Physical Layer (Data and Signals) : Slides Are Modified From Behrouz A. Forouzan

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Physical Layer

(Data and Signals)

1
slides are modified from Behrouz A. Forouzan
Chapter 3: Data and Signals
 3.1 Analog and Digital
 3.2 Periodic Analog Signals
 3.3 Digital Signals
 3.4 Transmission Impairment
 3.5 Data-rate Limits
 3.6 Performance

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Physical layer

To be transmitted,
data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.

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3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Data can be analog or digital


 Analog data refers to information that is continuous
 Analog data take on continuous values
 Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range

 Digital data refers to information that has discrete states


 Digital data take on discrete values
 Digital signals can have only a limited number of values

In data communications, we commonly use


periodic analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.

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Comparison of analog and digital signals

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3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.


 A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals.
 A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple
sine waves.

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Signal amplitude

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Frequency

Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.

 Change in a short span of time means high frequency.


 Change over a long span of time means low frequency.

 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero


 If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.

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Frequency and Period
Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

Units of period and frequency

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Two signals with the same amplitude,
but different frequencies

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Examples

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.


What is the period of this sine wave ?

The period of a signal is 100 ms.


What is its frequency in kilohertz?

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Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform
relative to time 0

Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,


but different phases

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Example

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.


What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°.

Therefore, 1/6 cycle is

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Wavelength and period

Wavelength = Propagation speed x Period


= Propagation speed / Frequency

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Time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

A complete sine wave in the time domain can be


represented by a single spike in the frequency domain.

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Frequency Domain

 The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are


dealing with more than one sine wave.

 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communication


o We need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple
sine waves.
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Fourier analysis

According to Fourier analysis,


any composite signal is a combination of simple sine
waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

 If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition


gives a series of signals with discrete frequencies;
 If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition
gives a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.

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A composite periodic signal

Decomposition of the
composite periodic
signal in the time and
frequency domains

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Time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal
 A nonperiodic composite signal
o It can be a signal created by a microphone or a telephone set
when a word or two is pronounced.
o In this case, the composite signal cannot be periodic
because that implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.

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Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.

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Example

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz,


with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V.
The two extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0.
Approximately, draw the frequency domain of the signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at
240 kHz.

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Chapter 3: Data and Signals

 3.1 Analog and Digital


 3.2 Periodic Analog Signals
 3.3 Digital Signals
 3.4 Transmission Impairment
 3.5 Data-rate Limits
 3.6 Performance

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3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS

 In addition to being represented by an analog signal,


information can also be represented by a digital signal.

 For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage


and a 0 as zero voltage.

 A digital signal can have more than two levels.


 In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each
level.

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Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and
the other with four signal levels

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Examples
A digital signal has 8 levels. How many bits are
represented by each level?

We calculate the number of bits from the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

A digital signal has 9 levels. How many bits are


represented by each level?

Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits. Not realistic.


The number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer
as well as a power of 2.
Hence, 4 bits can represent one level.
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The time and frequency domains of periodic and
nonperiodic digital signals

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Lecture 28
Baseband transmission

Sending a digital signal over a channel


without changing the digital signal to an analog signal.

A digital signal is a composite analog signal


with an infinite bandwidth.

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Bandwidths of two low-pass channels

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Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium

Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves


the shape of the digital signal is possible only if we have a
low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide bandwidth.

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Rough approximation of a digital signal using
the first harmonic for worst case

where N is the bitrate

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Simulating a digital signal with first three harmonics

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In baseband transmission,
the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate;

if we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.

Bandwidth requirements

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Example

What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if we


need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband transmission?

Solution
The answer depends on the accuracy desired.
a. The minimum bandwidth is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz.

b. A better solution is to use the first and the third


harmonics with B = 3N/2 = 3 × 500 kHz = 1.5 MHz.

c. Still a better solution is to use the first, third, and fifth


harmonics with B = 5N/2 = 5 × 500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.

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Example

We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth 100 kHz.


What is the maximum bit rate of this channel?

Solution
The maximum bit rate can be achieved if we use the first
harmonic.

Bandwidth = Bitrate / 2

The bit rate is 2 times the available bandwidth,


or 200 Kbps.

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Bandwidth of a bandpass channel

If the available channel is a bandpass channel,


we cannot send the digital signal directly to the channel;

we need to convert the digital signal to


an analog signal before transmission.
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Modulation of a digital signal for transmission
on a bandpass channel

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Example
An example of broadband transmission using modulation is
the sending of computer data through a telephone
subscriber line, the line connecting a resident to the
central telephone office.
These lines are designed to carry voice with a limited
bandwidth.
The channel is considered a bandpass channel.
We convert the digital signal from the computer to an
analog signal, and send the analog signal.
We can install two converters to change the digital signal
to analog and vice versa at the receiving end.
The converter, in this case, is called a modem.
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Example

A second example is the digital cellular telephone.


For better reception, digital cellular phones convert the
analog voice signal to a digital signal.
Although the bandwidth allocated to a company providing
digital cellular phone service is very wide, we still cannot
send the digital signal without conversion.
The reason is that we only have a bandpass channel
available between caller and callee.
We need to convert the digitized voice to a composite
analog signal before sending.

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Examples
Assume we need to download files at a rate of 100 pages
per second. A page is an average of 24 lines with 80
characters in each line where one character requires 8 bits.
What is the required bit rate of the channel?

A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz


bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the signal
at twice the highest frequency (two samples per hertz).
Assume that each sample requires 8 bits.
What is the required bit rate?

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Example

HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality video


signals. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the
screen is renewed 30 times per second. Also, 24 bits
represents one color pixel.
What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps


through compression.
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Chapter 3: Data and Signals

 3.1 Analog and Digital


 3.2 Periodic Analog Signals
 3.3 Digital Signals
 3.4 Transmission Impairment
 3.5 Data-rate Limits
 3.6 Performance

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3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

 Signals travel through transmission media, which are


not perfect.
 The imperfection causes signal impairment.
 This means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium.
 What is sent is not what is received.
 Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion,
and noise.

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Attenuation

dB = 10 log10 P2/P1
relative strength of signals 44
Example

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium


and its power is reduced to one-half.
This means that P2 is (1/2)P1.
In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half


the power.

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Example

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is


increased 10 times.
This means that P2 = 10P1 .
What is the amplification (gain of power)?

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Example
One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the
changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel numbers
can be added (or subtracted) when we are measuring
several points (cascading) instead of just two.
A signal travels from point 1 to point 4.

In this case, the decibel value can be calculated as

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Example
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km).
If the signal at beginning of a cable with −0.3 dB/km has a
power of 2 mW,
what is the power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB.
We can calculate the power as

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Distortion

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Noise

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Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): high vs. low

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Example

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the


noise is 1 μW;
what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

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Example

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life;


it is an ideal

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Chapter 3: Data and Signals

 3.1 Analog and Digital


 3.2 Periodic Analog Signals
 3.3 Digital Signals
 3.4 Transmission Impairment
 3.5 Data-rate Limits
 3.6 Performance

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3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications is


how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel.

Data rate depends on three factors:


1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce


the reliability of the system.

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Nyquist Theorem
For noiseless channel,

BitRate = 2 x Bandwith x log2Levels

In baseband transmission, we said the bit rate is 2 times


the bandwidth if we use only the first harmonic in the
worst case.
However, the Nyquist formula is more general than what
we derived intuitively;
It can be applied to baseband transmission and modulation.
Also, it can be applied when we have two or more levels of
signals.

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Examples

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz


transmitting a signal with two signal levels.
What is the maximum bit rate?

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal


with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits).
What is the maximum bit rate?

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Example

We need to send 265 Kbps over a noiseless channel with a


bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?

Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either


increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate.
If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 Kbps.
If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 Kbps.
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Shannon Capacity
In reality, we can not have a noiseless channel

For noisy channel,

Capacity = Bandwith x log2(1+SNR)

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit;


the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we need.

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Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of
the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero.
In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is
faint.
What is the channel capacity?

Solution

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero


regardless of the bandwidth.
We cannot receive any data through this channel.
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Example
Let’s calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line.
A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz.
The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162.
What is the channel capacity?
Solution

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 Kbps.
If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio. 61
Example

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels.

Assume that SNRdB = 36 and


the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz.
What is the theoretical channel capacity?

Solution

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Example

For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we can


assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR.
In these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be
simplified to

For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of


the previous example as

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Example
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth.
The SNR for this channel is 63.
What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit.


For better performance we choose something lower,
4 Mbps, for example.
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of
signal levels.

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Lecture 29
Chapter 3: Data and Signals

 3.1 Analog and Digital


 3.2 Periodic Analog Signals
 3.3 Digital Signals
 3.4 Transmission Impairment
 3.5 Data-rate Limits
 3.6 Performance

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3-6 PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the performance of


the network
— how good is it?

In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts

The first, bandwidth in hertz,


refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal or
the range of frequencies that a channel can pass.

The second, bandwidth in bits per second,


refers to the speed of bit transmission in a channel or link.

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Examples

The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or


data.

The bandwidth of this line for data transmission can be


up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to change
the digital signal to analog.

If the telephone company improves the quality of the


line and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz,
we can send 112,000 bps.

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Example

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an


average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits.
What is the throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in


this case.
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Example

What is the propagation time if the distance between two


points is 12,000 km?
Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic


Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
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Example
What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 2.5-kbyte message if the bandwidth of the network is
1 Gbps?
Assume that the distance is 12,000 km and that light
travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution

Note that in this case, the dominant factor is the


propagation time, not the transmission time.
because the message is short and the bandwidth is high
The transmission time can be ignored. 71
Example
What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 5-Mbyte message if the bandwidth of the network is
1 Mbps?
Assume that the distance is 12,000 km and that light
travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution

Note that in this case, the dominant factor is the


transmission time, not the propagation time.
because the message is very long and the bandwidth
is not very high
The propagation time can be ignored. 72
Concept of bandwidth-delay product

The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits


that can fill the link.

We can think about the link between two points as a pipe.


The cross section of the pipe represents the bandwidth,
and the length of the pipe represents the delay.
We can say the volume of the pipe defines the
bandwidth-delay product.
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Filling the link with bits in case 1

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Filling the link with bits in case 2

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Chapter 4

 4.3 Transmission Modes


o Parallel Transmission
o Serial Transmission

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4-3 TRANSMISSION MODES

 The transmission of binary data across a link can be


accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.

 In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each


clock tick.

 In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.

 While there is only one way to send parallel data,


there are three subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.

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Parallel transmission

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Serial transmission

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Asynchronous transmission

We send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and


1 or more stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte.
There may be a gap between each byte.

It is “asynchronous at the byte level,” bits are still


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synchronized; their durations are the same. 80
Synchronous transmission

We send bits one after another without


start or stop bits or gaps.
It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.

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