Methods of Research

Jacqueline L. Morta, PhD

Faculty, Business Management Department
Issues...

 Why are we interested in

research?
Why must we understand
research?

 Helpmake
informed decisions
What is research?
is a systematic process of answering a question or a problem,
involving the methodical formulation of a theoretical framework
and methodology; collection, analysis, and interpretation of
pertinent data; and presentation of recommendations from
which courses of action can be taken.
Types of Research
Basic research involves experimental or theoretical work undertaken
to acquire new knowledge without particular or specific application
or use.

Applied research involves an original investigation undertaken to

acquire new knowledge toward a specific and practical aim or
objective.

Action research is the application of fact finding to practical problems

solving with a view to improve the quality of action within, involving
the collaboration and cooperation of researchers, practitioners and
laymen.
 Steps in Research

1. IDENTIFICATION OF 2. FORMULATION OF
RESEARCH RESEARCH
PROBLEM PROBLEM /
OBJECTIVES

7. TAKING OF
COURSE OF 3. DEVELOPMENT
ACTION OF THE
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK

6. PRESENTATION OF
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5. COLLECTION,
ANALYIS, AND 4. DESIGNING OF
INTERPRETATION THE RESEARCH
OF DATA METHODOLOGY
 CRITERIA FOR PROBLEM SELECTION
1. NEWNESS OF TOPIC 2. QUALIFICATIONS OF
• topic should be RESEARCHER
relatively new or has • the researcher must
not been done before posses the technical and
conceptual competence to
conduct the study

6. SIGNIFICANCE OF
TOPIC 3. AVAILABILITY OF
• topic will have a DATA
valuable contribution CRITERIA FOR • needed data
/ importance to the PROBLEM (primary or
field SELECTION secondary ) can be
acquired to answer
the problem

5. AVAILABILITY OF
RESOURCES 4. TIME
• access to funds, CONSTRAINTS
facilities, computer and • achievable
consultants to within the given
undertake the study timeframe
 CRITERIA FOR FORMULATING THE RESEARCH
PROBLEM
2. NAME 3. PHRASE THE
1. WRITE IN SPECIFIC
QUESTION TOPIC INTO
PROBLEM SOMETHING
FORM AREA MORE
WORKABLE /
MANAGEABLE
8. INDICATE THE
DATA AND CRITERIA 4. DELIMIT THE
TECHNIQUES FOR SCOPE TO A
NEEDED TO FORMULATING REALISTIC
ANSWER THE THE PARAMETER
QUESTION RESEARCH NOT TOO
PROBLEM NARROW NOR
TOO BROAD
7. USE PHRASES
WORDINGS
THAT ARE 6. CITE CLEARLY 5. USE WORDINGS
MEASURABLE THE THAT ARE NOT
AND CAN BE RELATIONSHIPS EMOTIONALLY
PROVEN OF THE LADEN, UNBIASED
EMPIRICALLY VARIABLES THAT AND OBJECTIVE
ARE TO BE
STUDIED
CRITERIA FOR FORMULATING THE RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
1. STATE IN 2. WRITE
DECLARA- CLEARLY THE
TIVE SPECIFIC
FORM VARIABLES TO
BE
INVESTIGATED

6. SPECIFY THE
RELATIONSHIPS/ FORMULATION 3. USE
PATTERNS THAT CRITERIA CONCEPTS
ARE TO BE OF THAT ARE
TESTED RESEARCH MEASURABLE
OBJECTIVES

5. EACH 4. IDENTIFY THE

STATEMENT SCOPE
MUST BE (COVERAGE AND
RELATED TO TIMEFRAME)
THE MAIN THAT ARE
PROBLEM ATTAINABLE
 2. Serves as a source of
research problems
which can be
reduced from
1. Familiarizes existing studies
3. Ensures that
the reader with
important variables
previous studies
relevant to the study
done related to the
are not overlooked
present topic
IMPORTANCE 4. Establishes the need /
8. Helps to give more OF THE
focus, direction, and significance /justification in
REVIEW conducting the present
clarity to the study OF RELATED study
LITERATURE
7. Avoids the 5. Provides a
unnecessary historical
duplication of selecting a background /
research problem 6. Serves as a perspectives
which had been basis for the about the study
done before development
of the theoretical
conceptual
framework
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
BENEFICIARIES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

INDIVIDUAL ORGANIZATIONAL OTHER

LEVEL STAKEHOLDERS
LEVEL
 FIRMS GOVERNMENT
 INDUSTRY COMMUNITIES
 RESEARCHER
 ASSOCIATIONS CONSUMERS
 STUDENTS
 SCHOOLS SUPPLIERS
 EMPLOYEES
 FUNDING INVESTORS
 MANAGERS
 ENTREPRENEURS AGENCIES
 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The section on scope and limitation should indicate study coverage

with concrete reference to:

1. Variables

2. Sources of data

3. Method(s) to be employed in data collection and analysis

4. Timeframe

5. Constraints that might be encountered in the conduct of the

investigation, such as non-availability of data, uncooperativeness
of respondents, inability of respondents to recall accurate
responses, and confidentiality of some relevant information.
 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Is the foundation on which the entire research

project is based. It is a logically developed,
described, and elaborated network of
associations among variables that have
been identified through such processes as
interviews, observations, and literature survey.
 VARIABLES
A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The
values can differ at various times for the same object or person, or the
values can differ at the same time for different objects or persons.
Dependent variable. Also known as the criterion variable – is the
variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher’s goal
is to explain or predict the variability in the dependent variable.

Independent variable. Is the one that influences the dependent

variable in either a positive or negative way.

Moderating variable. Modifies the originally expected relationship

between the independent and the dependent variables.

Intervening variable. Is the variable that surfaces between the time

the independent variables operate to influence the dependent variable
and their impact on the dependent variable. The Intervening variable
surfaces as a function of the independent variable(s) operating in any
situation, and helps to conceptualize and explain the influence of the
independent variable(s) on the dependent variable.
Research Design
A schema which
maps out the
sources of data, the
type of data
collected, how the
data will be collected,
and the methods
that will be used to
analyze the data.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
CAUSAL/
DESCRIPTIVE EXPLORATORY EXPLANATORY

ACTION CORRELATIONAL
RESEARCH

EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATIVE COMPARATIVE

1. Descriptive Research- is conducted to illustrate and
determine patterns or characteristics of variables
in particular instances or events. In the statement
of specific objectives some of the more appropriate
verbs to use are describe, determine, analyze,
explain, define, and illustrate.
2. Exploratory Research- is undertaken to gather
initial data on patterns or characteristics of
variables in a situation where studies have not
been done or minimal data are available to
establish significant patterns or relationships of
variables covering a wider scope. This is the
design where the statement of hypothesis is not
usually present because one of the purposes of
an exploratory study is to recommend possible
hypothesis which can be tested in future
similar studies. In the statement of specific
objectives, some of the more appropriate verbs
to use are explore, find out, know, examine, and
investigate.
3. Causal/Explanatory Research- is
carried out to ascertain that
the occurrence of, or change
in, the independent variables
leads to changes in the
dependent variables. In the
statement of specific
objectives, some of the more
appropriate verbs to use are
analyze, determine, explain
and identify.
4. Correlational Research- is performed in order to
establish the fact that the outcome of certain
patterns of relationships occur together in a
specified manner without suggesting that one
variable causes the other variable to change. In
this design, the relationship is also clearly
stated such as positive or negative correlation.
The most appropriate verb to use in the
statement of specific objective is correlate or
interrelate.
5. Comparative Research- is implemented to confirm
if two or more variables similar or different
patterns of characteristics when compared, using
a set of variables as standard bases. In the
statement of specific objectives, some of the
more appropriate verbs/ phrases to use are
compare, determine similarities, find out
differences, and contrast.
6. Evaluative Research- is conducted to assess
performance outcome or impact of a set of
variables on another set of variables. This
design usually considers an adequate time span
to pinpoint the effects accurately. This can also
be a longitudinal study. The appropriate verbs
to use in the statement of specific objective are
evaluate, assess, appraise, measure, and quantify.
7. Experimental Research-
is undertaken to
determine the possible
“cause and effect”
relationship by having
experimental and
control groups. It is
usually done in a
simulated environment.
8. Action Research- is done to develop or
recommend new approaches, policies, programs,
strategies, or skills to solve problems in an actual
organizational setting. This design is the most
applied-oriented research. Feasibility studies,
corporate strategy papers, industry studies and
policy-oriented researches are predominantly
action research in their design. In the statement
of specific objectives, some of the more
appropriate verbs/phrases to use are develop,
propose, suggest, recommend, determine
alternative approaches, identify solutions, and
formulate policies.
SAMPLING - is the process of choosing adequate
and representative elements from the population.
Adequacy - refers to the sample size (n), while
Representativeness pertains to the possession of the
characteristics of the sample as specified characteristics
of the population.

Types of Sampling Design

PROBABILITY SAMPLING- gives each element of the

population a known and equal chance to be included
as a sample.

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING - does not provide this

predetermined chance.
 Sampling Process
1. DEFINE T HE POPULATION FROM WHICH THE SAMPLE IS TO BE DRAWN.
e.g. Car owners of 1997 Models living in Alabang.

2. SPECIFY THE POPULATION FRAME FROM WHICH THE SAMPLE WILL BE TAKEN
e.g. Listing of the Land Transportation Office

3. CHOOSE THE SAMPLING METHOD OF SELECTING SAMPLES

e.g. Probability using random sampling or non-probability using Quota
Sampling

4. DETERMINE THE SAMPLE SIZE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE STUDY

e.g. Use the formula n= NZ2/2 p (1-p)
NE2+Za/22p(1-p)

5. SELECT THE ACTUAL SAMPLES

TYPES OF SAMPLING DESIGNS
SAMPLING DESIGNS

PROBABILITY NON-
 Random PROBABILITY
 Systematic  Quota
 Stratified  Judgement
 Cluster  Convenience
 Area  Accidental
 Double  Snowball
 Multi-Stage  Purposive
PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Random Sampling - affords each element in the

population an equal and known chance of
being chosen as a respondent.

2. Systematic Sampling - allows the elements of

the population to be selected as a respondent
through the use of a constant number (k)
derived from diving the total population (N)
with the computed sample size (n). The
formula is K= N/n .
3. Stratified Sampling - helps in the selection of
respondents when there are already identifiable
subgroups or strata of elements within the
population.

4. Cluster Sampling - involves the grouping or

division of the elements of the population
into heterogeneous groups.
5. Area Sampling - pertains to the grouping of the
population into geographical location or territory
before selecting the respondents.

6. Double Sampling - means getting a smaller

sample from the initial large sample.

7. Multi Stage Sampling - is a cluster sampling

done in several stages
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Quota Sampling - is selecting the predetermined

required number from the population regardless
of how they will be chosen. This is usually done
in opinion or poll surveys.

2. Judgement Sampling - involves the selection of the

respondents who are considered to be in the best
position or most knowledgeable to give the
needed information.

3. Convenience Sampling - allow the researcher to

gather data from respondents who are conveniently
available to provide the information needed.
4. Accidental Sampling - implies that information are
collected from respondents who, by chance or
circumstance, are met by the researcher in the
process of gathering the data

5. Snowball Sampling - is choosing initial

samples.These samples will then refer other
respondents from whom the same information
may be obtained.

6. Purposive Sampling - involves the selection of key

informants based on a predetermined set of criteria or
standards.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

PRIMARY SECONDARY

 SURVEY  ANNUAL REPORTS

 QUESTIONNAIRE  FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
 INTERVIEW  GOVERNMENT PUBLICATION
 TELEPHONE  PHIL. FINANCIAL SYSTEM
 INTERNET/ E-MAIL  STATISTICAL
 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS YEARBOOK (NEDA)
 OBSERVATION  NCSO
 EXPERIMENTS  EMPLOYMENT STATISTICS
(DOLE-BLES)
 COMPANY DOCUMENTS
 CBAs
 COMPANY
 INDUSTRY
 NEWSPAPER
 MAGAZINES/ JOURNALS
 Comparison of the Survey Techniques
TYPE DESCRIPTION
 Self-administered. Respondent reads
and answers the questions
QUESTIONNAIRE  Either mailed or non-mailed
 Contains a written introduction about
the study and detailed instruction
 Predominantly contains fixed alternative
questions predetermined by the
researcher
 Questions are personally asked by the
interviewer
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE  Rigid in the sequence of asking the
questions
 Questions are personally asked by the
interviewer
 Predominantly contains open-ended or
unstructured items or list of topics
 Questions are directly asked by the
researcher but allows the respondent
to answer the questions in whatever
manner one prefers.
 Predominantly contains open-ended or
INTERVIEW GUIDE unstructured items or list of topics to
ask
 Questions are directly asked by the
researcher but allows the respondent
to answer the questions in whatever
manner he/she prefers
 Flexible
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL TO THE
RESEARCHER

DOCUMENTATION
OF TENTATIVE SURVEY OF
PLAN RELATED
LITERATURE

IMPORTANCE OF
PROPOSAL TO THE
RESEARCHER

BASIS OF
FINAL
GUIDE IN ACTUAL
REPORT
PROJECT
IMPLEMENTATION
MONITOR
PROJECT