Colour in Architecture

COLOUR IN
ARCHITECTU
Colour in 1
Architecture
CERTIFICATE
It is certified that the work contained in this B.Arch dissertation

entitled
“COLOUR IN ARCHITECTURE”,
by “ISHITA PANJA”,
for the award of BACHELOR OF
ARCHITECTURE
from APJ Abdul Kalam Technical University, has been carried out
under my supervision at
ITM School of Architecture & Town Planning, N.H.-24, Bakshi Ka
Talab, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh and that this work has not been
submitted elsewhere for a degree.
(Signature)
AR. SUNIL KUMAR SRIVASTAVA/ Guide
Date:
Department Of Architecture
ITM SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE & TOWN
PLANNING,
N.H.-24, BAKSHI KA TALAB, LUCKNOW, UTTAR PRADESH
I hereby recommend that the project under my supervision by

ISHITA PANJA titled “COLOUR IN ARCHITECTURE” be
accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Architecture.
Ar. VIKRAM SINGH Ar. SUNIL KUMAR SRIVASTAVA

(HEAD OF DEPARTMENT) (DIRECTOR)
Ar. SUNIL KUMAR SRIVASTAVA

(GUIDE)
(EXTERNAL EXAMINER) (EXTERNAL EXAMINER)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The journey which started 4 months ago does not end here As I shall complete
this study as the part of my interest after the submission. There are quite a few
people who helped me to reach my lead me towards my goal, which is, this
research paper.
The first and foremost gratitude towards almighty GOD for his blessings. Who
bestowed upon me the courage , patience and strength to embark this work and
carried it to its completion.
It is a good fortune and a matter of pride and privilege for me to have the
esteemed supervision of Ar. Sunil Kumar Srivastava as my guide, who has
inculcated in me the interest and inspiration to undertake the dissertation of
”COLOUR IN ARCHITECTURE”.
I would also like to thank Ar. Vikram Singh (Head of Department) and Ar.
Shalini Diwaker (Asst. prof.) for their encouragement, worthwhile suggestions
and constructive criticism throughout project work.
- ISHITA PANJA
Dissertation 2019-2020
LIST OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 WHY COLOUR?

CHAPTER 2 TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH COLOUR
CHAPTER 3 THEORIES ON COLOUR
CHAPTER 4 AFFECT OF COLOUR ON PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER 5 CHROMOTHERAPY
CHAPTER 6 AFFECT OF COLOUR ON BUILT SPACES
CHAPTER 7 SIGNIFICANCE OF COLOUR IN DESIGN
REFERENCE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE
1
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LIST OF TABLES
FIGURE
1
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CHAPTER 1
Why COLOUR?
AIM
• The aim is to study the psychological affects of the colours in the field of architecture.
Colours have many effects on the behaviour of humans since anyone visiting diverse
range of colours, feels unique and different in his conscience. Architects try to reach that
aim by using colours, because colours have immediate and long-term effects on human
emotions psychologically and with regard to creating comfort.
• To understand the importance of colour in humans life, and how it is related and
important to many vital activities of the human being.
OBJECTIVE
• To study and analyse the significance of colours with respect to various cultures.
• To study the effect colours have on a person’s minds and their lives and all that they
do.
• To understand the effect of colour on a built space.
SCOPE OF STUDY
• To understand how we perceive colour.

• To thoroughly study the colour theories.
• To compare colour theories of varied cultures.
• To understand the cognitive and behavioural responses based on existing papers.
• To understand the way colour can create or transform a certain environment.
LIMITATIONS
• Study would be related to the available research papers and case studies.
• Study will be based on primary & secondary sources of information and visual survey,
which may have limitations regarding accuracy.
• The focus of theoretical work in this area is either extremely specific or extremely
general.
• colour has three basic properties: hue, lightness, and chroma. Yet only hue is considered in
most theorizing (most likely because it is the most salient colour property)
• Theorizing to date has focused primarily on main effects, with only a bit of attention
allocated to the low-key responses.
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METHODOLOGY
• To read various research papers dealing with the concerned topic to provide in depth
information on the topic.
• To study and understand the theory of colours.
• To understand the role of colour in architecture and the effect it has on its inhabitants.
• To deduce inferences based on literature studies dealing with use of colour in
architecture
CONCLUSION
• Colour plays an important role in each individual’s life. Colour is considered as an integral
element of our environment, not only represented in the living organisms of the natural
environment but also in the man-made various environments.
• This research paper intends to bring out a concoction of various cultures to enhance the
experience of the inhabitant using a particular built space.
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CHAPTER 2
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH COLOUR
“Colour is the visual effect that is caused by the spectral composition of the light emitted,
transmitted, or reflected by objects.“
Primary Colours
The three primary colours are Red, Blue and Yellow and in theory the three colours can be
mixed to make all the other colours and by mixing all three primary colours it produces
Black.
PRIMARY COLOURS
FIGURE 1 – Primary colours: Red, Yellow, blue
Secondary Colours
By mixing two of the primary colours you then create a secondary colour and there are three
secondary colours which are Green (Blue and Yellow mixed), Purple which is (Blue and Red
mixed) and Orange which is (Red and Yellow mixed)
SECONDARY COLOURS
FIGURE 2 – Secondary colours: Violet, Green, Orange

Tertiary Colours
The third and final set of colours are known as tertiary colours and they are formed by
adjacent
mixing primary and secondary colours, thes
are Yellow/Green, Blue/Green, Blue/Purple, Red/Orange, e
Red/Purple,
finally Yellow/Orange. an
TERTIARY COLOURS d
FIGURE 3 – Tertiary colours: Red-Purple, Blue-Green, Red-Orange
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CREATING COLOUR SCHEMES
Monochromatic
• Simplest formula of harmony is Monochromatic this is because it actually only uses one
hue (colour). To create a monochromatic colour palette all you need to do is to select a
spot on the colour wheel and use saturation and value to create the colour variations.
FIGURE 4 – Monochromatic range for the colour Blue
Analogous
• The analogous colour scheme uses the colours that are next to each other on the colour
wheel as shown on the image below such as blues and greens and oranges and reds.
FIGURE 5 – Colour wheel showing analogous colour scheme
Complementary
• A set of complementary colours are opposite to each other on the colour wheel but
complement each other well such as blue and orange and the classic Christmas colours
red and green.
FIGURE 6 – Colour wheel showing complementary colour scheme
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Split Complementary
• Complementary colour palettes use colours that are on either side of the complement
colour as shown in the below image. This gives the exact same level of contrast as the
complementary colour palette but with more colours to work with giving you more colour
results.
FIGURE 7 – Colour wheel showing split complementary colour scheme
Triadic
• The triadic colour scheme uses the three colours that are equally spaced this forms a
perfect triangle on the colour wheel. These combinations can be quite attractive and eye-
catching, especially when you mix primary and secondary colours, be careful when using
them in your designs.
FIGURE 8 – Colour wheel showing triadic colour scheme
Tetradic
• The tetradic colour scheme forms a rectangle on the colour wheel using two
complementary colour parings. This formula works extremely well if you let one colour
dominate and the others act as an
accent.
FIGURE 9 – Colour wheel showing tetradic colour scheme
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QUALITIES OF COLOUR
1. Hue: Hue is somewhat synonymous to what we usually refer to as "colours". Red, green,
blue, yellow, and orange are a few examples of different hues. The different hues have
different wavelengths in the spectrum.
2. Value: Intensity of tone. The value is a measurement of the brightness of a colour. The
brighter a colour is, the higher is its value and the more light it emits. For instance, a
vivid yellow is brighter than dark blue, therefore its value is higher than that of the
blue.
3. Saturation (Chroma): Purity of the colour. Saturation can also be called a colour's
intensity. It is a measurement of how different from pure grey the colour is. Saturation is
not really a matter of light and dark, but rather how pale or strong the colour is. The
perceived saturation of a colour is not constant, but it varies depending on the
surroundings and what light the colour is seen in.
FIGURE 10 – Examples of Hue, Value and Saturation
4. Tint and Shade-These are terms to describe how a colour varies from its original hue. If
white is added, the lighter version of the colour is called a tint of the colour. On the
other hand, if black is added the, darker version of the colour is called a shade of the
colour.
Hu
Shades
e
FIGURE 11 – Spectrum of colour showing shade and tints of a specific hue
5. Contrast- is a difference in lightness, brightness or hue o two colours that makes them
more or less distinguishable.
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VARIATION OF CONTRAST:
1) Hue Contrast
• Undiluted colours in their most intense luminosity.
• Extreme instance of contrast of hue: red/yellow/blue (effect: tonic, vigorous, and
decided).
• The intensity of contrast of hue diminishes as the hue moves away from primaries,
secondary colours are weaker in character, tertiary colours are still less distinct.
• When the single colours are separated by black or white lines, their individual characters
emerge more sharply.
• White weakens the luminosity of adjacent hues and darkens them; black causes them to
seem lighter.
• Significance: The interplay of primordial luminous forces; indigenous cosmic
magnificence
and concrete actuality.
• Contrast of hue found in folk art, embroidery, costume, and pottery testifies to primitive
delight in colourful and decorative effects.
2) Value Contrast (brilliance, brightness & darkness, intensity of tone)

• Strongest expressions of light and dark are white/black, and yellow/violet.
• Tonal differences: Low key -- Intermediate -- High Key
• Significance: sharpen one’s sensitivity to shading; develop the feeling for proportion; be
aware of the relationship between positive & negative forms.
• Equality of light or dark relates colours to each other.
FIGURE 12 – Example showing expressions of light and dark
3) Cold & Warm Contrast

• Sensation of temperature related to the visual realm of colour sensation.
• The two poles of cold-‐warm contrast: Red-‐orange is the warmest, and blue-‐green, or
manganese oxide, is the coldest.
• The hues intermediate between them in the colour circle may be either cold or warm
according to their relationship with warmer or colder tones.
• Cold: shadow, transparent, sedative, rare, airy, far, light, wet
• Warm: sun, opaque, stimulant, dense, earthy, near, heavy, dry
FIGURE 13 – Warm colours and Cool Colours
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HOW THE EYE SEES COLOUR
Colour originates in light. Sunlight, as we perceive it, is colourless. In reality, a rainbow is

testimony to the fact that all the colours of the spectrum are present in white light. As
illustrated in the diagram below, light goes from the source (the sun) to the object (the
apple), and finally to the detector (the eye and brain).
FIGURE 14 – How our eye sees colour
1. All the "invisible" colours of sunlight shine on the apple.

2. The surface of a red apple absorbs all the coloured light rays, except for those
corresponding to red, and reflects this colour to the human eye.
3. The eye receives the reflected red light and sends a message to the brain.
Inside the Eye

The light falling on the retina is received by Rods and Cones. These are the photoreceptors
found in the eye. Rods have rod-like structure and are present on the outer edge of the
retina (120 mn cells are present). These provide twilight vision. While cones are of the cone
shape, concentrated in the fovea of retina and are fewer in number (6 mn) and provides the
vision in the day or bright light.
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 15 – (a) Parts of our eye, (b) Arrangement of rods and cones on the outer edge, (c) Types of cones
The visual acuity of cone cells is higher than rod cells. The damage to cone cells cause legal
blindness. Humans have three kinds of colour receptor cells - or “cones” - in their eyes. Each
type of cone contains a different visual pigment. These three cone types are called "red",
"green" and "blue." Therefore we are “trichromats” (tri = 3, chroma = colour). All hues can
be produced by mixing red, green and blue light. This is how a colour television set works; a
mixture of these three wavelengths of colour produces several million visible colours.)
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Current understanding is that the 6 to 7 million cones can be divided into "red" cones (64%),
"green" cones (32%), and "blue" cones (2%) based on measured response curves. They
provide the eye's colour sensitivity. The green and red cones are concentrated in the fovea
centralis. The "blue" cones have the highest sensitivity and are mostly found outside the
fovea, leading to some distinctions in the eye's blue perception. Different wavelengths of
light excite different combinations of cones to varying levels, which generates our
perception of colour.
FIGURE 16 – (a) Wavelength range for each type of cone, (b) Combined wavelengths
The outer layer of cone contains a violet pigment called iodopsin. There are three different
types of iodopsin pigments that respond differently to the different wavelengths of lights
(Red, Green and Blue).
To see red or green, the brain finds the difference between the levels of excitement in your
red and green cones. This is the red-green channel. To get “brightness,” the brain combines
the excitement of the red and green cones. This creates the luminance, or black-white,
channel. To see yellow or blue, the brain then finds the difference between this luminance
signal and the excitement of the blue cones. This is the yellow-blue channel.
Seeing yellow is what happens
when BOTH the green AND red
cones are highly excited near
their peak sensitivity. This is
the biggest collective
excitement that your cones
ever have, aside from seeing
pure white. This is why yellow
appears to be the brightest
colour in the spectrum, making
FIGURE 17 – Colour perception mechanism
it a unique and useful colour.
Yellow is also colourblind-safe.
About 8 percent of males can’t
distinguish between signals
from red cones and green
cones, which means that they NORMAL PEOPLE
don’t have the red-green
COLOURBLIND
channel. This makes it obvious
that using purple/blue, and FIGURE 18 – Colour spectrum for normal people and colour blind people
yellow/orange allows for
colourblind-safe design.
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The goal of colour selection is to create elements—such as words or shapes—that are quickly
and clearly distinguishable from the background and from surrounding elements. Because
the yellow-blue channel is closely related to the luminance (“brightness”) channel, it
provides nearly as much luminance contrast as black-white. Contrast is a good thing. Blue,
when used with green or red provides moderate contrast. Because the red-green channel is
used by the brain only for difference in colour, but not brightness, the contrast between red
and green is less distinct. One might even feel a bit funny or cross-eyed when looking at the
red-green boxes.
(a) (b)
(c)
FIGURE 19 – (a) High contrast combination, (b) Moderate contrast combination, (c) Low contrast combination
The luminance channel is used to gather information about depth, shape, and shadows—
necessary for seeing three-dimensional objects. For this reason, the black and white version
of this illustration of Yosemite is a landscape with crests and valleys. The yellow-blue version
is a bit less clear, but 3D perception is not entirely destroyed. However, no shape
information comes from red-green, so this version appears not as a landscape, but a
random pattern of colour information. The smaller an object, the more contrast required to
distinguish it from the background and surrounding objects. Yellow and dark blue are a great
place to start for high contrast
(a (b
) )
FIGURE 20 – To understand the role of Luminance
channel in distinguishing three-dimensional objects (a)
black and white version of this illustration of Yosemite,
(b) yellow and blue version of illustration of Yosemite,
(c)least comprehensive red and green version of this
illustration of Yosemite
(c)
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COLOUR SYSTEMS
It's important to define the two different kinds of colour that we see in the world as the first
step in understanding colour systems. First, there's the colour we can touch, such as the
skin of an apple or a painted wall. These colours are part of the surface of an object. Next,
there's the colour we can't touch, such as a beam of red light and the colours produced by
the computer monitor. colours generated by light are part of one colour system. The tangible
colours which are on the surface of objects or on the printed page are another colour
system.
Additive colour System: Red - Green - Blue (RGB)
Combining two pure additive primaries produces a subtractive primary. When combined, red
and green light rays produce yellow, blue and green produce cyan, red and blue produce
magenta. Red, green and blue mix to create white (light). Televisions, mobile phones,
tabletsand computer monitors use the additive colour system because they are emissive
devices. They start with darkness and add red, green, and blue light to create the spectrum
of colours. The colour rendering methods used by these devices are based directly on our
response to stimuli of red, green, and blue light. For example, a computer monitor blends
varying intensities of red, green, and blue light at each of its tiny pixels. These pixels are so
small and tightly packed that the eye’s RGB response is “fooled” into the perception of many
different colours when really there are only three. Green and blue dots of light are creating
the image. Where red and green overlap, you'll see yellow. This system applies only to
devices employing light, such as computer monitors and television sets.
(a (b FIGURE 22 – Pixels as seen on a

) ) computer screen from close which
FIGURE 21 – (a) Primary colour for RGB system, (b)Colour wheel for RGB looks absolutely packed from a
colour system distance.
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Subtractive colour System: Red - Yellow – Blue
When we mix colours using paint, or through the printing process, we are using the
subtractive colour method. Subtractive colour mixing means that one begins with white and
ends with black; as one adds colour, the result gets darker and tends to black. When two
subtractive primaries overlap, an additive primary is produced. Most artists recognize red,
yellow and blue as the 3 basic primary colours. These primaries are the pure colours which
can not be created by mixing any other colours. Secondary hues are the result of mixing any
of the two primaries. Tertiary colours result from mixing the secondary hues. In subtractive
colour printing, a fourth colour, black (K, which stands for key) is added to make four-colour
printing (CMYK). If we only used cyan, magenta and yellow to make black, we would get a
brownish colour due to impurities in those ink colours. The black ink helps neutralize images
and graphics and adds density to the shadows.
(a (b
) )
FIGURE 23 – (a) Primary colour for CMY system, (b)Colour wheel for CMY colour system
FIGURE 24 – The CMYK colour system (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black) used for printing
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CHAPTER 3
THEORIES ON COLOUR
One needs to understand the emotions and intuition in strong moments expressed by
colours. All great master colourists possessed a science of colour which helped them create
masterpieces because colour is a strong means of communication. Personal expression with
colour should be supported by adequate knowledge. colour theory is a term used to describe
the collection of rules and guidelines regarding the use of colour in art and design, as
developed since their early days. colour theory informs the design of colour schemes, aiming
at aesthetic appeal and the effective communication of a design message on both the visual
level and the psychological level.
NEWTON (1704)
Modern colour theory is heavily based on Isaac Newton’s colour wheel. The first colour
wheel was designed by Sir Isaac Newton in 1666. After Newton had used a prism to
separate daylight and counted seven individual colours. He ascribed the acronym ROYGBIV to
the colours, it appeared to him that, when considering colour-hue, this was a closed system.
By taking the violet end of the spectrum and linking it to the red start-point, he created a
convincing circle of colours.Newton split the rainbow into seven sections intentionally to
mirror the seven notes of the musical scale.Newton also attempted to create a music-
colour wheel. Each wedge is assigned a colour and the note preceding each wedge
corresponds to the colour. The design of this wheel was entirely arbitrary.
FIGURE 25- White light passing through a prism split into seven. FIGURE 26- Colour
Wheel
The colour wheel consists of three primary colours (red, yellow, blue), three secondary
colours (colours created when primary colours are mixed: green, orange, purple) and six
tertiary colours (colours made from primary and secondary colours, such as blue-green or
red-violet).
Visible light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, with a frequency (wavelength) that
determines its colour. The frequency of. light in the visible spectrum is between 390nm –
700nm (Refer Fig. 1). Each hue (colour) can be accurately defined by specifying its
wavelength of frequency.
FIGURE 27- Wavelengths of lights
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Light generates the colour: colours are the children of light, and light is their mother. The
light waves are not in themselves colour. Colour arises in the human eye and brain. Each
spectral hue is the complement of the mixture of all the other spectral hues. A red painted
surface will absorb all wavelengths of light except the colour red, red light is reflected, and
our eyes detect the light which is registered by our brain as red. A white surface, however,
is not selective: it reflects the full spectrum of wavelengths of any light falling on it
equally.
Colour Temperature: The colour temperature of a light source is the temperature of an ideal
black-body radiator that radiates light of comparable hue to that of the light source. (refer
Fig. 2)
FIGURE 28- Colour temperature
PHILIPP OTTO RUNGE (1807)
In 1810 he published Farben-Kugel(Colour-

Sphere), the last year of his young life,
painter Philipp Otto Runge devised his
colour Sphere, one of the first attempts to
depict a comprehensive colour system in
three dimensions. Runge was a
correspondent of Goethe, who was also
interested in colour theory. Runge
complains “that artists have been
abandoned by scientists because scientists
ignored those effects of colour not
explained merely by the refraction of the ray
of light.” His colour system, once described
in an encyclopedia as “a blend of scientific-
mathematical knowledge, mystical-magical
combinations and symbolic interpretations”,
represented the sum total of his
endeavours. Illustrates
meridians. Symmetrical
all shape with six
fundamental
parallels and 12
relationships among colours, and between
FIGURE 29- Colour wheel 9as proposed by Runge)
chromatic colours and black and white.
The colour-sphere has the pure colours around the equator, starting with the three primary
colours of red, yellow and blue. Three mixed colours take their place in each of the equal
intermediate spaces between the primaries, while white and black form the sphere’s poles.
Runge wished to capture the harmony of colours - not the proportions of mixtures. He
wished to bring a sense order to the totality of all possible colours, and sought an ideal
colour-solid.
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GOETHE COLOUR THEORY (1810)
Goethe, a German writer, politician and a painter, reformulated the topic of colour in an
entirely new way. Newton had viewed colour as a physical problem, involving light striking
objects and entering our eyes. Goethe realized that the sensations of colour reaching our
brain are also shaped by our perception. Therefore, according to Goethe, what we see of an
object depends upon the object, the lighting and our perception. Scientifically, Newton was
right. But Goethe's theories were more art and philosophy than pure science. In a way, it
was pigments, or colours in paint, that led to Goethe's colour experiments, so it's not
surprising his ideas differed from those of Newton.
Goethe created his version of a colour wheel and
arranged the colours according to what he called
their natural order. “When the eye sees a colour
it is immediately excited and it is its nature,
spontaneously and of necessity, at once to
produce another, which with the original colour,
comprehends the whole chromatic scale.”
(Goethe, Theory of Colours-1810) "For Newton,
only spectral colours could count as fundamental.
By contrast, Goethe's more empirical approach
led him to recognize the essential role of
magenta in a complete colour circle, a role that it
still has in all modern colour systems.“ (Ewald
FIGURE 30- Goethe’s colour wheel constituting 6 Hering on Theory of Colours)..
colours
Qualities of Light Newton (1704) Goethe (1810)

White light is composed of Light is the simplest most undivided
Homogeneity
coloured elements most homogenous thing
(heterogeneous). (homogeneous).
Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. Darkness is polar to, and interacts with light.
Coloured edges which arise at light-
Colours are fanned out of light according
Spectrum dark borders overlap to form a
to their refrangibility (primary
spectrum (compound phenomenon).
phenomenon).
The prism is immaterial to the existence As a turbid medium, the prism plays a role
Prism
of colour. in the arising of colour.
Light becomes decomposed through Refraction, inflection, and reflection can
Role of refraction
refraction, inflection, and exist without the appearance of colour.
reflection.
There are only two pure colours—blue
White light decomposes into a spectrum and yellow; the rest are degrees of these.
Analysis
of all colours. Citation: (Theory of Colours, Volume
3, Paragraph 208/209)
Just as white light can be decomposed, it
Synthesis Colours recombine to shades of grey.
can be put back together.1.2
Neither, since they are inferences and
Particle or wave? Particle
not observed with the senses.
Colour wheel Asymmetric, 7 colours Symmetric, 6 colours
TABLE 1: Differences between the findings of Newton and Goethe
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MUNSELL COLOUR THEORY (1905)
The Munsell colour system is a colour system that specifies colours based on three colour
dimensions, hue, value, and chroma (difference from gray at a given hue and lightness).
Professor Albert H. Munsell, an artist, wanted to create a "rational way to describe colour"
based on the principle of "perceived equidistance", and that would use decimal notation
instead of colour names (which he felt were "foolish" and "misleading"). He first started
work on the system in 1898 and published it in full form in colour Notation in 1905. The
newer Munsell Book of colour continues to be used today.
Munsell constructed his system around a circle with ten segments, arranging its colours at
equal distances and selecting them in such a way that opposing pairs would result in an
achromatic mixture. The system consists of an irregular cylinder with the value axis
(light/dark) running up and down through it, as does the axis of the earth. Dark colours are
at the bottom of the tree and light at the top, measured from 1 (dark) to 10 (light). Each
horizontal "slice" of the cylinder across the axis is a hue circle, which he divided into five
principal hues: red, yellow, green, blue, and purple, five intermediates, yellow-red, green-
yellow, blue-green, purple-blue, and red-purple. Munsell hue is specified by selecting one of
these ten hues, and then referring to the angle inside them from 1 to 10. Chroma is
represented radially from the center of the colour model outward.
Chart C Chart 50
ATLAS ATLAS
Colour Ch art Colour C hart
ATLAS Chart 60 ATLAS Chart H

Colour C ha rt Colour C hart
FIGURE 32- Munsell’s colour system

Chart R Chart Y
ATLAS ATLAS
Colour Cha rt Colour C hart
ATLAS Chart B ATLAS Chart G

Colour C ha rt Colour Ch art
FIGURE 31- Munsell’s colour chart FIGURE 33- Munsell’s colour sphere
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OSTWALD’S COLOUR HARMONY (1916)
Ostwald was a German chemist born in Latvia in 1853 who received the Nobel Prize for
Chemistry in 1909. Also a keen amateur painter, he combined his knowledge of chemistry to
study pigments and the stability of painting materials. After a meeting with Albert H. Munsell
and the Munsell’s ‘colour atlas’, Ostwald pursued colour theory and was inspired to develop
his own colour classification system which he compiled in his Die Farbenfibel (The Colour
Primer) in 1916/17. According to Ostwald there were three groups or classes of colours. The
first group consisted of neutral colours; those which do not contain colour and are made
only from black and white. The second group are pure ‘full colours’, and which contain no
black or white. The third group contain mixed colours, combinations of colours with black
and/or white. The Ostwald system creates a colour space based on dominant wavelength,
purity, and luminance, mapping the values of hue, saturation and brightness.
FIGURE 34- Ostwald’s colour solid sketch FIGURE 35- Ostwald’s colour solid
Ostwald identified that all of these groups had at their core four basic hues: yellow, red, blue
and sea green. Four further hues - when placed in between the core hues - created orange
(between yellow and red), purple (between red and blue), turquoise (between blue and sea
green), and leaf green (between sea green and yellow). Finally, two further hues between
these colours, created a circle of 24 evenly spaced colours. Ostwald recommended a
systematic arrangement of colours and a standardization of colours used. Ostwald believed
colours should only be used and selected from a finite collection. He acknowledged that his
system left out some intermediate colours between the ones he selected, but he did not
work to include them in his colour space.
FIGURE 36- Ostwald’s colour solid concept FIGURE 37- Ostwald’s colour solid section
Colour in 24
Architecture
ITTEN’S THEORY
Johannes Itten, a Swiss-born abstract painter

taught using a colour sphere of the 12 hues, and
he developed ideas about seven different
methods of colour contrast. The influence of
psychoanalysis is apparent in Itten’s colour
theory, as he was one of the first to associate
different colours with specific emotions and
study the impact of colour on our moods. Itten
taught that there were seven different methods
of contrast: contrast of saturation, of light and
dark, of extension, complementary contrast,
simultaneous contrast, contrast of hue, and
contrast between warm and cool FIGURE 38- Ostwald’s colour solid section
colours.
1. The contrast of saturation - The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light and dark
values and their relative saturation.
2. The contrast of light and dark - The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light and
dark values. This could be a monochromatic composition.
3. The contrast of extension - Also known as the contrast of proportion. The contrast is
formed by assigning proportional field sizes in relation to the visual weight of a colour.
4. The contrast of complements - The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of colour
wheel or perceptual opposites.
5. Simultaneous contrast - The contrast is formed when the boundaries between colours
perceptually vibrate. Some interesting illusions are accomplished with this contrast.
6. The contrast of hue - The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of different hues. The
greater the distance between hues on a colour wheel, the greater the contrast.
7. The contrast of hue – primaries - The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of primary
hues.
8. The contrast of warm and cool - The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of hues
considered 'warm' or 'cool’.
(a (b (c) (d)
) )
(e)
FIGURE 39- (a) The Contrast of Saturation, (b)

The Contrast of Light and Dark, (c) The
Contrast of Extension, (d) The Contrast of
Complements, (e) Simultaneous Contrast, (f)
The Contrast of Hue, (g) The Contrast of
Primaries, (h) The Contrast of Warm and cool
(f (g (h
) ) )
Colour in 25
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PANTONE SYSTEM
In 1963, Pantone revolutionized the printing industry with the

colourful PANTONE MATCHING SYSTEM (PMS),
a proprietary colour space used in a variety of industries
notably graphic design, fashion design, product design, printing
and manufacturing and supporting the management of colour
from design to production, in physical and digital formats,
among coated and uncoated materials, cotton, polyester, nylon
and plastics. The Pantone colour Matching System is largely a
standardized colour reproduction system. By standardizing the
colours, different manufacturers in different locations can all
refer to the Pantone system to make sure colours match
without direct contact with one another. The tool organizes
colour standards through a proprietary numbering system and
chip format, which have since become iconic to the Pantone
brand. The Pantone colour Institute™ is a consulting service
within Pantone that forecasts global colour trends and
advises companies on colour in brand identity and product
development, for the application and integration of colour as a
strategic asset.
FIGURE 40- Pantone colour
guide
FIGURE 41- Timeline of Pantone Matching System
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CHAPTER 4
AFFECT OF COLOUR ON PSYCHOLOGY
Colour has fascinated scholars for millennia. Theorizing on colour and psychological
functioning has been present since Goethe (1810) penned his Theory of colours, in which he
linked colour categories (e.g. the “plus” colours of yellow, red–yellow, yellow–red) to
emotional responding (e.g., warmth, excitement). Goldstein (1942) expanded on Goethe’s
intuitions, positing that certain colours (e.g., red, yellow) produce systematic physiological
reactions manifest in emotional experience (e.g., negative arousal), cognitive orientation
(e.g., outward focus), and overt action (e.g., forceful behaviour). Subsequent theorizing
derived from Goldstein’s ideas has focused on wavelength, positing that longer wavelength
colours feel arousing or warm, whereas shorter wavelength colours feel relaxing or cool
(Nakashian,1964; Crowley, 1993). Other conceptual statements about colour and
psychological functioning have focused on general associations that people have to colours
and their corresponding influence on downstream affect, cognition, and behaviour (e.g.,
black is associated with aggression and elicits aggressive behaviour.
SKIN COLOURATION INDUCED STIMULI
In humans in aggressive encounters, a testosterone surge produces visible reddening on the

face and fear leads to pallor. Hill and Barton posited that the parallel between humans and
non-humans present at the physiological level may extend to artificial stimuli, such that
wearing red in sport contests may convey dominance and lead to a competitive advantage.
noted that in many non-human animals, including primate species, dominance in aggressive
encounters (i.e., superior physical condition) is signalled by the bright red of oxygenated
blood visible on highly vascularized bare skin. Changizi contend that trichromatic vision
evolved to enable primates, including humans, to detect subtle changes in blood flow
beneath the skin that carry important information about the emotional state of the
conspecific. Increased red can convey anger, embarrassment, or sexual arousal, whereas
increased bluish or greenish tint can convey illness or poor physiological condition. Thus,
visual sensitivity to these colour modulations facilitates various forms of social interaction.
In similar fashion, Stephen and McKeegan propose that perceivers use information about skin
colouration to make inferences about the attractiveness, health, and dominance of
conspecifics. Redness (from blood oxygenation) and yellowness (from carotenoids) are both
seen as facilitating positive judgments. Fink and Matts posit that the homogeneity of skin
colouration is an important factor in evaluating the age, attractiveness, and health of faces.
The way colour is perceived is thought to influence its meaning and, accordingly, responses to
it. Thus, blue on a ribbon is positive (indicating first place), but blue on a piece of meat is
negative (indicating rotten). A red shirt may enhance the attractiveness of a potential mate
(red = sex/romance), but not of a person evaluating one’s competence (red = failure/danger).
Meier and Robinson have posited a conceptual metaphor theory of colour. From this
perspective, people talk and think about abstract concepts in concrete terms grounded in
perceptual experience (i.e., they use metaphors) to help them understand and navigate their
social world. Thus, anger entails reddening of the face, so anger is metaphorically described
as “seeing red,” and positive emotions and experiences are often depicted in terms of
lightness
Colour in 27
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(rather than darkness, so lightness is metaphorically linked to good (“seeing the light”) rather
than bad (“in the dark”). These metaphoric associations are presumed to have implications
for important outcomes such as morality judgments (e.g., white things are viewed as pure)
and stereotyping (e.g., dark faces are viewed more negatively). For many years it has been
known that light directly influences physiology and increases arousal but recently theorists
have posited that such effects are wavelength dependent. Blue light, in particular, is posited
to activate the melanopsin photoreceptor system which, in turn, activates the brain
structures involved in sub-cortical arousal and higher-order attention processing.
The review of findings was restricted to those that have been supported by a minimum of five independent laboratories articles with
supportive findings area listed first, followed by articles with non-supportive findings (indicated by cf.).
Hill and Barton, 2005; Elliot et al., 2007; Stephen and McKeegan, 2010; Tanaka and Tokuno, 2011; Mehta and Zhu, 2009; Bruno et al.,
2013;
TABLE 2: Findings from Research on colour and psychological functioning.
As such, exposure to blue light is expected to facilitate alertness and enhance performance
on tasks requiring sustained attention. The aforementioned findings represent important
contributions to the literature on colour and psychological functioning, and highlight the
multidisciplinary nature of research in this area.
Colour in 28
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FIGURE 42- Psychology of colour
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Colours are a dominating force in every aspect of human life; so much so that we today
cannot imagine a world without colours. Colour coordination has become the buzzword in
all kinds of professional fields let alone human lives fashion technology, interior designing,
publishing, (both traditional and net based) and in a host of other domain.
“Colours are the mother tongue of the subconscious,” commented the founding
father of psychology, Carl Jung (1875-1961).
“Colours represent an insidious kind of communication. Carefully chosen, they can help
get a message across that would otherwise be difficult to express-and perhaps appear
less credible in words alone” (Fraser and Banks, 2004).
However colour are extremely sensitive to cultural aspects and the meaning or interpretation
of colour does not remain static across cultures. Colour has been studied in many fields with
different perspectives. It is not surprising that colours have cultural connotations and have
been differently interpreted by different cultures. It is generally believed that perception
regarding colours differ in various cultures. However it should be noted that the colour
association may be completely individual (due to extremely personalized experiences) or
they may be spread across a whole spectrum (because of political, religious and racial
origins).
It has been shown that on a biological level, colours tend to affect the mechanisms of the
human eye. Muscles either relax or tense up; pupils expand or contract when exposed to
different colours. The physical effects are considered by authorities to be the result of
photochemical action on the glandular system. On a psychological level, colours tend to
reinforce and enhance (or negate) the message being delivered. The overall colour design
tends to either create a pleasant visual harmony, which appeals to the aesthetic senses, or it
ends up creating a cluttered chaotic experience, which generates negative feelings. For
example - with respect to sight, taste and smell - seeing a colour may evoke any number of
other sensations. Green may be evocative of the smell of grass, lemon yellow may evoke a
sour taste. This is best understood by the fact that each sense has a pathway to the brain.
These paths are parallel to each other. However, in some situations, a cross over from one
pathway to the other occurs. Seeing the colour yellow-green may evoke taste sensations of
sourness; pink may evoke sweetness. Seeing the colour grey may evoke olefactory (smell)
sensations of smokiness.
FIGURE 43- Sensory input in the Cerebral Cortex FIGURE 44 – Cross-over between Sensory pathways
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It has been known for long that colour and visual patterns affect the cortex (It is the
superficial or the uppermost layer of the brain) along with the Central Nervous System (the
Brain and the Backbone constitute the CNS). In addition, it has been found that when colour
is transmitted through the human eye, the brain releases certain hormones, which affects
our moods, mental clarity and energy levels.
Anatomy of brain-
1)CEREBRUM
• Frontal lobe
• Temporal lobe
• Parietal lobe
• Occipital lobe
2) CEREBELLUM
3)MEDULLA (brain stem)
FIGURE 45: Functions of various lobes of

brain
Some have identified gender as the underlying cause believing that women are more
sensitive to the colour spectrum (Guilford and Smith, 1959) while other believe that the
aging process is responsible for the change in preference of colour choice. They believe that
younger people prefer brighter colour and as one matures, the colour choices turn more
subdued (Biggs, 1956).
The lack of available literature in this particular area forces us to rely on information
available on the internet for drawing up the colour psychology for both India and China.
Colour, in Chinese culture are singularly linked with the Chinese elements of Wood, Fire,
Earth Metal and Water with green, red, yellow, white and black being the respective
representative colour of the associated elements. In the Indian culture – which similar to
Chinese is a mix of varied culture – colours are associated with various religious aspects and
also weather but are not so interlinked with life philosophy.
Cultures as vast as India and China cannot have dichotomous colour connotation and it is
obvious that there is a huge amount of local element in the colour psychology. For example,
In the Chinese culture the mix of black and white is considered to be auspicious and
balancing. Similarly combination of green and blue connotes the onset of spring and
fertility. In the Indian context, the colour “saffron” or “ochre” has a peculiar connotation.
Saffron represents the colour of fire which in turn is assumed to reflect the Supreme Being.
The connotation being that as fire cannot be corrupted so a person who has renounced the
world cannot be corrupted by worldly offerings. The saffron colour, also auspicious to the
Sikhs, the Buddhists and the Jains, seems to have obtained religious significance much
before these religions came into being. While Sikhs regard it as a militant colour, Buddhist
monks and Hindu saints wear robes of this colour as a mark of renunciation of material
life.
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COMPARISONS BETWEEN MEANINGS OF COLOURS IN DIFFERENT CULTURES
Colour Western Japan Brazil England

European
countries
Red romance, self-sacrifice, vibrancy, visibility authority,

optimism, strength, power, temper,
vigour, strength, passion, government
caution blood
Yellow increase sunshine, precautions,
visibility, nature, warmth
indicate quality,
hazards
Green nature, environment , a environment,
confidence, national quality,
inexperience, symbol of the Vitality,
jealousy, rainforest Prosperity,
fertility Catholicism
Blue sky, truth, tranquillity,
emotion, decorum,
serenity, dignity
reliability,
responsibilit
y, fidelity
Black elegance, anger, non- sophistication, death,
formality, being, mystery religion, mourning,
mourning, authority, and dignity
death, evil formality and is
common in
religious,
formal, and
widow’s
clothing.
White purity, Death, mourning Peace, leisure
surrender
peace, good,
cleanliness,
neutral, bleak,
empty
Grey ambiguity, elegance,
wisdom, smoke, strength,
Table 3: Comparison of Meanings
concrete, fog of Colour in Western European, Japanese, Brazilian and English Culture
sophistication,
taste,
Colour in traditions 32
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Colour China India North-America Caribbean

countries
Red Fervour, Anger, Safety, Rescue, African
Happiness, Crime, Excitement, roots,
Communism, Danger, Adultery, nature and
Obituaries, Happiness, Spicy, And animals
Joy Marriage, Hot
Prosperity,
Sensuality
Yellow Sacrednes Warning, happy African roots,
s, Good Royalty, mood , animals,
Luck, Religion, sunny day , culture
Royalty, Decadence, precautions,
Neutrality, Happiness, represent
Heroism, Knowledge cowardice
Mourning
Green Exorcism, Fertility, environment, lush vegetation,
Harmony, Happiness, masculinity, a
Health, Harmony, desire to go
Infidelity, Islam, Life, outside, envy,
Prosperity, Peace healthy,
Vitality, freshness,
Enthusiasm, inexperienced in
Fervour, Good work
Fortune
Blue Serenity, Truthfulness, business, a water,
Prosperity, Royalty, trustworthy animals,
Nature, Divinity person, a death, pirates
Immoralit philosophy ,
y, soothing
Healing, mood
Harmony
Black Sublimity, Death, Evil sin, evil, death,
Solemnity, Influences, nothingness,
Heaven, Superstitio formal, and
Harmony, n, sexy
Righteousness Negativity,
Inertia
White Bad luck, Widow, Purity, clean, cleanliness, cool
Brightness, Peace, serenity, elegant, environment,
Fulfilment, Mourning, light, pure, authority
Gold, rebirth, sanitized
Mourning,
Table 4: Comparison creation,
of Meanings of environment
Colour in Indian, Chinese, North American and Caribbean Culture
Stupidity reincarnation
Colour in 33
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Table 5: Modern American colour Associations
Colour in 34
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CHAPTER 5
CHROMOTHERAPY
Colour is a property of surfaces and illuminates in the external world: it is also a property of
human perceptions. The former aligns to physics, the behaviour of light, and the reflection-
absorption properties of surfaces: the latter aligns to psychology, and the performance of the
visual system. While Newton typified the former position with a focus upon decomposing
light, Goethe typified the latter via his observations on perceptual phenomena. In the
tradition of Newton, the Young-Helmholtz’s trichromatic theory determined that mixing
three light sources—red, green, and blue (indigo)— achieved a full colour gamut. In the
tradition of Goethe, Hering observed that two pairs of opposing hues—red/green and
yellow/blue—have a unique psychological status. At the time, colour vision was seen as a
retinal event. Only in the 1950s was it found to be a staged process in which retinal
impulses (Young- Helmholtz) are reclassified at mid-brain centers, the lateral geniculate
nuclei- LGN: the relay centre in the thalamus for the visual pathway (Hering), and then
travel to the visual cortex where an enlarged set of receptors are present.
As a concept in both mainstream psychology and the popular press, the very notion of colour
psychology poses the question: why colour? Colour psychology has been extended into
hidden territories whereby personality can be learned from it, good health can be enjoyed
from it (chromotherapy), and future trends can be discerned within it (colour forecasting
agencies- like the colour of the year 2020 is Classic Blue as declared by Pantone). Originating
in an amalgam of new scientific discoveries and spiritual belief coexisting at that time,
colour therapy (chromotherapy), a unique dimension of colour lawfulness surfaced during
the 19th century. This occurred in an era which also saw the dawn of electricity therapy
(electrotherapy or electromagnetic therapy) and magnet therapy (magnotherapy)—all with
potentially curative powers that remain today as alternative therapies.
The masterwork of this period is undoubtedly Edwin Babbitt’s The Principles of Light and
Colour. Published in 1878, it describes in considerable detail not only which colours alleviate
specific illnesses in humans, but also the colours that will generate health in plants. It can
very well be described as a combination of pseudo-science and spiritualism: it characterises
an age in which science and the spiritualism intertwine. General Augustus Pleasonton, who
conducted numerous studies of colour and published them in 1876, in his book, The
Influence of the Blue Ray of the Sunlight and of the Blue Color of the Sky, in Developing
Animal and Vegetable Life; in Arresting Disease and in Restoring Health in Acute and Chronic
Disorders to Human and Domestic Animals, immediately preceded the publication of
Babbitt’s book in 1878 and thus could legitimately be credited as the originator of
chromotherapy.
Baron Karl von Reichenbach (chemist, metallurgist and member of the prestigious Prussian
Academy of Sciences) came to believe that all materials exhibit an electromagnetic life force
which he termed the “odic force.” It may be an oversimplification to see the odic force as the
sole originator of modern conceptions of the “aura,” in part because the concept had
already existed in Asian religions for centuries, e.g., the Vedantic notion of the physical
body, psycho- spiritual “subtle body” and causal body being composed of five kosas, or
sheaths.
Colour in 35
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Colour is simply light of different wavelengths. Each colour has its own specific wavelength
and vibration. These wavelengths resonate with energies in different areas of the body. By
using the seven colours of the light spectrum, Colour Therapy aims to balance and enhance
our body's energy centres/chakras, which can help to stimulate our body's own healing
process. Each of the seven main colours of the spectrum, resonates with one of the main
seven chakras. Each of the spectrum colours is simply light of varying wavelengths, thus
each colour has its own particular energy.
The energy relating to each of these spectrum colours resonates with the energy of each of
the seven main chakras of the body. The word chakra is sanskrit for wheel. The chakras are
rather like the workings of a clock or an engine; each cog /wheel needs to move smoothly
and at a similar speed for the clock/engine to work properly. Thus good health and well
being is achieved by a balance of all these energies (or the smooth running of the
cogs/wheels).Colour therapy can help to re-balance these 'wheels' by applying the
appropriate colour to the body and therefore re-balance our chakras. Listed below is each of
the spectrum colours and the chakra which it relates to. Violet has the shortest wavelength
and red the longest wavelength. We absorb colour energy through the eyes, the skin and the
electro magnetic field or aura. Colour can be used on the body in a number of different
ways. Chemical reactions occur within the cells which facilitate the cells’ functions, i.e.
growth, hormone release and the “normal” functioning of each cell. For example, day and
night / light and dark trigger release of different hormones relating to our body clocks and if
left to nature, we would sleep when it is dark and be active when day light comes. Artificial
lighting in more modern times has confused this simple reaction somewhat.
FIGURE 46: The seven chakras and their meanings
Colour in 36
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As with any therapy, each therapist may have his or her own 'style', however, a number of
common methods used are:
• The placing of colour silks on the body
• The directing of coloured light on to the body. A light box is used to direct colour to the
body using coloured filters.
• Solarized Water
• Meditation with colour. Colour and breathing
On a wider level, the colours of our environment affect our behaviour and mood. When
yellow daffodils, bluebells and colourful crocuses appear, we immediately begin to feel
livelier; when grey skies and rain or snow surround us we instinctively draw in and tend to
hibernate. Light influences the human circadian rhythm and changes in light-dark exposure
can desynchronize the circadian cycle affecting the ability to sleep and wake, as well as
impacting on physiological and metabolic processes. Furthermore, disruptions to the
circadian rhythm may result in changes in mood and behavior as evidenced by studies that
focus on seasonal affective disorder. Light has also been found to have an effect on the
human neuroendocrine system and may also suppress melatonin and elevate cortisol
production, both of which may have negative impacts. Blue light may improve cognitive
performance; different coloured lenses may assist with reading difficulties such as dyslexia;
and the human circadian system may be particularly sensitive to short wavelength light.
THE WRIGHT THEORY
This theory puts forward the idea

that humanity too can be divided
into four psychological groups that
correspond to the four colour
groups. People in these groups
share certain psychological and
physical
characteristics. Possibly because of (a) (b
)
these shared psychological
characteristics, they also share
aesthetic responses to colour. This is
important when it comes to
answering the question of whether
there are universally attractive
colours. This theory suggests that
there are not, but that all colours
from a colour group will be
attractive to all members of its (c) (d
corresponding psychological group. )
FIGURE 47 – The four personality types based on the Wright theory

(a) Morning light, (b) Dream Light, (c) Fire Light, (d) Star Light
Colour in 37
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This means that once a person’s group is established, their colour preferences
can be predicted. Therefore the principal tenets of this theory are as follows:
• Each hue affects distinct psychological modes
• The psychological effects of colour are universal.
• Every shade, tone or tint can be classified into one of four colour groups.
• Every colour will harmonise with every other colour in the same group.
• All humanity can be classified into one of four personality types.
• Each personality type has a natural affinity with one colour group.
• Response to colour schemes is influenced by personality type.
There are four psychological primary colours - red, blue, yellow and green. They relate
respectively to the body, the mind, the emotions and the essential balance between these
three. The psychological properties of the eleven basic colours are as follows-
RED-Physical
Positive: Physical courage, strength, warmth, energy,

basic survival, 'fight or flight', stimulation, masculinity,
excitement.
Negative: Defiance, aggression, visual impact, FIGURE 48 – Red hot air

strain. balloons rising up
Being the longest wavelength, red is a powerful colour. Although not technically the most
visible, it has the property of appearing to be nearer than it is and therefore it grabs our
attention first. Hence its effectiveness in traffic lights the world over. Its effect is physical; it
stimulates us and raises the pulse rate, giving the impression that time is passing faster than
it is. It relates to the masculine principle and can activate the "fight or flight" instinct. Red is
strong, and very basic. Pure red is the simplest colour, with no subtlety. It is stimulating and
lively, very friendly. At the same time, it can be perceived as demanding and aggressive.
BLUE- Intellectual.
Positive: Intelligence, communication, trust, efficiency,

serenity, duty, logic, coolness, reflection, calm.
Negative: Coldness, aloofness, lack of

emotion, unfriendliness. FIGURE 49 – Clear blue
sky
Blue is the colour of the mind and is essentially soothing; it affects us mentally, rather than
the physical reaction we have to red. Strong blues will stimulate clear thought and lighter,
soft blues will calm the mind and aid concentration. Consequently it is serene and mentally
calming. It is the colour of clear communication. Blue objects do not appear to be as close to
us as red ones. Time and again in research, blue is the world's favourite colour. However, it
can be perceived as cold, unemotional and unfriendly.
Colour in 38
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YELLOW- Emotional
Positive: Optimism, confidence, self-

extraversion, strengt esteem,
emotional creativity. h, friendliness
,
Negative: Irrationality, fear emotional fragility FIGURE 50 – Yellow
depression, anxiety, , , sunflowers
suicide.
The yellow wavelength is relatively long and essentially stimulating. In this case the stimulus
is emotional, therefore yellow is the strongest colour, psychologically. The right yellow will
lift our spirits and our self-esteem; it is the colour of confidence and optimism. Too much of
it, or the wrong tone in relation to the other tones in a colour scheme, can cause self-
esteem to plummet, giving rise to fear and anxiety.
GREEN- Balance
Positive: Harmony, balance, refreshment, universal

love, rest, restoration, reassurance, environmental
awareness, equilibrium, peace.
F
I
G
U
R
E
5
1
–
N
a
t
u
r
e
Green strikes the eye in such a way as to require no adjustment whatever and is, therefore,
restful. Being in the centre of the spectrum, it is the colour of balance - a more important
concept than many people realise. When the world about us contains plenty of green, this
indicates the presence of water, and little danger of famine, so we are reassured by green,
on a primitive level. Negatively, it can indicate stagnation and, incorrectly used, will be
perceived as being too bland.
VIOLET- Spiritual
Positive: Spiritual awareness, containment, vision,

luxury, authenticity, truth, quality.
Negative: Introversion, decadence, suppression,

Colour in
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Architecture
FIGURE 52 – Ancient
ORANGE
Positive: Physical comfort, food, warmth, security,

sensuality, passion, abundance, fun.
Negative: Deprivation, frustration, frivolity,

immaturity. FIGURE 53 – Sunset
Since it is a combination of red and yellow, orange is stimulating and reaction to it is a

combination of the physical and the emotional. It focuses our minds on issues of physical
comfort - food, warmth, shelter etc. - and sensuality. It is a 'fun' colour. Negatively, it might
focus on the exact opposite - deprivation. This is particularly likely when warm orange is
used with black. Equally, too much orange suggests frivolity and a lack of serious
intellectual values.
PINK
Positive: Physical tranquillity, nurture,
warmth, femininity, love, sexuality, survival of the
species.
Negative: Inhibition, emotional FIGURE 54 – Pink Roses

claustrophobia, emasculation, physical weakness.
Being a tint of red, pink also affects us physically, but it soothes, rather than stimulates.
(Interestingly, red is the only colour that has an entirely separate name for its tints. Tints of
blue, green, yellow, etc. are simply called light blue, light greenetc.) Pink is a powerful colour,
psychologically. It represents the feminine principle, and survival of the species; it is
nurturing and physically soothing. Too much pink is physically draining and can be somewhat
emasculating
GREY
Positive: Psychological neutrality.
Negative: Lack of confidence, dampness, depression,

hibernation, lack of energy. FIGURE 55 – Grey Sky
Pure grey is the only colour that has no direct psychological properties. It is, however, quite
suppressive. A virtual absence of colour is depressing and when the world turns grey we are
instinctively conditioned to draw in and prepare for hibernation. Unless the precise tone is
right, grey has a dampening effect on other colours used with it. Heavy use of grey usually
indicates a lack of confidence and fear of exposure.
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BLACK
Positive: Sophistication, glamour, security, emotional

safety, efficiency, substance.
Negative: Oppression, coldness, menace, heaviness.

FIGURE 56 – A pair of
black boots
Black is all colours, totally absorbed. The psychological implications of that are
considerable. It
creates protective barriers, as it absorbs all the energy coming towards you, and it enshrouds
the personality. Black is essentially an absence of light, since no wavelengths are reflected
and it can, therefore be menacing; many people are afraid of the dark. Positively, it
communicates absolute clarity, with no fine nuances. It communicates sophistication and
uncompromising excellence and it works particularly well with white. Black creates a
perception of weight and seriousness.
It is a myth that black clothes are slimming: The truth behind the myth is that black is the
most recessive colour a matter of not drawing attention to yourself, rather than actually
making you look slimmer.
WHITE
Positive: Hygiene, sterility, clarity, purity, cleanness,

simplicity, sophistication, efficiency.
Negative: Sterility, coldness, barriers, unfriendliness,
FIGURE 57 – Snow
elitism. covered land
Just as black is total absorption, so white is total reflection. In effect, it reflects the full force
of the spectrum into our eyes. Thus it also creates barriers, but differently from black, and it
is often a strain to look at. It communicates, "Touch me not!" White is purity and, like black,
uncompromising; it is clean, hygienic, and sterile. The concept of sterility can also be
negative. Visually, white gives a heightened perception of space. The negative effect of
white on warm colours is to make them look and feel garish
BROWN
Positive: Seriousness, warmth, Nature, earthiness,

reliability, support.
Negative: Lack of humour, heaviness, lack

FIGURE 58 – Dirt Road,
of sophistication. Mud House, barn
Brown usually consists of red and yellow, with a large percentage of black. Consequently, it
has much of the same seriousness as black, but is warmer and softer. It has elements of the
red and yellow properties. Brown has associations with the earth and the natural world. It is
a solid, reliable colour and most people find it quietly supportive - more positively than
the ever- popular black, which is suppressive, rather than supportive.
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PERSONALITY TYPE 1: MORNING LIGHT (Echoing the natural patterns of Spring.)
Hue: Warm (contains yellow) Value: High (little, if any black) Chroma: Mid to Relatively Low
Group 1 colours are clean, clear and fresh. Clear, delicate warm colours containing no black.
Negatively, they may be perceived as insubstantial, frivolous and cheap.
Spring has a very specific colour scheme and an unmistakable personality. Everything is
coming back to life after the long dark winter months and it is very lively. Birds make a lot
of noise and the whole animal kingdom is busy; bright warm colours burst forth and spirits
lift. The melting snow and ice fill the earth with water and create a sparkling awareness of
the fresh and the new.
The personality that reflects all this is externally motivated and eternally youthful. They are
light on their feet, love to dance and have an indefinable quality of lightness about them.
They are often very clever, but don't like to get bogged down with heavy academic debate.
The challenge for this type is single-mindedness; they have the gift of attending to many
things simultaneously, but might be accused of being superficial and frivolous. Their
emotions can be fragile. In corporate communication, these colours will be most appropriate
for brands focusing on youth, fun, media and optimism etc. e.g. toy companies; PR and
marketing, children wear, leisure.
FIGURE 59 – Morning light colour family FIGURE 60 – Morning light colour applications
PERSONALITY TYPE 2: DREAM LIGHT (Echoing the natural patterns of Summer.)

Hue: Cool (contains blue) Value: Mid range (most contain grey) Chroma: Relatively low
Group 2 colours are cool, subtle and delicate. These tones are cool, contain more grey and,
whilst also delicate, are not necessarily light. Negatively they may be interpreted as draining,
unfriendly, aloof, elitist, and 'wishy-washy'.
Colour in 42
Architecture
In the natural world, as the year progresses and the earth begins to dry out, a softening
process sets in. The vivid green leaves tone down to a cooler, darker green that perfectly
enhances the soft colours of roses, sweet peas and wisteria. When the sun beats down, the
colours are bleached out; the concept of coolness becomes very attractive. Imagine a quiet
afternoon sitting under a tree, contemplating the peaceful countryside and the heat haze in
the distance, or drifting through a rose garden at twilight on a summer evening.
This person is essentially cool, calm and collected. They are internally motivated, but equally
very sensitive to what others are feeling. Their humour is subtle and often dry; they can be
very witty. They have a natural gift for identifying the essence of any situation, and gently
cutting through all the hot air and emotion with a one-line observation. The challenge for
the Dreamlight personality is in appearing aloof and unfriendly - and the need to resist the
efforts of their livelier friends to jazz them up! In corporate design, these colours are most
appropriate where calm order, timeless elegance and delicacy are required.
FIGURE 61 – Dream light colour family FIGURE 62 – Dream light colour applications
PERSONALITY TYPE 3: FIRE LIGHT (Echoing the natural patterns of Autumn.) Hue: Warm
(contains yellow) Value: Mid to low Chroma: Low to high
Group 3 colours are rich, fiery and offbeat. These tones are again warm, but much more
intense and fiery. They contain black in their mixing (e.g. olive green is yellow mixed with
black) but black itself does not belong in this group. Misused, Group 3 tones can convey
heavy, old-fashioned, boring predictability and bossiness.
During autumn, the temperature might be the same, but nature's mood is quite different.
The bright, perky flowers, in warm blue, lilac, orange, and yellow, have been replaced by
rich golds, fiery reds, purples, burnt orange and brown - and not in flowers, but in the
leaves. Nature is abundant, as all the fruits of the year's cycle are harvested; it is mature
and ripe, with great drama in the landscape. Each day at sunset, the mood has changed: we
have done our work since morning and now there is a sense of completion of the natural
cycle. The colours of the sunset are fiery, rich and golden.
Colour in 43
Architecture
The Type 3 personality is, like Type 1, externally motivated. However, there are great
differences - Firelight people are intense and strong. They are all fiery, to a greater or lesser
degree (depending on their subordinate influences); if they have a strong Dreamlight
secondary influence, this might not be apparent, but it is there; they can also be flamboyant.
The challenge for Type 3 personalities is to keep their wish to save the world in proportion.
They might be perceived as bossy and tedious. In the commercial world, they are particularly
appropriate for well-established companies with a proud heritage: for example, world
famous department stores. These colours are appropriate for any brand where strength and
integrity are important
FIGURE 63 – Fire light colour family FIGURE 64 – Fire light colour applications
PERSONALITY TYPE 4: STAR LIGHT (Echoing the natural patterns of Winter.)

Hue: Cold (Contains blue) Value: Extremes (very light or very dark). No mid tones. Chroma:
High
Group 4 colours are cold, and either very light, very dark or very intense. These colours are
very clear and strong, with no subtleties. The potential negative perceptions of Group 4 are
cold, uncaring, unfriendly, materialist, and expensive.
The winter landscape is hushed and when snow falls heavily, it is virtually achromatic -
everything disappears under a blanket of pure white. But under the surface there is powerful
energy as the regeneration process develops. Without leaves on the trees, outlines are stark
and minimal, with strong contrasts. Imagine a snowy field, where you see an expanse of
white and the apparently black shape of a leafless tree, its bare branches etched against an
icy blue, or cold grey, sky.
Type 4 personalities automatically command respect. They are internally motivated and have
a gift for seeing the broader picture and for delegation. They set their sights on the
objective and they are not easily diverted. They are often very efficient, and precise in
everything they do. They do not suffer fools. Their response to foolishness will often be
sarcastic and, unlike Type 3 - who will stop and explain, fifty ways if necessary - they will
simply move on. The
Colour in 44
Architecture
challenge for Type 4 personalities is to pay attention to other people's feelings. They can be
perceived as elitist, cold and uncaring. In commercial use of colour, these colours are widely
used for aspirational brands. They communicate uncompromising standards, leadership and
status. They are appropriate for state-of-the-art products, cutting-edge design and anything
that could be described as glamorous, sophisticated or ultra chic.
FIGURE 65 – Star light colour family FIGURE 66 – Star light colour applications
Colour in 45
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SYMBOLISM OF COLOURS IN HINDUISM
Red
It indicates both sensuality and purity. In Hindu religion, red is of utmost significance and the
colour most frequently used for auspicious occasions like marriages, birth of a child,
festivals, etc. A red mark is put on the forehead during ceremonies and important
occasions.
As a sign of marriage, women put red powder on the hair parting. They also wear a red sari
during marriage. Red powder is usually thrown on statues of deities and phallic symbols
during prayers. It is also the colour of Shakti (prowess). A red coloured dress is put on
deities who are charitable, brave, protective, and who have the capacity to destroy evil. On
the death of a woman, her body is wrapped in a red cloth for the cremation.
Saffron
It is the most sacred colour for the Hindu. Represents fire and as impurities are burnt by fire,
this colour symbolizes purity. It also represents religious abstinence. This colour connotation
has a sacred meaning for the Hindu. It is the colour of holy men and ascetics who have
renounced the world. Wearing the colour symbolizes the quest for light. It is the battle
colour of the Rajputs, the warrior caste.
Blue
The Creator has given the maximum of blue to nature (i.e.) the sky, the oceans, the rivers
and the lakes. The deity who has the qualities of bravery, manliness, determination, the
ability to deal with difficult situations, of stable mind and depth of character is represented
as blue coloured. Lord Rama and Krishna spent their life protecting humanity and destroying
evil, hence they are coloured blue.
Green
It is a festive colour. In Maharashtra, it represents life and happiness. For that reason, a
widow does not wear green. Symbolizing peace and happiness, green stabilizes the mind.
The colour is cool to the eyes and represents nature.
Yellow
It is the colour of knowledge and learning. It symbolizes happiness, peace, meditation,
competence and mental development. It is the colour of spring and activates the mind. Lord
Vishnu’s dress is yellow symbolizing his representation of knowledge.
Lord Krishna and Ganesha also wear yellow dresses. Yellow clothes are worn and yellow food
is eaten at spring festivals. Single girls wear yellow to attract a mate and keep evil spirits
away.
White
It is a mixture of seven different colours hence it symbolizes a little bit of the quality of each.
It represents purity, cleanliness, peace and knowledge. The goddess of knowledge, Saraswati
is always shown as wearing a white dress, sitting on a white lotus. The Brahmin - the
highest social caste - is associated with white.
Hindu religious leaders cover themselves with white ashes to represent their spiritual rebirth.
White is also the colour of mourning. The other prominent deities would also have a touch
of white on their dress. A Hindu widow would wear a white dress in mourning.
Colour in 46
Architecture
CHAPTER 6
COLOR IN ARCHITECTURE
In written sources, one of the first references to color in architecture is found in the
treatise by Vitruvius, the Roman architect who lived in the 1st century. Vitruvius did not
establish a distinction between color and coloring substance: “As for colors, some are natural
products found in fixed places and dug up there, while others are artificial compounds of
different substances treated and mixed in proper proportions so as to be equally
serviceable.” In his Ten Books of Architecture, published in 1452, Leon Battista Alberti (1404 –
1472) follows Vitruvius’ conception of color, merely as coloring substances or paints “with
which the wall may be adorned”(Book 6, Chapter 9): “Of painted surfaces some are done
while the work is fresh, and others when it is dry. All natural colors which proceed from the
earth, from mines or the like, are proper for paintings in fresco; but all artificial colors, and
especially those which are altered by means of fire, require a very dry surface.” In Chapter
10 of Book 7, Alberti makes an observation that relates color to aesthetic values or
preferences. When dealing with the decoration of temples, he says: “I am very ready to
believe, that purity and simplicity of color, as of life, must be most pleasing to the Divine
Being.” The treatment of color in Alberti’s book On Painting (1435) is far more abstract and
philosophical, relating color to light and making a classification of colors. He even refers to
the emotional value of colors. Giovanni Lomazzo (1538 –1600), published a treatise
concerned not only with painting but also with architecture and sculpture. The Treatise on
the Art of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture was written in Italian and is divided into
seven books, one of which is devoted to color and contains a section on the symbolism of
the principal colors. Andre Felibien in his book on the Principles of Architecture, Sculpture,
Painting and Other Arts, published in 1676, appears one of the first descriptions of color
mixtures starting from three colors—red, yellow, and blue—termed basic colors in the
middle of the 19th century, when Jacques-Ignace Hittorff(1792–1867) succeeded in
conveying the attention toward a relevant discovery, the Greek architecture was not white
— as it was believed for centuries based on the color of the ruins—but polychromatic. The
Greeks used to paint their temples as well as their family dwellings with vivid colors.
FIGURE 67- Jacques-Ignace Hittorff (1792–1867), the front page of the first edition of Restitution de Temple
d’Empedocle a Selinonte (Paris, 1851) and the chromatic reconstruction of the Greek temple.
Owen Jones was the “colorist” of the Crystal Palace, built by Joseph Paxton in 1851,7 and
wrote An Attempt to Define the Principles Which Should Regulate the Employment of Color in
the Decorative Arts (1852)
FIG. 6. Owen Jones (1809–1874), one of the plates from The Grammar of Ornament and a view of the Crystal Palace
In 1875, Euge`ne-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814–1879) published a history of the human

dwelling, in which he consistently includes sections to describe the use of color in houses,
palaces, villas, and all kinds of family dwelling architecture in ancient China, Egypt, Assyria,
Greece, during the Roman Empire, in the Middle Ages in Europe, and also in the ancient
Muslim world. In the Appendix of the book, he includes four colored plates depicting the
interior of an Egyptian house, a house in Athens in the 5th century B.C., a Roman palace,
and a room in a feudal castle (Fig. 8).
FIGURE 68- Euge` ne-EmmanuelViollet-le-Duc (1814–1879) and his chromatic reconstructionsof the interiors of an
Egyptian house, a Roman palace, a Greek house, and a feudal castle.
The most outstanding figure we can find in this context is Le Corbusier (1887–1965). His first
writings on color appear in the articles about purism and cubism written in collaboration
with the painter Ame´de´e Ozenfant. An article of 1918 reads: “The idea of form precedes
that of color. The form is preeminent, color is but one of its accessories. Color depends
entirely of the material shape: the concept of sphere, for instance, precedes the concept of
color; it is conceived as a colorless sphere, a colorless plane, color is not conceived
independently of some support. Color is coordinated with form, but the reciprocal is not
true. We believe, thus, that a theme should be selected for its forms and not for its colors.”
In his monograph written for the exhibition of the Pavillon des Temps Nouveaux in 1937, Le
Corbusier includes a chapter entitled “Polychromy = Joy,” in which he associates the creative
ages of architecture with the vitality of chromatic color and relates the stagnant
academicism to sad gray. Le Corbusier evolved toward a more conscious and thorough
consideration of the power color has to modify the spatial environment. This is especially
evident in the buildings projected and built after World War II, in what is called his
“brutalist” period. The Dutch neoplasticist movement, organized by 1917 around the
publication De Stijl and stemming from the abstract paintings of Piet Mondrian, helped to
create a better consciousness about color theory and practice, introducing color as
determinant of space, in opposition to its traditional decorative function. Gerrit Rietveld
managed to make a true spatial organization of color and planes, while the others continued
to produce two-dimensional transpositions of the neoplasticist elements of painting to
architecture.
FIGURE 70- Walter Gropius (1883–1969) and the

Bauhaus: the building in Dessau, a poster, and the
divisions of the curricula, where color studies occupy
1/7 part of the total.
FIGURE 69- Le Corbusier: page on polychromy and

colored reproduction of the Pavilion of the New
Times.
Even when he is not deemed as eminent as Le Corbusier, Gropius, Mies van der Rohe, or
Wright, because his influence on the next generations was not as strong as theirs, Taut was
the one who advocated for the use of color the most. The audacity of Taut’s color schemes
led Le Corbusier to say in 1927: “My God, Taut is color-blind!” Commenting about the
impact caused by his Falkenberg housing estate of 1915 in Berlin-Gru¨nau, Taut himself
declared that his color scheme “provoked the Berliners who, coming from the gray
tenement quarters, repeatedly declared that the architect deserved to be locked up”
FIGURE 71- Bruno Taut (1880–1938) and some of his colorful

houses.
A milder view would show that even those who were very austere or purist in this sense
(like Gropius or Mies, for instance) did not ignore the importance of color. The color white
in the most purist modern architecture was intended to make the building contrast with the
environment, or to make the details or furniture in the interiors stand out, or to let the
chromatic weight of the landscape penetrate with more strength into the interiors through
the large surfaces of glass or the horizontal windows. In the Barcelona Pavilion he used a
large variety of different colored marble each with their own boldness. He used tinted glass
and red velvet curtains. These all combined in a kaleidoscope of color that offsets the
abstract planarity of the rest of the building. Colors contribute to the dynamic shifts of the
plan, it gives the experience vitality.
The postmodern reaction of the 1970s and 1980s brought about a host of architects
concerned with the references to history and to the environment, and color in architecture
also acquired a new meaning under these orientations. As for the 1990s, in the book on
Color in Architecture by Harold Linton we can find a good account of the works by architects
and colorists of the more recent generations, who mainly act as color consultants: Jean-
Philippe Lenclos (France), Toma´s Taveira (Portugal), Shashi Caan and Donald Kaufman (the
United States), Begon˜a Munoz (Spain), Eva Fay (Australia), Lourdes Legorreta (Mexico),
Malvina Arrarte (Peru), Shingo Yoshida (Japan), Giovanni Brino (Italy), Michael Lancaster
(UK), and Leo Oberascher (Austria), among them. These works encompass not only color
projects for new buildings but also color restoration of historical urban centers, landscape
color plans, and models developed for color research and education in architecture. The
specificity of the knowledge about color in environmental design has given rise over the past
decades to a new profession: the color consultant, who can work in collaboration with other
architects or designers or be hired for special projects by companies and private or
governmental agencies.
The catalan modeler Antoni Gaudí in his biomorphic manifestations utilized unpredictable
shapes in the buildings he composed and utilized a limitless cluster of splendid hues, both in
exteriors and inside of structures. He considered the colors a fundamental piece of
architectural design.
FIGURE72: Park Guell. Gaudi. FIGURE 73: Colorful houses, as a part of a colorful
Barcelona urban fabric.
CHAPTER 6
AFFECT OF COLOUR ON BUILT SPACES
Baring in mind that an architectural work of art cannot exist without the existence of space,
we should look at how architects define space; "space is an emptiness that separates people
from their environment and allows them to do certain actions" (Hasol,1990).colour plays an
important part in bringing out the image of interior spaces by integrating the colours used in
the overall interior design, in accessories, and in furniture to create the character as a whole.
The interest has focused on how brand space may add to the aesthetic properties of a
building and its interior spaces and how they may affect both the performance of users, the
commercial brand trust, and consumer attraction. When combined the brand space identity
and colour properties present an effective way of creating an attractive image of the desired
commercial space. In the past some scholars have explored to study the different meanings
and symbolisms associated with colours in different cultures around the world. The study
showed that the colours green, white, and blue are well liked across countries and have
relatively similar meanings. Additionally, red and black also received high ratings although
their cross-cultural meanings were sometimes. radically different. East Asian cultures proved
to have more distinction in the meanings associated with colour while whereas groups in
the US and Latin Americas make only average amounts of colour distinctions. The results
also showed that around the world, there are different meanings associated with colours.
However, many intrinsic properties of colours such as liking and meaning appear to be pan
cultural.
Colour is an expressive component in architectural design and can be utilized to highlight the
building character and make unity and harmony, or it can be intentionally differentiating to
charge or highlight. We experience colour as variations of reflected light. When painting
walls with an opaque colour, the result can appear visually dense or chalky. Colours will shift
and become transformed as the light in the room changes throughout the day and night and
these colours appear different even as the season changes. Colours of buildings influence
our perception of the structures. This is especially important in commercial buildings or
residential communities. Colours in interiors affect how we feel, living and working in those
spaces. Colour can be vibrant and arresting, or calm and soothing, we all are born with our
personal response to colour. They additionally fill an aesthetic need, influencing the
announcement, impact, and acknowledgment of articles and spaces. Dull colours might hint
at anxiety, peevishness, over the top passionate reaction, challenges in focus and
discernment issues. While overstimulation can result in changes in the rate of breathing,
increment of heartbeat rate and blood pressure, increment in muscle pressure, psychiatric
responses of changeable types and presumably intensified medical outcomes. The essential
indications of an overstimulated environment are solid color intensity (saturated highly),
color harmonies that are excessively unpredictable or indistinguishable, contrasts that
present themselves excessively solid, an excess of complex visual color examples. Colour is
powerful and personal; each one has its own unique colour palette. It might influence the
route in which individuals react to their surroundings and can upgrade a state of mind of
quiet or euphoria. Color impression and the message it passes on is of most extreme
significance in making the mental mood or vibe that backings the capacity of a space. A
classroom has a different air to it than a hospital room; an office space is not a generation
line, and so on. While individuals' responses
to colour shift broadly, in design questions it is still conceivable to set up for the most part
legitimate colour ideas to coordinate the desires of the different gatherings of clients.
Designers use Colour in the decision of materials used to develop a building. These Colour
decisions can be entirely modest, for example, utilizing a warm, yellow conditioned cement
rather than a frosty dark base, or utilizing a brownish block rather than the conventional red.
Then again, the designer must consider the colour impact of each component of a building's
development, from the earthy colours of essential development materials like marble, wood,
stone and block, to the broad assortment of colours accessible for paint, entryways,
windows, siding, and trim.
Researches have demonstrated that suitable contrasts in luminous density can lessen eye
weakness and raise visual sharpness, causing additional efficiency. Luminous density is the
thing that the eyes get when light is reflected from a surface (walls, floors, furniture). In case
of that the contrasts between the luminous densities in the perspective are excessively
extraordinary, the iris muscle is strained because of consistent alternation, in this way
creating eye weakness. When working conceptually with colour, individual tones play a
secondary role because the quality and appropriateness of a tone can only be recognized
and experienced once it is integrated into a thematic composition. As such, a yellow wall on
its own is simply a yellow wall until it is embedded as part of an overall space-forming
entity in a way that is comprehensible and makes sense. On the one hand, the impact of
this yellow surface may be experienced as revolting or alienating depending on a person‘s
individual preferences; on the other hand, it may touch someone within the overall context
in such a way that personal preferences become secondary or are even
forgotten.Architecture directly meets society's needs as far as possible and reacts to current
requirements, difficulties or deficits. The same goes for colour in architecture. Colour is an
element of architecture, thus colour design have to be an integral part of architectural
design process.
COLOUR AND TEXTURE

Colour and texture are inseparable twins. They are both part of the subjective emotion of
the artist, and create an expressive meaning that have an effect on the human feeling of
the spectator. Texture represents the external image of the surfaces of the compositions and
the different object we look at. Adding texture to the surface as a textural cover will
distinguish it from other surfaces of the composition. Because every natural and artificial
matter has its own texture, the property of colour will be closely connected to texture. That
means that using soft surfaces unlike using rough surfaces which can bear one colour
degree. There is a physical reason for that, as every matter, natural or artificial, has a
colour.
COLOUR AND LIGHT

Changes in an objects colour can also result from the effects of light. This factor is very
important as it can change any environment having colours. Light effects in colours can
change the space drastically. Day light can be warm or cool, depending on the time of day
and direction from which it comes. Warm light tends to emphasize warm colours and alters
cool hues, while cool light intensifies cool colours and weakens warm hues. If light is tinted
with a particular hue, it will raise the intensity of the colours of that particular hue and
neutralize colours of a complementary hue. The value of colour can also be altered by the
amount of light used to illuminate it. Lowering the amount of illumination will darken a
colours value and neutralize its hue. High levels of illumination, however can also intend to
make colours appear
less saturated or washed.
CHAPTER 7
SIGNIFICANCE OF COLOUR IN DESIGN
RED
Effect: exciting, stimulating
Ceiling: intruding, disturbing, heavy
Walls: aggressive, advancing
Floor: conscious, alert
Character: Red is the most dominant and dynamic color. The eye actually has to adjust focus,
since the natural focal point of red lies behind the retina. Consequently red appears closer
than it is. It’s a great colour to use when power or passion want to be portrayed in the
design. Red can be very versatile, though, with brighter dominant and dynamic versions
being more energetic and darker shades being more powerful and elegant.
ORANGE
Effect: exciting, stimulating, cheering
Ceiling: stimulating, attention-
seeking Walls: warm, luminous
Floor: activating, motion-oriented
Character: Orange is less masculine than red. It has very few negative associations. However,
it may appear cheap or without vigor if low in saturation. orange commands attention
without being as overpowering as red. It’s often considered more friendly and inviting, and
less in- your-face. It could be lightened to beige for a quiet and intimate interior space.
Orange may be used within the dining area to boost appetite while encouraging
communication.
YELLOW
Effect: The right yellow lifts our spirits and our self-esteem; it is the colour of confidence and
optimism.
Ceiling: light (towards lemon), luminous, stimulating
Walls: warm (towards orange), exciting to irritating (highly saturated)
Floor: elevating, diverting
Character: Bright yellow hues can form interesting focal points in an interior scheme against
background of natural colours. The right yellow lifts our spirits and our self-esteem; it is the
colour of confidence and optimism. It radiates warmth, cheerfulness, and inspiration and
signifies enlightenment, and communication. bright yellow can lend a sense of happiness
and cheerfulness. Softer yellows are commonly used as a gender-neutral colour for babies
(rather than blue or pink) and young children. Light yellows also give a more calm feeling
of happiness than bright yellows. Dark yellows and gold-hued yellows can sometimes look
antique and be used in designs where a sense of permanence is desired. Pastel yellow
gives the impression of sunny, friendly, soft. The message in the interior space is
stimulating, brightness, coziness.
GREEN
Effect: retiring, relaxing
Ceiling: protective, reflection on the skin can be unattractive
Walls: cool, secure, calm, reliable, passive, irritating if glaring (electric green)
Floor: natural (if not too saturated), soft, relaxing, cold (if towards blue)
Character: Contrary to red, when looking at green the eye focuses exactly on the retina,
which makes green the most restful color to the eye. That is one of the reasons hospital
walls are often painted sea foam, to literally sedate worried patients and visitors. The lighter
tint or green used in a room can produce impressions of spaciousness. Darker are
associated with balance and growth, suggesting high productive status and success. Green
can symbolize nature but also mold and sickness. It may be beneficial to use Greens in
general living areas.
BLUE
Effect: retiring, relaxing
Ceiling: celestial, cool, receding (if light), heavy and oppressive (if dark)
Walls: cool and distant (if light), encouraging and space deepening (if
dark) Floor: inspiring feeling of effortless movement (if light),
substantial (if dark)
Character: Blue appears to be transparent, wet, cool, and relaxing. Opposite to red, blue will
decrease a person’s blood pressure and pulse rate. it is often used to show opulence or
expense. To give your designs a luxury feel, incorporate purple throughout. Light to medium
range blues are specially pleasing and restful. Staring at blue actually reduces pulse and
respiration and respiration rate and temporarily lowers blood pressure. Some hues of blue
can be sharp and demanding therefore needs to be used carefully. Blue can make space
appear larger. Navy blue commands respect, representing loyalty, trustworthiness and
dignity.
PURPLE
Effect: subduing
Ceiling: disconcerting, subduing
Walls: heavy, overpowering
Floor: fleeting, magical
Character: Purple is a mixture of red and blue (the two colors that are psychologically most
opposed). Purple can appear delicate and rich, or unsettling and degenerate. it is often
used to show opulence or expense. To give your designs a luxury feel, incorporate purple
throughout.
PINK
Effect: lively (bubble-gum pink), calming (light pink)
Ceiling: delicate, comforting
Walls: aggression-inhibiting, intimate, too sweet if not grayed down
Floor: too delicate, not used very often
Character: Pink must be handled carefully. It is generally considered feminine, but depends
much on the nuance used (bubble-gum pink, or old rose)
BROWN
Effect: subduing
Ceiling: oppressive and heavy (if dark)
Walls: secure and assuring if wood, much less so if paint
Floor: steady, stable
Character: There is a great difference between wood and brown paint. In certain institutions
brown should be avoided since it evokes fecal associations. Wood and stone on the other
hand appear very comfortable, and warm.
WHITE
Effect: It is neutral, it is considered as a cool colour because of its association with snow
and ice.
Ceiling: empty, no design objections-helps diffuse light sources and reduce shadows
Walls: neutral to empty, sterile, without energy
Floor: touch-inhibiting (not to be walked upon)
Character: It offers a sense of reconciliation and creates soothing environment. It contains
an equal balance of all the colours of the spectrum, representing both the negative and
positive aspects of all the colours. There are a lot of psychological and physiological
justifications for not using white as a dominant color.
GRAY
Effect: neutral to calming
Ceiling: shadowy
Walls: neutral to
boring Floor: neutral
Character: Gray fails to

have much
psychotherapeutic
application. Thus, the
current fashion of
using it with various
accent walls defies all
logic.
BLACK
Effect: ominous, deep
Ceiling: hollow to
oppressive Walls: ominous,
dungeonlike Floor: odd,
abstract
Character: Black is associated with oppressive power, darkness, and the unknown. In
architecture it is often used to make something appear as receding, such as the HVAC
in a ceiling. Too much black can cause abasements and mood swings and create a
adverse environment.
REFERENCES
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COLOUR IN

It is certified that the work contained in this B.Arch dissertation

I hereby recommend that the project under my supervision by

Ar. VIKRAM SINGH Ar. SUNIL KUMAR SRIVASTAVA

Ar. SUNIL KUMAR SRIVASTAVA

(EXTERNAL EXAMINER) (EXTERNAL EXAMINER)

CHAPTER 1 WHY COLOUR?

• To understand how we perceive colour.

FIGURE 1 – Primary colours: Red, Yellow, blue

FIGURE 2 – Secondary colours: Violet, Green, Orange

FIGURE 3 – Tertiary colours: Red-Purple, Blue-Green, Red-Orange

CREATING COLOUR SCHEMES

FIGURE 4 – Monochromatic range for the colour Blue

FIGURE 5 – Colour wheel showing analogous colour scheme

FIGURE 6 – Colour wheel showing complementary colour scheme

FIGURE 7 – Colour wheel showing split complementary colour scheme

FIGURE 8 – Colour wheel showing triadic colour scheme

FIGURE 9 – Colour wheel showing tetradic colour scheme

FIGURE 10 – Examples of Hue, Value and Saturation

FIGURE 11 – Spectrum of colour showing shade and tints of a specific hue

2) Value Contrast (brilliance, brightness & darkness, intensity of tone)

FIGURE 12 – Example showing expressions of light and dark

3) Cold & Warm Contrast

FIGURE 13 – Warm colours and Cool Colours

Colour originates in light. Sunlight, as we perceive it, is colourless. In reality, a rainbow is

FIGURE 14 – How our eye sees colour

1. All the "invisible" colours of sunlight shine on the apple.

Inside the Eye

(a) (b) (c)

Additive colour System: Red - Green - Blue (RGB)

(a (b FIGURE 22 – Pixels as seen on a

FIGURE 27- Wavelengths of lights

FIGURE 28- Colour temperature

PHILIPP OTTO RUNGE (1807)

In 1810 he published Farben-Kugel(Colour-

Qualities of Light Newton (1704) Goethe (1810)

TABLE 1: Differences between the findings of Newton and Goethe

ATLAS Chart 60 ATLAS Chart H

FIGURE 32- Munsell’s colour system

ATLAS Chart B ATLAS Chart G

Johannes Itten, a Swiss-born abstract painter

FIGURE 39- (a) The Contrast of Saturation, (b)

In 1963, Pantone revolutionized the printing industry with the

FIGURE 41- Timeline of Pantone Matching System

SKIN COLOURATION INDUCED STIMULI

In humans in aggressive encounters, a testosterone surge produces visible reddening on the

TABLE 2: Findings from Research on colour and psychological functioning.

FIGURE 42- Psychology of colour

FIGURE 45: Functions of various lobes of

COMPARISONS BETWEEN MEANINGS OF COLOURS IN DIFFERENT CULTURES

Colour Western Japan Brazil England

Red romance, self-sacrifice, vibrancy, visibility authority,

Colour China India North-America Caribbean

Table 5: Modern American colour Associations

FIGURE 46: The seven chakras and their meanings

THE WRIGHT THEORY

This theory puts forward the idea

FIGURE 47 – The four personality types based on the Wright theory

Positive: Physical courage, strength, warmth, energy,