Prepared by:

JOANNE M. VENTIC, M.P.

Professor

© Cengage Learning 2016 © Cengage Learning 2016

 3.1 Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous
System
• Central nervous system (CNS): the brain
and the spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS):
connects the brain and spinal cord to the
rest of the body
– Somatic nervous system: consists of axons
conveying messages from the sense organs to
the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles
– Autonomic nervous system: controls the heart,
intestines, and other organs
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 The Human Nervous System

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 Anatomical Directions in the Nervous
System

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 Anatomical Terms Referring to Directions

Term Definition
Dorsal Toward the back, away from the ventral (stomach) side. The top of the brain is considered
dorsal because it has that position in four-legged animals.

Ventral Toward the stomach, away from the dorsal (back) side

Rostral Toward the front end

Caudal Toward the rear end
Superior Above another part
Inferior Toward the inside part
Lateral Toward the side part
Medial Located in the middle part
Proximal Located close (approximate) to the point of origin orattachment

Distal Located more distant from the pointof origin or attachment

Ipsilateral On the same side of the body (eg., twoparts on the leftor twoon the right)

Contralateral On the opposite side of the body (one on the left and one on the right)

Coronal plane (or frontal plane) A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the front
Sagittal plane A plane that shows brain structures as seen from theside

Horizontal plane (or transverse plane) A plane that shows brain structures as seen from above

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 Terms Referring to Parts of the Nervous
System
Term Definition
Lamina A row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons and
dendrites

Column A set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties

Tract A set of axons withinthe CNS, also known as a projection. If axons extend from cell
bodies in structure A to synapses onto B, wesay that the fibers "project" from A ontoB.

Nerve A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a
sensory organ to the CNS

Nucleus A cluster of neuron cell bodies withinthe CNS

Ganglion A cluster of neuron cell bodies, usually outside the CNS (as in the sympathetic nervous
system)

Gyrus (pi.: gyri) A protuberance on the surface of the brain

Sulcus (pi.: sulci) A fold or groove that separates one gyrus from another

Fissure A long, deep sulcus

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 The Spinal Cord, Part 1

• Part of the CNS found within the spinal

column
– Communicates with the sense organs and
muscles, except those of the head
– Entering dorsal roots carry sensory information
and exiting ventral roots carry motor
information
– Cell bodies of the sensory neurons are located
in clusters of neurons outside the spinal cord –
the dorsal root ganglia
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 A Cross-Section Through the Spinal Cord

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 The Spinal Cord, Part 2

• Consists of two types of matter

– Grey matter: located in the center of the spinal
cord and is densely packed with cell bodies
and dendrites
– White matter: composed mostly of myelinated
axons that carries information from the gray
matter to the brain or other areas of the spinal
cord
• Each segment sends sensory information
to the brain and receives motor commands
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 Gray Matter and White Matter

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 The Autonomic Nervous System

• Sends and receives messages to regulate

the automatic behaviors of the body (heart
rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion,
etc.)
• Divided into two subsystems
– The sympathetic nervous system
– The parasympathetic nervous system

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 The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Nervous Systems

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 The Sympathetic Nervous System

• A network of nerves that prepares the

organs for rigorous activity
– Increases heart rate, blood pressure,
respiration, etc. (“fight or flight” response)
– Composed of ganglia on the left and right of
the spinal cord

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 The Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Facilitates vegetative and nonemergency

responses
– Decreases functions increased by the
sympathetic nervous system
– Composed of long preganglion axons
extending from the spinal cord and short
postganglionic fibers that attach to the organs
themselves
– Dominant during our relaxed states

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 Neurotransmitters in the ANS

• Postganglionic axons of the

parasympathetic nervous system mostly
release acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter
• The sympathetic nervous system mostly
uses norepinephrine

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 Major Divisions of the Vertebrate Brain

Area Also K n o wn as Major Structures

Forebrain Prosencephalon (“forward-brain)

Forebrain Diencephalon ("between-brain") Thalamus, hypothalamus

Forebrain Telencephalon ("end-brain”) Cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal

ganglia
Midbrain Mesencephalon ("middle-brain") Tectum, tegmentum,superior
colliculus, inferior colliculus, substantia
nigra
Hindbrain Rhombencephalon Medulla, pons, cerebellum
(literally/"parallelogram-brain")

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 Example – Divisions of a Fish Brain

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 The Hindbrain

• Consists of the:
– Medulla
– Pons
– Cerebellum
• Located at the posterior portion of the brain
• Hindbrain structures, the midbrain, and
other central structures of the brain
combine and make up the brain stem

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 The Human Brainstem

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 The Hindbrain – The Medulla and the
Cranial Nerves
• The medulla
– Located just above the spinal cord; like an
enlarged extension of the spinal cord
– Responsible for vital reflexes such as
breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation,
coughing and sneezing
• The cranial nerves
– Allow the medulla to control sensations from
the head, muscle movements in the head, and
many parasympathetic outputs
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 Cranial Nerves II Through XII

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 The Cranial Nerves
Number and Name Major Functions
I. Olfactory Smell
II. Optic Vision
III. Oculomotor Control of eye movements; pupil constriction
IV. Trochlear Control of eye movements
V. Trigeminal Skin sensations from most of the face; control of jawmuscles for chewing and swallowing
VI. Abducens Control of eye movements
VII. Facial Taste from the anterior twothirds of the tongue; control of facial expressions, crying,salivation,
and dilation of the head’s blood vessels
VIII. Statoacoustic
IX. Glossopharyngeal Hearing; equilibrium
Taste and other sensations from throat and posterior third of the tongue; controlof swallowing,
X. Vagus salivation, throat movements duringspeech
Sensations from neck and thorax; control of throat, esophagus, and larynx parasympathetic
XI. Accessory nerves to stomach, intestines, and other organs
XII. Hypoglossal Control of neck and shoulder movements
Control of muscles of the tongue

Cranial nerves III. IV. and VI are coded in red to highlight their similarity: control of eye
movements. Cranial nerves VII, IX, and XII are coded in green to their similarity: taste and control
of tongue and throat movements. Cranial nerve VII has other important functions as well. Nerve X
(not highlighted) also contributes to throat movements, although it is primarily known for other
functions.

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 The Hindbrain – The Pons

• Lies on each side of the medulla (ventral

and anterior)
• The term pons is Latin for “bridge”
– Axons from each half of the brain cross to the
opposite side of the spinal cord such that the
left hemisphere controls the muscles of the
right side of the body and the right hemisphere
controls the left side.

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 The Hindbrain – The Cerebellum

• Structure located in the hindbrain with

many deep folds
– Helps regulate motor movement, balance, and
coordination
– Also important for shifting attention between
auditory and visual stimuli

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 The Midbrain

• Contains the following structures

– Tectum: roof of the midbrain
– Superior colliculus and inferior colliculus:
processes sensory information
– Tegmentum: contains nuclei for cranial nerves
and part of the reticular formation
– Substantia nigra: gives rise to the dopamine-
containing pathway facilitating readiness for
movement

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 Sagittal Section Through the Human Brain

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 The Forebrain

• The most anterior and prominent part of

the mammalian brain, with two cerebral
hemispheres
– Consists of the outer cortex and subcortical
regions
– Outer portion is known as the “cerebral cortex”
– Each side receives sensory information and
controls motor movement from the opposite
(contralateral) side of the body

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 Views of the Brain

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 The Forebrain – The Limbic System

• Consists of a number of other interlinked

structures that form a border around the
brainstem
– Includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus,
hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus
of the cerebral cortex
– Associated with motivation emotions, such as
eating, drinking, sexual activity, anxiety, and
aggression

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 The Limbic System

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 The Forebrain – Subcortical Regions

• Structures underneath the cortex

– Thalamus: relay station from the sensory
organs; main source of input to the cortex
– Hypothalamus: small area near the base
• Conveys messages to the pituitary gland to alter the
release of hormones
• Associated with behaviors such as eating, drinking,
sexual behavior, and other motivated behaviors
• The thalamus and the hypothalamus
together form the “diencephalon”
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 Information Routes from Thalamus to
Cerebral Cortex

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 The Forebrain – The Pituitary Gland and
Basal Ganglia
• Pituitary gland: hormone-producing gland
found at the base of the hypothalamus
• Basal ganglia: comprises the caudate
nucleus, the putamen, and the globus
pallidus
– Associated with planning of motor movement,
and with aspects of memory and emotional
expression
– Also important for attention, language
planning, and other cognitive functions
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 The Basal Ganglia

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 The Forebrain – The Basal Forebrain

• Composed of several structures that lie on

the dorsal surface of the forebrain
• Contains the nucleus basalis
– Receives input from the hypothalamus and
basal ganglia
– Sends axons that release acetylcholine to the
cerebral cortex
– Important in arousal, wakefulness, and
attention

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 Basal Forebrain

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 The Forebrain – The Hippocampus

• A large structure located between the

thalamus and cerebral cortex
– Toward the posterior portion of the forebrain
– Critical for storing certain types of memory,
particularly new events

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 The Ventricles

• Four fluid-filled cavities within the brain’s

central canal containing cerebrospinal fluid
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): a clear fluid
found in the brain and spinal cord
– Provides “cushioning” for the brain
– Reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the
brain and spinal cord

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 The Meninges

• Membranes that surround the brain and

spinal cord
• Contain pain receptors
– Meningitis—inflammation of the meninges—is
painful
– Swollen blood vessels in the meninges are the
cause of migraine headaches

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 The Cerebral Ventricles

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 3.2 The Cerebral Cortex

• The most prominent part of the mammalian

brain
• Consists of the cellular layers on the outer
surface of the cerebral hemispheres
– Divided into two halves
– Joined by two bundles of axons called the
corpus callosum and the anterior commissure
– More highly developed in humans than other
species

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 Volumes of the Cortex and the Rest of the
Brain

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Relative Sizes of Five Brain Components in
Insectivores and Primates

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 Organization of the Cerebral Cortex

• Contains up to six distinct laminae (layers)

that are parallel to the surface of the cortex
• Cells of the cortex are also divided into
columns that lie perpendicular to the
laminae

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 The Six Laminae of the Human Cerebral
Cortex

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 Columns in the Cerebral Cortex

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 The Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

• Occipital lobe
• Parietal lobe
• Temporal lobe
• Frontal lobe

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 Areas of the Human Cerebral Cortex

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 The Occipital Lobe

• Located at the posterior end of the cortex

• Known as the striate cortex or the primary
visual cortex
• Highly responsible for visual input
– Damage can result in cortical blindness

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 The Parietal Lobe, Part 1

• Contains the postcentral gyrus (“primary

somatosensory cortex”)
– Primary target for touch sensations and
information from muscle-stretch receptors and
joint receptors
• Also responsible for processing and
integrating information about eye, head,
and body positions from information sent
from muscles and joints

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Approximate Representation of Sensory and
Motor Information in the Cortex

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 The Parietal Lobe, Part 2

• Essential for spatial information as well as

numerical information
– Example: using one’s fingers to count
represents an overlap of spatial and numerical
tasks

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 The Temporal Lobe

• Located on the lateral portion of each

hemisphere near the temples
– Target for auditory information and essential for
processing spoken language
• Also responsible for complex aspects of
vision, including movement and some
emotional and motivational behaviors
– Klüver-Bucy syndrome associated with
temporal lobe damage

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 The Frontal Lobe

• Contains the prefrontal cortex and the

precentral gyrus
– Precentral gyrus: also known as the primary
motor cortex; responsible for the control of fine
motor movement
– Prefrontal cortex: the integration center for all
sensory information and other areas of the
cortex (most anterior portion of the frontal lobe)

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 Species Differences in Prefrontal Cortex

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 The Prefrontal Cortex

• Responsible for:
– Higher functions such as abstract thinking and
planning
– Our ability to remember recent events and
information (“working memory”)
• People with damage to the prefrontal
cortex exhibit delayed-response task
– Respond to something they see or hear after a
delay

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 Prefrontal Lobotomy

• Surgical disconnection of the prefrontal

cortex from the rest of the brain
– In the 1940s and 50s, about 40,000 performed
– Mostly, schizophrenics, but later others with
less severe mental illness
– Patients left with apathy, lack of ability to plan,
memory disorders and lack of emotional
expression

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 Results of a Prefrontal Lobotomy

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 How Do the Parts Work Together?

• Parts of the cerebral cortex do not work

independently of each other
– All areas of the brain communicate with each
other, but no single central processor exists
that puts it all together

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 The Binding Problem

• Refers to how the visual, auditory, and

other areas of the brain produce a
perception of a single object
– Perhaps the brain binds activity in different
areas when they produce synchronous waves
of activity
– For binding to occur:
• A person perceives two sensations as happening at
the same time and in the same place
• Example: a ventriloquist uses the visual stimulus to
alter the response of the auditory cortex
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 Where Am I?

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 An Illusion to Demonstrate Binding

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 3.3 Research Methods

• The main categories of research methods

to study the brain include those that
attempt to:
– Examine the effects of brain damage
– Examine the effects of stimulating a brain area
– Record brain activity during behavior
– Correlate brain anatomy with behavior

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 Effects of Brain Damage

• Brain damage can produce an inability to

recognize faces, an inability to perceive
motion, changes in emotional responses,
and many more effects
– Ablation: removal of a brain area
– Lesion: damage to a brain area, often done for
research
– Stereotaxic instrument: used to damage
structures in the interior of the brain

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 A Stereotaxic Instrument

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 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

• Application of an intense magnetic field to

a portion of the scalp to temporarily
deactivate neurons below the magnet
– Allows researchers to study behavior with a
brain area active, then inactive, then active
again

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 Apparatus for Magnetic Stimulation of a
Human Brain

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 Effects of Brain Stimulation

• Stimulation of a brain area should increase

behavior
• Optogenetics: a technique that allows
researchers to turn on activity in targeted
neurons by a device that shines a laser
within the brain
– Electrodes can probe the brain of a person
undergoing brain surgery
– A limitation is that complex behaviors depend
on temporal pattern of activity in many areas
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 Recording Brain Activity – EEG

• Electroencephalograph (EEG): records

electrical activity produced by various brain
regions
– Can produce evoked potentials that self-
reports sometimes do not reveal

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 Electroencephalography

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 Recording Brain Activity – MEG and PET

• Magnetoencephalograph (MEG): similar to

EEG but measures faint magnetic fields
generated by brain activity instead
• Positron-emission tomography (PET):
records emission of radioactivity from
injected radioactive chemicals to produce a
high-resolution image

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 A Result of Magnetoencephalography

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 A PET Scanner

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 Recording Brain Activity – fMRI

• Functional magnetic resonance imaging

(fMRI): modified version of an MRI that
uses oxygen consumption in the brain to
provide a moving and detailed picture
– Safer and less expensive than PET
– Comparison tasks are used to compare the
brain pictures while person is engaged in
different activities and recordings can allow
researchers to predict the behavior

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 An fMRI Scan of a Human Brain

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 Subtraction for a Brain Scan Procedure

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 Correlating Brain Anatomy with Behavior –
Phrenology
• The process of relating skull anatomy to
behavior
– One of the first ways used to study the brain
– Yielded few, if any, accurate results

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A Phrenologist’s Map of the Brain

Affective Faculties Propensities ? Desire to live • Allmentlveness 1

Destructiveness 2 Amativeness 3 Philoprogenitfr/eness 4 Adhesiveness
5 Inhabitiveness 6 Combativeness 7 Secretiveness 8 Acquisitiveness 9
Constructiveness Affective Faculties Sentiments 10 Cautiousness 11
Approbatlveness 12 Self-esteem 13 Benevolence 14 Reverence 15
Firmness 16 Conscientiousness 17 Hope 18 Marvelousness 19 Ideality
20 Mirthfulness 21 Imitation Intellectual Faculties Perceptive 22
Individuality 23 Configuration 24 Size " 25 Weight and resistance 26
Coloring 27 Locality 28 Order 29 Calculation 30 Eventuality 31 Time 32
Tune 33 Language Intellectual Faculties Reflective 34 Comparison 35
Causality

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 Correlating Brain Anatomy with Behavior –
Modern Methods
• Identify peculiar behaviors and look for
abnormal brain structures or function
– These abnormal brain structures can be
identified using:
• Computerized axial tomography (CAT scan)
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

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 Correlating Brain Anatomy with Behavior –
CAT and MRI
• Computerized axial tomography (CAT
scan): inject dye into the blood and a pass
x-rays through the head
– Rotate scanner slowly until a measurement
has been taken at each angle and a computer
constructs the image
– Used to identify tumors and abnormalities
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): apply
a powerful magnetic field to image the
brain
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 CT Scanner

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 A View of a Living Brain Generated by
Magnetic Resonance Imaging

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 Methods of Studying Brain-Behavior
Relationships
Examine Effects of B r a i n Damage
Study victims of stroke, etc. Used withhumans; each person has different damage
Lesion Controlled damage in laboratory animals
Ablation Removal of a brain area
Gene knockout Affects wherever that gene is active (eg., a receptor)
Transcranial magnetic stimulation Intense application temporarily inactivates a brain area
Examine Effects of Stimulating a Brain Area
Stimulating electrodes Invasive; used withlaboratory animals, seldom withhumans
Transcranial magnetic stimulation Brief, mild application activates underlying brain area
Record Brain Activity during Behavior
Record from electrodes in brain Invasive; used withlaboratory animals, seldom humans
Electroencephalograph (EEG) Records from scalp; measures changes by milliseconds, but withlowresolution of location of
the signal
Evoked potentials Similar to EEG but in response to stimuli
Magnetoencephalograph (MEG) Similar to EEG but measures magneticfields
Positron emission tomography (PET) Measures changes over both time and location but requires exposing brain to radiation
Functional magnetic resonance Measures changes over about 1 second, identifies location within 1 to 2 mm, no use of
imaging (fMRI) radiation
Correlate Brain Anatomy with Behavior
Computerized axial tomography (CAT) Maps brain areas, but requires exposure to X-rays
Magnetic resonance imaging(MRI) Maps brain areas in detail, using magnetic fields

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 Brain Size and Intelligence

• Research has not supported that a larger

brain is correlated with higher intelligence
• Brain-to-body ratio research has some
limited validity
• Moderate correlation exists between IQ
and brain size (.3)
• Amount of grey and white matter may also
play a role
• IQ is correlated with amount of grey matter
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 Relationship of Brain Mass to Body Mass
Across Species

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 Cortical Areas Whose Size Correlated with
IQ

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 Brain Size and Intelligence – Gender
Comparisons
• Men have larger brains than women but
equal IQs
– Various differences in specific brain structures
exist between men and women, but the
number of neurons are about the same for
both
– Explanations in differences in cognitive abilities
can perhaps be better explained by interest
than abilities (i.e., more male chess masters
because more boys play chess)

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