Transmission and Distribution System

Load Characteristics

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 Load Natures
 The load that an individual customer or a
group of customers presents to the
distribution system is constantly changing
 Every time a light bulb or an electrical
appliance is switched on or off, the load
seen by the distribution feeder changes
 Also there are different operation time of
different types of loads

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 Definition
 Demand
 The load at the receiving terminals averaged
over a specified interval of time
 The load may be given in kW, kVAR, kVA,kA
or amperes
 Example: the 15-minute kW demand is
100 kW
 Sometimes the demand is express as the per-
unit of the peak load of the system

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 Definition
 Demand interval
 It is the period over which the load is
averaged
 The selected period may be 15min,
30min, 1Hr or even longer

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 Definition
 Demand (illustration)


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 Definition
 Maximum Demand
 It is the greatest of all demands which have
occurred during the specific period of time
 The maximum demand statement should also
express the demand interval used to measure
it.
 Sample interval: daily, weekly, monthly or annual

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 Definition
 Average Demand
 The average of the demands over a specified period (day,
week, month, etc.)
 Must include demand interval, period, and units
 Example: the 15-minute average kW demand for the
month was 350 kW

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 Definition
 Diversified Demand
 Also called Coincident Demand
 Sum of demands imposed by a group of loads over a
particular period
 Must include demand interval, period, and units
 Example: the 15-minute diversified kW demand in the period
ending at 9:30 was 200 kW
 Maximum Diversified Demand
 Maximum of the sum of the demands imposed by a group of
loads over a particular period
 Must include demand interval, period, and units
 Example: the 15-minute maximum diversified kW demand
for the week was 500 kW

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 Definition
 Maximum Non-coincident Demand
 For a group of loads, the sum of the individual
maximum demands without any restriction
that they occur at the same time
 Must include demand interval, period, and units
 Example: the maximum non-coincident 15-minute
kW demand for the week was 700
kW

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 Definition
 Demand Factor
 Ratio of maximum demand to connected load

Max _ Demand
DF 
Total _ connected _ load
 DF can be computed in different parts of the system like
industrial, commercial, etc
 The demand factor is usually less than 1.0.
 It is the indicator of the simultaneous operation of the total
connected load
 Connected Load
 It is the sum of the continuous ratings of the load consuming
apparatus connected to the system or any part thereof

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 Definition
 Utilization Factor
Max _ Demand
UF 
Rated _ System _ Capacity
 The ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the
rated capacity of the system

 Rated Capacity
 May be selected to be smaller of the thermal or voltage drop
capacity

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 Definition
 Plant Factor
 Is the ratio of the actual energy produced or
served over a designated period of time to the
energy that would have been produced or
served if the plant had operated continuously at
maximum rating
actual _ energy _ produced * T
PF 
Maximum _ plant _ rating * T
actual _ annual _ energy _ generation
annual _ plant _ factor 
Maximum _ plant _ rating * 8760

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 Definition
 Load Factor
 Ratio of the average demand of any individual
customer or group of customers over a period to the
maximum demand over the same period
average _ load
LF 
Peak _ load

total _ annual _ energy

Annual _ LF 
Annual _ Peak _ load * 8760

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 Definition
 Diversity Factor (FD)
 Ratio of the maximum noncoincident demand to the
maximum diversified demand
 Ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand of the
various subdivisions of the system to the maximum demand
of the whole system


 n
Di
FD  i 1
Dg
 Di = maximum demand of load I, disregarding time of occurrences
 Dg = coincident maximum demand
 FD can be greater than or equal to 1

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 Definition
 Coincidence Factor (FC)
 Ratio of the maximum coincident total demand of a group of
consumers to the sum maximum power demands of
individual consumer comprising the group both taken at the
same point of supply for the same time

Dg 1
FD  ; _ FC 

n
Di FD
i 1

 Di = maximum demand of load I, disregarding time of occurrences

 Dg = coincident maximum demand
 FD can be greater than or equal to 1

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 Definition
 Load Diversity
 Difference between maximum noncoincident demand
and the maximum diversified demand

LD  i 1 Di  Dg
n

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 Definition
 Loss Factor
 Is the ratio of the average power loss to the peak load
power loss during specified period of time

average _ power _ loss

FLS 
power _ loss _ at _ peak _ load

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 Sample Problems
 Example:
 Assume that annual peak load of a primary feeder is 2000kW, at
which the power loss (copper loss-I^2R), is 80kW per three phase.
Assuming an annual loss factor of 0.15 determine:
 A. the average annual power loss
 B. The total annual energy loss due to copper losses of the circuit

 Sol’n:

 A. Average Power Loss= Power loss at peak* FLS

 = 80kW * 0.15
 = 12kW
 B. Total Annual Energy Loss= ave loss * 8760
 12* 8760
 105,120kWh

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 Sample Problems
 Example:
 Assume that there are six residential consumers connected to
a distribution transformer. The connected load of each of the
consumer is 9kW and the demand factor and diversified factor
measured in this cluster of houses are 0.65 and 1.1
respectively. Determine the diversified demand of the group of
6 houses on the distribution transformer.

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 Sample Problems
 Example:
 There are two primary feeders
supplied by a distribution substation.
One of the feeders supplies industrial
loads which occurs primarily between
8AM to 11PM, with a peak of 2000kW
at 5PM. The other feeder feeds
residential loads which occurs mainly
between 6AM to 12PM with peak load
of 2000kW at 9PM. Determine the
following
 A. diversity factor of the load connected
to the distribution substation
 B. The load Diversity of the load
connected to the distribution substation
 C. The coincidence factor of the load
connected to the distribution substation

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 Sample Problems
 From the tabulation below, determine the 15
minute maximum demand

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 Sample Problems
 From the tabulation below, determine the 15
minute maximum demand

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 Sample Problems
 From the previous Load profile determine
the following:
 Load Factor for the given 24Hrs?
 Assuming that the max kW of each load class that appears
be their rated load, determine the demand factor?
 Assuming that only these 3 types of loads are supplied,
determine the maximum diversified demand, maximum
noncoincident demand and Diversity factor and load
diversity

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 Sample Problems-Distribution
Transformer Loading
 A distribution Transformer will supply the following different
types of customers

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 Sample Problems-Distribution
Transformer Loading
 From the given load characteristics

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 Sample Problems-Distribution
Transformer Loading
 Diversified demand
 The sum of the four 15 kW demands for each time
interval is the diversified demand for the group in that time
interval, and, in this case, the distribution transformer.

Observation:
the demand curve is beginning to smooth out

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 Sample Problems-Distribution
Transformer Loading
 Maximum Diversified Demand
 The maximum of the combined loads.
 16.16kW @ 17:30

Observation:
Note that his maximum demand does not occur at the same time as
any one of the individual demands, nor is this maximum demand the sum of
the individual maximum demands.
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 Sample Problems-Distribution
Transformer Loading
 Load Duration Curve
 A load duration curve can be developed for the
transformer serving the four customers. Sorting in
descending order, the kW demand of the transformer
develops the load duration curve

• Gives the percent of the time the transformer is operating for a certain loading.
• This curve can be used to determine whether a transformer needs to be replaced
due to an overloading condition.

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 Sample Problems-Distribution
Transformer Loading
 Maximum Noncoincident Demand
 The 15-minute maximum noncoincident kW demand
for the day is the sum of the individual customer 15-
minute maximum kW demands

 Max. noncoincident demand = 6.18 + 6.82 + 4.93 +

7.05 = 24.98 kW

•sum of all maximum within the day regardless if the peak

happens in a different period of time.
• It is always greater or equal to the maximum coincident
demand

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 Sample Problems-Distribution
Transformer Loading
 Diversity Factor
 By definition, diversity factor is the ratio of the maximum
noncoincident demand of a group of customers to the
maximum diversified demand of the group.
 With reference to the transformer serving four customers,
the diversity factor for the four customers would be:
 Max Noncoincident = 24.98
 Max coincident (diversified)= 16.16
 Diversity Factor = 1.5458

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 Distribution Transformer Loading
 Diversity Factor
 By definition, diversity factor is the ratio of the maximum
noncoincident demand of a group of customers to the
maximum diversified demand of the group.
 With reference to the transformer serving four customers,
the diversity factor for the four customers would be:
 Max Noncoincident = 24.98
 Max coincident (diversified)= 16.16
 Diversity Factor = 1.5458

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 Distribution Transformer Loading
 Diversity Factor (survey for different number of customers)


•Importance of this factor:

• Based on database we could determine the individual
peak demand of each load, when we know the value of
diversity factor of a feeder (based on conducted surveys)
then we could determine the maximum
coincident(diversified)Engineering
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 Distribution Transformer Loading
 Demand Factor
 The demand factor can be defined for an individual customer.
 In order to determine the demand factor, the total connected
load of the customer needs to be known and its max. demand.
 Demand Factor= Max Demand/ Total Connected load
 Example: A customer with Total connected load of 35kW has its
maximum demand of 6.18kW. What is the demand Factor?
 DF=6.18/35 = 0.1766
 The demand factor gives an indication of the percentage of
electrical devices that are on when the maximum demand
occurs.
 The demand factor can be computed for an individual customer
but not for a distribution transformer or the total feeder.

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 Distribution Transformer Loading
 Utilization Factor
 The utilization factor gives an indication of how well the
capacity of an electrical device is being utilized.
 Utilization Factor = Max kVA Demand / Trans kVA Rating

 Example:
 For example, the transformer serving the four loads is rated 15
kVA. Using the 16.16-kW maximum diversified demand and
assuming a power factor of 0.9, solve for the Utilization Factor.

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 Distribution Transformer Loading
 Load Diversity
 Load diversity is defined as the difference between the
noncoincident maximum demand and the maximum diversified
demand.

 Example: A transformer having a max Non-coincident demand

of 24.97 and a max coincident demand of 16.16. What is the
Load Diversity?
 Load Diversity = 24.97-16.16 =8.81kW

 This will give us insight how diverse are the loads. If the max
Coincident and max on-coincident demand are equal it means that
loads are operating at same pattern.

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 Feeder Load
 The load that a feeder serves will display a
smoothed-out demand curve

• The simple explanation for this is that with several hundred customers served
by the feeder, the odds are good that as one customer is turning off a light bulb
another customer will be turning a light bulb on.
• This shows that the load curve at customer side is more erratic but as you
move through upstream to the feeder or to the substations, the load curve will
become smoother.
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 Load Survey
 Many times the maximum demand of individual customers will
be known, either from metering or from a knowledge of the
energy (kWh) consumed by the customer. Some utility
companies will perform a load survey of similar customers in
order to determine the relationship between the energy
consumption in kWh and the maximum kW demand.

 At the end of the survey period the maximum demand vs. kWh
for each customer can be plotted on a common graph. Linear
regression is used to determine the equation of a straight line
that gives the kW demand as a function of kWh.

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Load Survey
 Lab Activity:
 Perform a regression analysis to determine the
relationship between the kWHr and KW.

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