The Central Nervous System

Introduction
The human nervous system is composed primarily of the brain and spinal cord. This system
serves to relay information to the brain and control virtually all functions of the body. Think of
the brain as a central computer, and the nervous system as a network that relays messages back
and forth. These messages are relayed via the spinal cord, which runs from the brain and down
the back, and is made up of tiny threadlike nerves. The brain tells the body how to react after
receiving a signal. For example, if you burned yourself on a hot oven, the nerves in the hand on
your skin send a message to the brain; the brain then sends a message to your hand telling it to
pull away.

The brain is relatively compact, at only 3 lbs in weight. The spinal cord is a long bundle of tissue
that extends from the lower part of the brain to the spine. The nerves that branch off from the
spinal cord make up the peripheral nervous system. Both the brain and spinal cord are protected
by bone, as they are essential to the functioning of the body. The brain is protected by the skull,
and the spinal cord by the vertebrae. Both are also cushioned by a unique fluid called
cerebrospinal fluid.

Functions of the Central Nervous System include:

➢ Heart-rate
➢ Breathing
➢ Emotions
➢ Metabolism
➢ Movement
➢ Balance
➢ Memory
The Brain
The brain is made up of three main sections: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain.

1. The Forebrain
The forebrain is the largest and most complicated part of the brain. As its name suggests,
it is located in the most forward section of the brain. It is normally separated into two
hemispheres known as the diencephalon and the telencephalon.

Region Components

Diencephalon Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland

Telencephalon Cerebral Cortex, Limbic System

Diencephalon

This area of the brain sits on the bottom portion of the forebrain and is heavily involved with
sensory processing and the autonomic nerve system. The autonomic nervous system is located
inside of this brain region and serves to regulate both body temperature and sleep functions.
Additionally, it controls the hormones that are released to the pituitary gland which regulates
metabolism as well as equilibrium, eye movement, hearing and speech processing, and
swallowing and chewing, among others.

The Diencephalon also includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and the pituitary gland.

➢ Thalamus-Responsible for sensory relay within the brain.

➢ Hypothalamus- Receives hormones from the pituitary gland, responsible for fight or
flight urges, hunger, and sexual desire.
➢ Pituitary Gland-Part of the endocrine system, regulates metabolism and hormones.

Telencephalon

Central nervous system functions occur primarily in the upper hemisphere of the forebrain,
which is known as the telencephalon. This region houses the cerebrum, which is sometimes
known as the cerebral cortex.

Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex is the grey matter of the brain. Most information processing occurs in
this region. Each layer has different compositions in terms of neurons. There are four
lobes of the cerebral cortex.

Lobe Function

Frontal Personality, Conscience, Planning,

Inhibitions

Parietal Somatosensory processing (touch)

Occipital Visual Memory

Temporal Auditory and Language Processing

The Limbic System

The Limbic System is the collective name for the parts of the brain that control emotion,
emotional associations in memory, and motivation. It is located on both sides of the
thalamus, underneath the cerebrum.

2. The Midbrain
As its name suggests, the midbrain is located in between the forebrain and hindbrain.
This region acts as an information highway connecting the forebrain and the hindbrain. It
enables the brain to integrate sensory information with muscle movements, enabling the
body to adjust movements. The midbrain is made up of three main structures, the
cerebral peduncle, the corpora quadrigemina, and the cerebral aqueduct.

➢ Cerebral Peduncles- The cerebral peduncles are the part of the midbrain that transfers
motor signals from the brain to the brainstem. This part of the brain also communicates
with the cerebellum to fine-tune motor movements.

➢ Corpora Quadrigemina-The corpora quadrigemina are reflex centers involving vision

and hearing.

➢ Cerebral Aqueduct- The cerebral aqueduct contains cerebrospinal fluid and connects the
third ventricle in the diencephalon with the third region of the diencephalon.
3. The Hindbrain

The hindbrain is located towards the rear and lower portion of a human brain. It is
responsible for controlling a number of important bodily functions, such as respiration
and heart rate. The brainstem is a pivotal part of the hindbrain, and controls functions that
are critical to life such as breathing and swallowing. This portion also connects the spinal
cord with the rest of the brain. Important parts of the Hindbrain include the pons,
medulla oblongata, cranial nerves, and the cerebellum.

➢ The Pons- The pons is a region that connects the medulla oblongata with the cerebral
cortex. It also serves as a communication center for the two hemispheres of the brain.

➢ Medulla Oblongata-The continuation of the spinal cord within the skull.

➢ Cranial Nerves- Exit from the brainstem and supply other parts of the body with nerves.
The sensory fibers all have their cell bodies located in ganglia outside of the brain stem.

➢ Cerebellum- The cerebellum is the area of the hindbrain that controls movement.
Balance, equilibrium, muscle tone, and coordination are controlled in this region. The
cerebellum is composed of white matter and a thin outer layer of densely folded gray
matter.
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a long, skinny, tubular bundle of tissue made up of nervous tissue that extends
from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region. The inner portion of the spinal
cord contains nervous system support cells called glia and blood vessels. The spongy spinal cord
is protected by the irregular shaped bones of the spinal column, which are called vertebrae.
Between the vertebrae are stacks of cartilage with thin spaces between them. These spaces are
the passages that the spinal nerves use to exit to the rest of the body. These are the places where
the spinal cord is susceptible to injuries.

The Spinal Cord is also organized in segments, which are named and numbered from top to
bottom. The vertebrae do not exactly correspond with the segments of the spinal cord, but are
close in proximity.

➢ Cervical Spinal Nerves (C1-C8)-control signals to the back of the head, the neck
and shoulders, the arms and hands, and the diaphragm.
➢ Thoracic Spinal Nerves (T1-T12)-control signals to the chest muscles, some
muscles of the back, and the abdomen.
➢ Lumbar Spinal Nerves (L1-L5)-control signals to the lower part of the abdomen
and back, the butt, some parts of the external genitals, and parts of the leg.
➢ Sacral spinal nerves (S1 to S5)-control signals to the thighs and parts of the legs,
the genital organs, and areas around the anus.
➢ Coccygeal nerve-single nerve that carries sensory information from the lower
back.

This figure depicts the spinal cord in its entirety.

Conclusion
Without all of the parts and functions of the central nervous system the body would not be able
to function properly. The brain controls emotions, body temperature, metabolism, movement,
breathing, smell, memory, personality, touch, and virtually every other function of the human
body. The spinal cord connects to the brain through the medulla oblongata and serves as a
vehicle for nerves in the body. It also serves as a medium for motor function and sends messages
back and forth to the brain. An understanding of the central nervous system is critical in
understanding the way that the human body functions. This chapter is meant to illustrate the parts
and functions of this system.
 Works Cited

Bailey, Regina. “Understand the Anatomy of the Spinal Cord.” ThoughtCo, ThoughtCo, 2

Nov. 2017, www.thoughtco.com/the-spinal-cord-373189.

3icreative. “Psychology.” 3iCreative, 12 Mar. 2011, www.3icreative.com/psych/forebrain-

telencephalon-diencephalon.html.
Situation Page

The author of this piece is meant to be myself. I am imagining myself composing this chapter as
part of a biology textbook for eleventh grade advanced biology students. The title of the textbook
would be “Basics of Biology”, and it is published by McGraw-Hill Education Company. This
piece is chapter 4 of the textbook, “The Central Nervous System”. This chapter is meant to
educate students on the parts and functions of the central nervous system. Students would need
some prior knowledge of biology from previous courses. This chapter would be taught in an
advanced biology class, for AP credit. Students would read this description in order to gain a
greater understanding of the central nervous system, so as to understand the entire body’s
functions more thoroughly. The language is meant to be clear and concise, and the visuals are
meant to further explain the concepts that are covered in the chapter.