness height, , along the inside wall of the pipe. In fact,
the only parameter that is not constant down the length of pipe is the
pressure, which must decrease (linearly) down the pipe in order to
push the fluid through the pipe to overcome friction. Develop a
nondimensional relationship between shear stress w and the other
parameters in the problem.

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EXAMPLE: Friction in a
Pipe
Solution

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EXAMPLE: Friction in a
Pipe
Solution

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Experimental Testing and Incomplete

Similarity
On of the most useful applications of dimensional
analysis is in designing physical and or numerical
experiments, and in reporting the results.
Setup of an experiment and correlation of data
Consider a problem with 5 parameters: one dependent
and 4 independent.
Full test matrix with 5 data points for each independent
parameter would require 54 = 625 experiments!!
If we can reduce to 2 s, the number of independent
parameters is reduced from 4 to 1, which results in 5 1 =
5 experiments vs. 625!!
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Experimental Testing and Incomplete

Similarity

Discussion of a two- problem,

once the experiments are
complete, plot (1) as a function
of the independent
dimensionless parameter (2).
Then determine the functional
form of the relationship by
performing a regression
analysis on the data.
More than two s in the
problem, need to set up a test
matrix to determine the
relationship between them. (How
about only one Problem?)

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Experimental Testing and Incomplete

Similarity
It is not always possible to match all the s
of a model to the corresponding s of the
prototype. This situation is called
incomplete similarity.
Fortunately, in some cases of incomplete
similarity, we are still able to extrapolate
model tests to obtain reasonable full-scale
predictions.

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Experimental Testing and Incomplete

Similarity
Wind Tunnel Testing
The problem of measuring the
drag force on a model truck in
a wind tunnel. Suppose a onesixteenth geometrically similar
scale model of a tractor-trailer
rig is used. The model truck is
0.991 m long and to be tested
in a wind tunnel that has a
maximum speed of 70 m/s.
The wind tunnel test section is
enough without worrying about
blockage effects.

The air in the wind tunnel is at the same temperature and pressure
as the air flowing around the prototype. We want to simulate flow at
Vp = 60 mi/h (26.8 m/s) over the full-scale prototype truck.
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Experimental Testing and Incomplete

Similarity
Wind Tunnel Testing

The first thing we do is match the Reynolds numbers,

The required wind tunnel speed for the model tests Vm is

This speed is more than six times greater than the maximum
achievable wind tunnel speed. Also, the flow would be supersonic
(about 346 m/s). While the Mach number of the prototype ( 0.080)
does not match the Mach number of the model (1.28). It is clearly
not possible to match the model Reynolds number to that of the
prototype with this model and wind tunnel facility.

What do we do?
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Experimental Testing and Incomplete

Similarity
Wind Tunnel Testing

Several options to resolve the incomplete similarity:

Use a bigger wind tunnel. (Automobile manufacturers typically

test with 3/8 scale model cars and with 1/8 scale model trucks and
buses in very large wind tunnels.) However, it is more expensive.
How big can a model be? A useful rule of thumb is that the
blockage (ratio of the model frontal area to the cross sectional area
of the test section) should be less than 7.5 percent.
Use a different fluid for the model tests. Water tunnels can
achieve higher Reynolds numbers than can wind tunnels of the
same size, but they are much more expensive to build and operate.
Pressurize the wind tunnel and/or adjust the air temperature
to increase the maximum Reynolds number capability (limited).
Run the wind tunnel at several speeds near the maximum
speed, and then extrapolate our results to the full-scale Reynolds
number.

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EXAMPLE: Model Truck Wind Tunnel

Measurements
A one-sixteenth scale model tractor-trailer truck is tested in a
wind tunnel. The model truck is 0.991 m long, 0.257 m tall, and
0.159 m wide. Aerodynamic drag force FD is measured as a
function of wind tunnel speed; the experimental results are listed
in Table 77. Plot the drag coefficient CD as a function of Re,
where the area used for the calculation of CD is the frontal area of
the model truck, and the length scale used for calculation of Re is
truck width W. Have we achieved dynamic similarity? Have we
achieved Reynolds number independence in our wind tunnel
test? Estimate the aerodynamic drag force on the prototype truck
traveling on the highway at 26.8 m/s. Assume that both the wind
tunnel air and the air flowing over the prototype car are at 25C
and standard atmospheric pressure.

EXAMPLE: Model Truck Wind Tunnel

Measurements

EXAMPLE: Model Truck Wind Tunnel

Measurements

Solution:
Calculate CD and Re for the last data point listed in Table 77

Repeat these calculations for all

the data points in Table 77, and
we plot CD versus Re.
Have we achieved dynamic similarity?

EXAMPLE: Model Truck Wind Tunnel

Measurements
Solution:
The prototype Reynolds number is more than six times larger
than that of the model. Since we cannot match the
independent s in the problem, dynamic similarity has not
been achieved.
Have we achieved Reynolds number independence? From the
Fig. we see that Reynolds number independence has
indeed been achievedat Re greater than about 5 105, CD
has leveled off to a value of about 0.76 (to two significant
digits).
Since we have achieved Reynolds number independence, we
can extrapolate to the full-scale prototype, assuming that CD
remains constant as Re is increased to that of the full-scale
prototype.
NOTE:
Predicted
aerodynamic
drag
on the prototype:
No guarantee
that the
extrapolated
results are correct.

Incomplete Similarity

Flows with Free

Surfaces

For the case of model testing of flows with free surfaces (boats
and ships, floods, river flows, aqueducts, hydroelectric dam
spillways, interaction of waves with piers, soil erosion, etc.),
complications arise that preclude complete similarity between
model and prototype.
For example, if a model river is built to study flooding, the
model is often several hundred times smaller than the prototype
due to limited lab space. This may cause, for instance,
Increase the effect of surface tension
Turbulent flow laminar flow

To avoid these problems, researchers often use a distorted

model in which the vertical scale of the model (e.g., river
depth) is exaggerated in comparison to the horizontal scale of
the model (e.g., river width).

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Incomplete Similarity

Flows with Free

Surfaces

In many practical problems

involving free surfaces,
both the Reynolds number
and Froude number appear
as relevant independent
groups in the dimensional
analysis.
It is difficult (often
impossible) to match both
of these dimensionless
parameters simultaneously.

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Incomplete Similarity

Flows with Free

Surfaces

For a free-surface flow, the Reynolds number and Froude

number are matched between model and prototype when
and
To match both Re and Fr simultaneously, we require length scale
factor Lm/Lp satisfy

From the results, we would need to use a liquid whose kinematic

viscosity satisfies the equation. Although it is sometimes possible to
find an appropriate liquid for use with the model, in most cases it is
either impractical or impossible. (refer to example 7-11)
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