Chapter 3. Data and Signals

3-1
Chapter 3. Data and Signals
1. Analog and Digital

2. Periodic Analog Signals
3. Digital Signals
4. Transmission Impairment
5. Data Rate Limits
6. Performance
3-2
Analog and Digital

To be transmitted, data must be transformed to
electromagnetic signals
Data can be analog or digital. Analog data are
continuous and take continuous values. Digital
data have discrete states and take on discrete
values.
Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals
can have an infinite number of values in a range;
digital signals can have only a limited number of
values.
3-3
Analog and Digital Signals
3-3
3-4
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

In data communication,
we commonly use
periodic analog signals
and nonperiodic digital
signals
3-5
Periodic Analog Signals

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.
A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed
into simpler signals.
A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine
waves
Sine wave is described by
Amplitude
Period (frequency)
phase
3-5
3-6
Amplitude
3-7
Period and Frequency

• Frequency and period are the inverse of each
3-8
Units of Period and Frequency

3-9
Example 3.5
Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds, and express
the corresponding frequency in kilohertz
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalent of 1 ms. We make the

following substitutions:
100 ms = 100  10-3 s = 100  10-3  106 μs = 105 μs
Now we use the inverse relationship to find the frequency,
changing hertz to kilohertz
100 ms = 100  10-3 s = 10-1 s
f = 1/10-1 Hz = 10  10-3 KHz = 10-2 KHz
3-10
More About Frequency

Another way to look frequency
Frequency is a measurement of the rate of changes
Change in a short span of time means high frequency
Change over a long span of time means low frequency
Two extremes
No change at all  zero frequency
Instantaneous changes  infinite frequency
3-11
Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to
time zero
3-12
Sine Wave Examples

3-13
Example 3.6
A sine wave is offset one-sixth of a cycle with respect to
time zero. What is its phase in degrees and radians?
We know that one complete cycle is 360 degrees.

Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
(1/6) 360 = 60 degrees = 60 x 2π /360 rad = 1.046 rad
3-14
Wavelength
Another characteristic of a signal traveling through a transmission
medium
Binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the
propagation speed of the medium
Wavelength = propagation speed x period
= propagation speed/frequency
3-15
Time and Frequency Domains

• A complete sine wave in the time domain can be
represented by one single spike in the frequency
domain.
3-16
Example 3.7
• Time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves with
frequencies 0, 8, 16
• Frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are dealing
with more than one sine waves.
3-17
Composite Signals
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data
communications; we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves
When we change one or more characteristics of a single-
frequency signal, it becomes a composite signal made of
many frequencies
According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a
combination of simple sine waves with different
frequencies, phases, and amplitudes
If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition
gives a series of signals with discrete frequencies; if the
composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives
a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.
3-18
Composite Periodic Signal

3-19
Composite Nonperiodic Signal

3-20
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal
3-21
Signal Corruption
3-22
Example 3.11
A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency
is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the
spectrum if the signal contains all integral frequencies of
the same amplitude
B = fh - fl, 20 = 60 – fl, fl = 60 - 20 = 40 Hz
3-23
Digital Signals
3-24
Bit Rate and Bit Interval

3-25
Example 3.18
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages
per minute. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we
assume that one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is
3-26
Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal

3-27
Transmission of Digital Signals

A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an
infinite bandwidth
Baseband transmission: Sending a digital signal without
changing into an analog signal
3-28
Bandwidth Requirement
In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to
the bit rate; if we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth
3-29
Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)

Modulation allows us to use a bandpass channel
If the available channel is a bandpass channel, we cannot
send the digital signal directly to the channel; we need to
convert the digital signal to an analog signal before
transmission.
3-30
Modulation for Bandpass

Channel
3-31
Transmission Impairment
3-32
Attenuation
• Loss of energy to overcome the resistance of the medium: heat
3-33
Decibel
• Example 3.26: Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its
power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the
attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as
• Example 3.28
3-34
Distortion
• The signal changes its form or shape
• Each signal component in a composite signal has its own propagation speed
• Differences in delay may cause a difference in phase
3-35
Noise
• Several types of noises, such as thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and
impulse noise, may corrupt the signal
• Thermal noise is the random motion of elections in a wire which creates an
extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
3-36
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

• To find the theoretical bit rate limit
• SNR = average signal power/average noise power
• SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR
• Example 3.31: The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the

noise is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?
Solution:
3-37
Two Cases of SNRs

3-38
Data Rate Limits

Data rate depends on three factors:
Bandwidth available
Level of the signals we use
Quality of the channel (the noise level)
Noiseless channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
Bit rate = 2 * Bandwidth * log2L
Increasing the levels may cause the reliability of the system
Noisy channel: Shannon Capacity
Capacity = Bandwidth * log2(1 + SNR)
3-39
Nyquist Bit Rate: Examples

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz
transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The maximum
bit rate can be calculated as
Bit Rate = 2  3000  log2 2 = 6000 bps
Consider the same noiseless channel, transmitting a signal

with four signal levels (for each level, we send two bits).
The maximum bit rate can be calculated as:
Bit Rate = 2 x 3000 x log2 4 = 12,000 bps
3-40
Shannon Capacity: Examples

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-
to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that
the signal is faint. For this channel the capacity is calculated as
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = B log2 (1 + 0) = B log2 (1) = B  0 = 0
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone

line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 Hz
to 3300 Hz). The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel
the capacity is calculated as
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 3000 log2 (1 + 3162) = 3000 log2 (3163)
C = 3000  11.62 = 34,860 bps
3-41
Using Both Limits

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the Nyquist formula
tells us how many signal levels we need.
Example: We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR for
this channel is 63; what is the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper limit

C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63)
= 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the
number of signal levels
4 Mbps = 2  1 MHz  log2 L  L = 4
3-42
Performance
Bandwidth (in two contexts)
Bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a composite signal
or the range of frequencies that a channel can pass.
Bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit transmission in a
channel or link.
Throughput
Measurement of how fast we can actually send data through a network
Latency (Delay)
Define how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source
Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time +
processing delay
Propagation time = Distance/Propagation speed
Transmission time = Message size/Bandwidth
Jitter
3-43
Bandwidth-Delay Product
• The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link
3-44
Bandwidth-Delay Product
• Bandwidth-delay product concept

Chapter 3. Data and Signals

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 3. Data and Signals

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 3. Data and Signals

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

3-1

Chapter 3. Data and Signals

1. Analog and Digital

Analog and Digital

Analog and Digital Signals

Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

Periodic Analog Signals

Period and Frequency

Units of Period and Frequency

From Table 3.1 we find the equivalent of 1 ms. We make the

More About Frequency

Sine Wave Examples

We know that one complete cycle is 360 degrees.

Time and Frequency Domains

Composite Periodic Signal

Composite Nonperiodic Signal

Bit Rate and Bit Interval

Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal

Transmission of Digital Signals

Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)

Modulation for Bandpass

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

• Example 3.31: The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the

Two Cases of SNRs

Data Rate Limits

Nyquist Bit Rate: Examples

Consider the same noiseless channel, transmitting a signal

Shannon Capacity: Examples

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone

Using Both Limits

First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper limit

• Bandwidth-delay product concept

You might also like