8-1

8.1 Returns
 Performance analysis of an investment requires
investors to measure returns over time.
 Return and risk being intricately related, return
measurement helps in the understanding of
investment risk.

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8.1 Dollar Profits and Percentage Returns

Dollar Profit or Loss = Ending value

+ Distributions
– Original Cost

Rate of return = Dollar Profit or Loss

Original Cost

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8.1 Dollar Profits and Percentage Returns
HPR = Profit
Cost

HPR =Ending price + Distributions - Beginning price

Beginning price

HPR= Ending price + Distributions - 1

Beginning price

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8.1 Dollar Profits and Percentage Returns
Example: Calculating dollar and percentage
returns.
•Joe bought some gold coins for $1,000 and sold
them 4 months later for $1,200.
•Jane on the other hand bought 100 shares of a stock
for $10 and sold those 2 years later for $12 per share
after receiving $0.50 per share as dividends for the
year.
• Calculate the dollar profit and percent return
earned by each investor over their respective
holding periods.

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8.1 Dollar Profits and Percentage Returns
Joe’s Dollar Profit = Ending value – Original cost
= $1,200 - $1,000 = $200
Joe’s HPR = Dollar profit / Original cost
= $200/$1,000 = 20%

Jane’s Dollar Profit = (Ending value +Distributions)

- Original Cost
= $12 x 100 + $0.50 x 100 - $10 x 100
= ($1,200 + $50) - $1,000
= $250.00
Jane’s HPR = $250.00/$1,000 = 25%

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8.1 Converting Holding Period Returns to
Annual Returns
• With varying holding periods, holding period returns are
not good for comparison, we need a similar time period.

• Necessary to state an investment’s performance in terms of

an annual percentage rate (APR) or an effective annual rate
of return (EAR) by using the following conversion
formulas:
• Simple annual return or APR = HPR
n
• EAR = (1 + HPR)1/n – 1
• Where n is the number of years or proportion of a year of
the holding period.

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8.1 Converting Holding Period Returns to
Annual Returns
Example: Comparing HPRs.
Given Joe’s HPR of 20% over 4 months and Jane’s HPR
of 25% over 2 years, is it correct to conclude that Jane’s
investment performance was better than that of Joe?
Joe’s holding period (n) = 4/12 = 0.333 years
Joe’s APR = HPR/n = 20%/0.333 = 60%
Joe’s EAR = (1 + HPR)1/n – 1 =(1.20)1/0.33 – 1= 72.89%
Jane’s holding period = 2 years
Jane’s APR = HPR/n = 25%/2 = 12.5%
Jane’s EAR = (1 + HPR)1/n – 1 = (1 .25)1/2 – 1= 11.8%

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8.1 Extrapolating Holding Period Returns
 Extrapolating short-term HPRs into APRs and EARs is
mathematically correct, but often unrealistic and
infeasible.
 Implies earning the same periodic rate over and over
again in 1 year.
 A short holding period with fairly high HPR would
lead to huge numbers if return is extrapolated.
 What did it mean in Joe’s case of 20% every four
months?

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8.1 Extrapolating Holding Period Returns
Example 3: Unrealistic nature of APR and EAR
Let’s say you buy a share of stock for $2 and sell it a week
later for $2.50. Calculate your HPR, APR, and EAR. How
realistic are the numbers?
N = 1/52 or 0.01923 of 1 year.
Profit = $2.50 - $2.00 = $0.50
HPR = $0.5/$2.00 = 25%
APR = 25%/0.01923= 1300% or
= 25% x 52 weeks = 1300%
EAR = (1 + HPR)52 – 1
=(1.25)52 – 1= 109,526.27%
Highly Improbable!
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8.2 Risk (Certainty and Uncertainty)
• Future performance of most investments is uncertain.

• Risky = Potential for loss exists

• Risk can be defined as a measure of the uncertainty in a set

of potential outcomes for an event in which there is a
chance of some loss.

• It is important to measure and analyze the risk potential of

an investment, so as to make an informed decision.

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8.3 Historical Returns

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8.3 Historical Returns
• Two extremes small stocks and Treasury Bills
• Small company stocks earned the highest average
return (17.10%) over the 5 decades, but also had the
greatest variability 29.04%, widest range (103.39% - (-
40.54%)) = 143.93%), and were most spread out.
• 3-month treasury bills earned the lowest average
return, 5.23%, but their returns had lowest variability
(2.98%), a very small range (14.95% to 0.86% =
14.09%) and were much closely clustered around the
mean.
• Returns and risk are positively correlated.
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8.4 Variance and Standard Deviation as a
Measure of Risk
 Variance and standard deviation are measures of
dispersion
 Helps researchers determine how spread out or clustered
together a set of numbers or outcomes is around their
mean or average value.
 The larger the variance, the greater is the variability and
hence the riskiness of a set of values.

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8.4 Variance and Standard Deviation as a
Measure of Risk
Example: Calculating the variance of returns for large-
company stocks

Listed on the next slide are the annual returns associated

with the large-company stock portfolio from 1990 - 1999.
Calculate the variance and standard deviation of the
returns.

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8.4 Variance and Standard Deviation as a
Measure of Risk
Year Return (R - Mean) (R-Mean)2
1990 -3.20% -22.19% 0.0492396
1991 30.66% 11.67% 0.0136189
1992 7.71% -11.28% 0.0127238
1993 9.87% -9.12% 0.0083174
1994 1.29% -17.70% 0.0313290
1995 37.71% 18.72% 0.0350438
1996 23.07% 4.08% 0.0016646
1997 33.17% 14.18% 0.0201072
1998 28.58% 9.59% 0.0091968
1999 21.04% 2.05% 0.0004203
Total 189.90% .18166156
Average 18.99%
Variance 2.0184618%
Std. Dev 14.207%
. 8-19
8.4 Variance and Standard Deviation as a
Measure of Risk
Variance = ∑(R-Mean)2
N–1
= 0.18166156
(10-1)
= 0.020184618 = 2.0184618%

Standard Deviation = (Variance)1/2

= (0.020184618)1/2 = 0.14207 = 14.207%

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8.4 Normal Distribution

Normal distribution with Mean = 0 and Std. Dev. = 1

About 68% of the area lies within 1 Std. Dev. from the mean.
About 95% of the observations lie within 2 Std. Dev. from the mean.
About 99% of the observations lie within 3 Std. Dev. from the mean.
Smaller variances =less risky =less uncertainty about their future
performance.

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8.4 Normal Distribution
• If Mean =10% and Standard deviation = 12% and data
are normally distributed:
• 68% probability that the return in the forthcoming
period will lie between 10% + 12% and 10% - 12% i.e.
between -2% and 22%.
• 95% probability that the return will lie between 10% +
24% and 10% - 24% i.e. between -14% and 34%
• 99% probability that the return will lie between
10%+36% and 10% -36% i.e. between -26% and 46%.

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8.4 Normal Distribution

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8.4 Normal Distribution

Over the past 5 decades (1950-1999), riskier investment groups have

earned higher returns and vice-versa.

History shows that the higher the return one expects the greater
would be the risk (variability of return) that one would have to tolerate.

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8.5 Returns in an Uncertain World (Expectations
and Probabilities)
For future investments we need expected or ex-ante
rather than ex-post return and risk measures.

For ex-ante measures we use probability distributions,

and then the expected return and risk measures are
estimated using the following equations:

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8.5 Determining the Probabilities of All Potential
Outcomes.
When setting up probability distributions the
following 2 rules must be followed:
1. The sum of the probabilities must always
add up to 1.0 or 100%.
2. Each individual probability estimate must be
positive.

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8.5 Determining the Probabilities of All Potential
Outcomes
Example: Expected return and risk measurement.

Using the probability distribution shown below, calculate

Stock XYZs expected return, E(r), and standard deviation
σ (r).
Probability
State of of Return in
the Economic Economic
Economy State State
Recession 45% -10%
Steady 35% 12%
Boom 20% 20%

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8.5 Determining the Probabilities of All Potential
Outcomes
Example (Answer)
E(r) = ∑ Probability of Economic State x Return in Economic State

= 45% x (-10%) + 35% x (12%) + 20% x (20%)

= - 4.5% + 4.2% + 4.0% = 3.7%

σ2 (r) = ∑[Return in Statei – E(r)]2 x Probability of Statei

= (-10% - 3.7%)2 x 45% + (12% - 3.7%)2 x 35%
+(20% - 3.7%)2 x 20%
= 0.00844605 + 0.0241115 + 0.0053138 = 0.016171

σ (r) = (0.016171)1/2 = 12.72%

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8.6 The Risk-and-Return Trade-off
 Investments must be analyzed in terms of, both, their
return potential as well as their riskiness or variability.

 Historically, its been proven that higher returns are

accompanied by higher risks.

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8.6 (A) Investment Rules
Investment rule number 1: If faced with 2 investment choices having
the same expected returns, select the one with the lower expected risk.
Investment rule number 2: If two investment choices have similar risk
profiles, select the one with the higher expected return.

To maximize return and minimize risk, it would be ideal to select an

investment that has a higher expected return and a lower expected risk
than the other alternatives.

Realistically, higher expected returns are accompanied by greater

variances and the choice is not that clear cut. The investor’s tolerance
for and attitude towards risk matters.

In a world fraught with uncertainty and risk, diversification is the key!

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8.6 Investment Rules

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8.7 Diversification: Minimizing Risk or
Uncertainty
• Diversification is the spreading of wealth over a variety
of investment opportunities so as to eliminate some
risk.

By dividing up one’s investments across many

relatively low-correlated assets, companies, industries,
and countries, it is possible to considerably reduce
one’s exposure to risk.

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8.7 Diversification: Minimizing Risk or
Uncertainty
 Table 8.4 presents a probability distribution of the
conditional returns of two firms, Zig and Zag, along with
those of a 50-50 portfolio of the two companies.

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8.7 Diversification: Minimizing Risk or
Uncertainty
The Portfolio’s expected return, E(rp), return can be
measured in 2 ways:
1) Weighted average of each stock’s expected return;
E(rp) = Weight in Zig x E(rZIG) + Weight in Zag x E(rZAG)

OR
2) Expected return of the portfolio’s conditional returns.

E(rp) = ∑Probability of Economic State x Portfolio Return

in Economic
State
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8.7 Diversification: Minimizing Risk or
Uncertainty
E(rp) = Weight in Zig x E(rZIG) + Weight in Zag*E(rZAG)
= 0.50 x 15% + 0.50 x 15% = 15%
OR
(a)First calculate the state-dependent returns for the portfolio
(Rp ) as follows:
s
Rp = Weight in Zig x R ZIG,S + Weight in Zag x R ZAG,S
s
Portfolio return in Boom economy = .5 x 25% + .5 x 5% = 15%
Portfolio return in Steady economy = .5 x 17% +.5 x 13% = 15%
Portfolio return in Recession economy = .5 x 5% + .5 x 25% = 15%
(b) Then, calculate the Portfolio’s expected return as follows:
E(rp) = ∑Prob. of Economic State x Portfolio Return in Economic State
= .2 x (15%) + .5 x (15%) + .3 x (15%)
= 3% + 7.5% + 4.5% = 15%

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8.7 Diversification: Minimizing Risk or
Uncertainty
The portfolio’s expected variance and standard deviation can be
measured by using the following equations:

σ2 (rp) = ∑[(Return in Statei – E(rp)) 2 x Probability of Statei]

= [(15% – 15%)2 x 0.20 + (15%-15%)2 x 0.50 + (15%-15%)2 x 0.30
= 0 + 0 + 0 = 0%
σ (rp) = (0)1/2 = 0%

Note: The squared differences are multiplied by the probability of the

economic state and then added across all economic states.
What does it mean when an asset has a zero variance or standard
deviation? Answer: It is a risk-free asset

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8.7 When Diversification Works
Must combine stocks that are not perfectly positively
correlated with each other to reduce variance.
The greater the negative correlation between 2 stocks
the greater the reduction in risk achieved by investing
in both stocks
The combination of these stocks reduces the range of
potential outcomes compared to 100% investment in a
single stock.
It may be possible to reduce risk without reducing
potential return.
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8.7 When Diversification Works

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8.7 When Diversification Works

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8.7 When Diversification Works

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8.7 When Diversification Works

Measure Zig Peat 50-50 Portfolio

E(r) 12.5% 10.70% 11.60%

Std. Dev. 15.6% 10.00% 12.44%

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8. 7 Adding More Stocks to the Portfolio: Systematic
and Unsystematic Risk
Total risk is made up of two parts:
1. Unsystematic or Diversifiable risk and
2. Systematic or Non-diversifiable risk.
Unsystematic risk, Company specific risk, Diversifiable Risk
– product or labor problems.
Systematic risk, Market risk, Non-diversifiable Risk
– recession or inflation
Well-diversified portfolio -- one whose unsystematic risk has
been completely eliminated.
– Large mutual fund companies.

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8. 7 Adding More Stocks to the Portfolio: Systematic
and Unsystematic Risk

As the number of stocks in a portfolio

approaches around 25, almost all of the
unsystematic risk is eliminated, leaving
behind only systematic risk.
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8.8 Beta: The Measure of Risk in a Well-
Diversified Portfolio
Beta –measures volatility of an individual security against the market as a
whole, it’s systematic risk.
Average beta = 1.0, also known as the Market beta
Beta < 1.0, less risky than the market e.g. utility stocks
Beta > 1.0, more risky than the market e.g. high-tech stocks
Beta = 0.0, independent of the market e.g. T-bill
Betas are estimated by running a regression of stock returns against
market returns(independent variable). The slope of the regression line
(coefficient of the independent variable) measures beta or the
systematic risk estimate of the stock.
Once individual stock betas are determined, the portfolio beta is easily
calculated as the weighted average:

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8.8 Beta: The Measure of Risk in a Well-
Diversified Portfolio
Example: Calculating a portfolio beta.

Jonathan has invested $25,000 in Stock X, $30,000 in

stock Y, $45,000 in Stock Z, and $50,000 in stock K.
Stock X’s beta is 1.5, Stock Y’s beta is 1.3, Stock Z’s beta
is 0.8, and stock K’s beta is -0.6. Calculate Jonathan’s
portfolio beta.

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8.8 Beta: The Measure of Risk in a Well-
Diversified Portfolio
Stock Investment Weight of stock x Beta

X $25,000 25,000/150,000 x 1.5

Y $30,000 30,000/150,000 x 1.3
Z $45,000 45,000/150,000 x 0.8
K $50,000 50,000/150,000 x -0.6
Total $150,000

Portfolio Beta = 0.1667*1.5 + 0.20*1.3 + 0.30*0.8 + 0.3333*-0.6

=0.25005 + 0.26 + 0.24 + -0.19998 = 0.55007

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8.8 Beta: The Measure of Risk in a Well-
Diversified Portfolio
2 different measures of risk related to financial assets; standard
deviation (or variance) and beta.

Standard deviation --measure of the total risk of an asset, both

its systematic and unsystematic risk.

Beta --measure of an asset’s systematic risk.

If an asset is part of a well-diversified portfolio use beta as the

measure of risk .

If we do not have a well-diversified portfolio, it is more prudent

to use standard deviation as the measure of risk for our asset.
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8.9 The Capital Asset Pricing Model and the
Security Market Line (SML)
The SML shows the relationship between an asset’s required rate
of return and its systematic risk measure, i.e. beta. It is based on
3 assumptions:
1. There is a basic reward for waiting: the risk-free rate.
consumption.
2. The greater the risk, the greater the expected reward.
Investors expect to be proportionately compensated for
bearing risk.
3. There is a consistent trade-off between risk and reward at
all levels of risk. As risk doubles, so does the required rate
of return above the risk-free rate, and vice-versa.
These three assumptions imply that the SML is upward sloping,
has a constant slope (linear), and has the risk-free rate as its Y-
intercept.

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8.9 The Capital Asset Pricing Model and the
Security Market Line (SML)

8-46
8.9 The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)
The CAPM (Capital Asset Pricing Model) is
operationalized in equation form via the SML
Used to quantify the relationship between expected
rate of return and systematic risk.
It states that the expected return of an investment is a
function of
1. The time value of money (the reward for waiting)
2. The current reward for taking on risk
3. The amount of risk

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8.9 The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)
The equation is in effect a straight line equation of the form:
y=a+bx
Where, a is the intercept of the function;
b is the slope of the line,
x is the value of the random variable on the x-axis.
Substituting E(ri)as the y variable,
rf as the intercept a,
(E(rm)-rf ) as the slope b,
β as random variable on the x-axis,
we have the formal equation for the SML:
E(ri) = rf + β (E(rm)-rf )
Note: the slope of the SML is the market risk premium,
(E(rm)-rf ), and not beta. Beta is the random variable.
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8.9 The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)
Example: Finding expected returns for a company with known
beta.

The New Ideas Corporation’s recent strategic moves have

resulted in its beta going from 0.8 to 1.2. If the risk-free
rate is currently at 4% and the market risk premium is
being estimated at 7%, calculate its expected rate of return.
ANSWER
Using the CAPM equation we have:
Where;
Rf = 4%; E(rm) - rf = 7%; and β = 1.2
Expected return = 4% + 7% x 1.2 = 4% + 8.4% = 12.4%

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8.9 Application of the SML
The SML has many practical applications such as….
1. Determining the prevailing market or average risk
premium
2. Determining the investment attractiveness of stocks.
3. Determining portfolio allocation weights and
expected return.

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8.9 Application of the SML
Example: Determining the market risk premium.
Stocks X and Y seem to be selling at their equilibrium
values as per the opinions of the majority of analysts.
Stock X has a beta of 1.5 and an expected return of
14.5%, and Stock Y has a beta of 0.8 and an expected
return of 9.6%
Calculate the prevailing market risk premium and the
risk-free rate.

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8.9 Application of the SML
ANSWER
The market risk premium is the slope of the SML, i.e. [E(rm) - rf]
we can solve for it as follows:

Where ∆Y is the change in expected return

= 14.5% – 9.6% = 4.9%, and
∆X is the change in beta
= 1.5 - 0.8 = 0.7
So, slope of the SML = 4.9% / 0.7
= 7% = [E(rm) - rf]

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8.9 Application of the SML
ANSWER
To calculate the risk-free rate we use the SML equation
by plugging in the expected rate for any of the stocks
along with its beta and the market risk premium of 7%
and solve.

Using Stock X’s information we have:

14.5% = rf + 7% x 1.5
which implies rf = 14.5- 10.5 = 4%

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8.9 Application of the SML
Example: Assessing market attractiveness.
Let’s say that you are looking at investing in 2 stocks, A
and B.
A has a beta of 1.3 and based on your best estimates is
expected to have a return of 15%,
B has a beta of 0.9 and is expected to earn 9%.

If the risk-free rate is currently 4% and the expected return

on the market is 11%, determine whether these stocks are
worth investing in, should you buy or sell stock A and B?

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8.9 Application of the SML
Example: Assessing market attractiveness
Using the SML:

Stock A’s expected return = 4% + (11%-4%) x 1.3

= 13.1%
Stock B’s expected return = 4% + (11%-4%) x 0.9
= 10.3%

So, Stock A would plot above the SML, since 15%>13.1% and
would be considered undervalued, while stock B would plot
below the SML (9%<10.3%) and would be considered
overvalued.
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8.9 Application of the SML
Example: Calculating portfolio expected return and
allocation using 2 stocks.
Andrew has decided that given the current economic
conditions he wants to have a portfolio with a beta of 0.9,
and is considering Stock R with a beta of 1.3 and Stock S
with a beta of 0.7 as the only 2 candidates for inclusion.
If the risk-free rate is 4% and the market risk premium is
7%, what will his portfolio’s expected return be and how
should he allocate his money among the two stocks?

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8.9 Application of the SML
Example: Calculating portfolio expected return and allocation
using 2 stocks.
Determine portfolio expected return using the SML

E(r1) = 4% + 7% x 0.9 = 4% + 6.3% = 10.3%

Next, using the two stock betas and the desired portfolio beta,
infer the allocation weights as follows:
Let Stock R’s weight = W; Stock S’s weight = (1-W)
Portfolio Beta = 0.9 = (W x 1.3) + (1- W)% x 0.7= 1.3 W + 0.7 - 0.7 W
0.9 = 0.6 W + 0.7
0.9 – 0.7 = 0.6 W; 0.2 = 0.6 W
W = 0.2 / 0.6 = 1/3 ; and 1-W = 2/3
To check: (1/3) x 1.3 + (2/3) x 0.7 = 0.4333 + 0.4667 = 0.9

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