Physical Layer (Data and Signals) : Slides Are Modified From Behrouz A. Forouzan
Physical Layer (Data and Signals) : Slides Are Modified From Behrouz A. Forouzan
Physical Layer (Data and Signals) : Slides Are Modified From Behrouz A. Forouzan
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slides are modified from Behrouz A. Forouzan
Chapter 3: Data and Signals
3.1 Analog and Digital
3.2 Periodic Analog Signals
3.3 Digital Signals
3.4 Transmission Impairment
3.5 Data-rate Limits
3.6 Performance
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Physical layer
To be transmitted,
data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.
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3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
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Comparison of analog and digital signals
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3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
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Signal amplitude
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Frequency
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Frequency and Period
Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.
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Two signals with the same amplitude,
but different frequencies
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Examples
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Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform
relative to time 0
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Example
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°.
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Wavelength and period
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Time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
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Frequency Domain
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A composite periodic signal
Decomposition of the
composite periodic
signal in the time and
frequency domains
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Time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal
A nonperiodic composite signal
o It can be a signal created by a microphone or a telephone set
when a word or two is pronounced.
o In this case, the composite signal cannot be periodic
because that implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.
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Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.
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Example
Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at
240 kHz.
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Chapter 3: Data and Signals
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3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS
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Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and
the other with four signal levels
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Examples
A digital signal has 8 levels. How many bits are
represented by each level?
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Lecture 28
Baseband transmission
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Bandwidths of two low-pass channels
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Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium
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Rough approximation of a digital signal using
the first harmonic for worst case
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Simulating a digital signal with first three harmonics
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In baseband transmission,
the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate;
Bandwidth requirements
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Example
Solution
The answer depends on the accuracy desired.
a. The minimum bandwidth is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz.
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Example
Solution
The maximum bit rate can be achieved if we use the first
harmonic.
Bandwidth = Bitrate / 2
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Bandwidth of a bandpass channel
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Example
An example of broadband transmission using modulation is
the sending of computer data through a telephone
subscriber line, the line connecting a resident to the
central telephone office.
These lines are designed to carry voice with a limited
bandwidth.
The channel is considered a bandpass channel.
We convert the digital signal from the computer to an
analog signal, and send the analog signal.
We can install two converters to change the digital signal
to analog and vice versa at the receiving end.
The converter, in this case, is called a modem.
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Example
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Examples
Assume we need to download files at a rate of 100 pages
per second. A page is an average of 24 lines with 80
characters in each line where one character requires 8 bits.
What is the required bit rate of the channel?
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Example
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3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
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Attenuation
dB = 10 log10 P2/P1
relative strength of signals 44
Example
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Example
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Example
One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the
changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel numbers
can be added (or subtracted) when we are measuring
several points (cascading) instead of just two.
A signal travels from point 1 to point 4.
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Example
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km).
If the signal at beginning of a cable with −0.3 dB/km has a
power of 2 mW,
what is the power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB.
We can calculate the power as
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Distortion
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Noise
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Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): high vs. low
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Example
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:
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Example
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Chapter 3: Data and Signals
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3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS
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Nyquist Theorem
For noiseless channel,
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Examples
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Example
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as
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Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of
the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero.
In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is
faint.
What is the channel capacity?
Solution
This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 Kbps.
If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio. 61
Example
Solution
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Example
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Example
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth.
The SNR for this channel is 63.
What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.
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Lecture 29
Chapter 3: Data and Signals
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3-6 PERFORMANCE
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Examples
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Example
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as
Solution
Solution
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Filling the link with bits in case 2
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Chapter 4
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4-3 TRANSMISSION MODES
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Parallel transmission
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Serial transmission
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Asynchronous transmission
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