CHAPTER 2

Special Theory of Relativity

 2.1 The Need for Ether
 2.2 The Michelson-Morley Experiment
 2.3 Einstein’s Postulates
 2.4 The Lorentz Transformation
 2.5 Time Dilation and Length Contraction
 2.6 Addition of Velocities
 2.7 Experimental Verification
 2.8 Twin Paradox
 2.9 Spacetime
 2.10 Doppler Effect It was found that there was no
 2.11 Relativistic Momentum displacement of the interference
 2.12 Relativistic Energy fringes, so that the result of the
 2.13 Computations in Modern Physics experiment was negative and would,
therefore, show that there is still a
 2.14 Electromagnetism and Relativity
difficulty in the theory itself…
- Albert Michelson, 1907

1
Newtonian (Classical) Relativity

Assumption
 It is assumed that Newton’s laws of motion must
be measured with respect to (relative to) some
reference frame.

2
Inertial Reference Frame

 A reference frame is called an inertial frame

if Newton laws are valid in that frame.
 Such a frame is established when a body, not
subjected to net external forces, is observed
to move in rectilinear motion at constant
velocity.

3
Newtonian Principle of Relativity

 If Newton’s laws are valid in one reference

frame, then they are also valid in another
reference frame moving at a uniform velocity
relative to the first system.

 This is referred to as the Newtonian

principle of relativity or Galilean
invariance.

4
Inertial Frames K and K’

 K is at rest and K’ is moving with velocity

 Axes are parallel
 K and K’ are said to be INERTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

5
The Galilean Transformation

For a point P
 In system K: P = (x, y, z, t)
 In system K’: P = (x’, y’, z’, t’)

x P

K K’ x’-axis
x-axis

6
Conditions of the Galilean Transformation

 Parallel axes
 K’ has a constant relative velocity in the x-direction
with respect to K

 Time (t) for all observers is a Fundamental invariant,

i.e., the same for all inertial observers

7
The Inverse Relations

Step 1. Replace with .

Step 2. Replace “primed” quantities with
“unprimed” and “unprimed” with “primed.”

8
The Transition to Modern Relativity

 Although Newton’s laws of motion had the

same form under the Galilean transformation,
Maxwell’s equations did not.
 In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed a
fundamental connection between space and
time and that Newton’s laws are only an
approximation.

9
2.1: The Need for Ether

 The wave nature of light suggested that there

existed a propagation medium called the
luminiferous ether or just ether.
 Ether had to have such a low density that the planets
could move through it without loss of energy

 It also had to have an elasticity to support the high

velocity of light waves

10
Maxwell’s Equations

 In Maxwell’s theory the speed of light, in

terms of the permeability and permittivity of
free space, was given by

 Thus the velocity of light between moving

systems must be a constant.

11
An Absolute Reference System

 Ether was proposed as an absolute reference

system in which the speed of light was this
constant and from which other
measurements could be made.
 The Michelson-Morley experiment was an
attempt to show the existence of ether.

12
2.2: The Michelson-Morley Experiment

 Albert Michelson (1852–1931) was the first

U.S. citizen to receive the Nobel Prize for
Physics (1907), and built an extremely
precise device called an interferometer to
measure the minute phase difference
between two light waves traveling in mutually
orthogonal directions.

13
The Michelson Interferometer

14
The Michelson Interferometer
1. AC is parallel to the motion
of the Earth inducing an “ether
wind”

2. Light from source S is split

by mirror A and travels to
mirrors C and D in mutually
perpendicular directions

3. After reflection the beams

recombine at A slightly out of
phase due to the “ether wind”
as viewed by telescope E.

15
Typical interferometer fringe pattern
expected when the system is rotated by 90°

16
The Analysis
Assuming the Galilean Transformation

Time t1 from A to C and back:

Time t2 from A to D and back:

So that the change in time is:

17
The Analysis (continued)

Upon rotating the apparatus, the optical path lengths ℓ 1

and ℓ2 are interchanged producing a different change in
time: (note the change in denominators)

18
The Analysis (continued)
Thus a time difference between rotations is given by:

and upon a binomial expansion, assuming

v/c << 1, this reduces to

19
Results
 Using the Earth’s orbital speed as:

V = 3 × 104 m/s
together with
ℓ1 ≈ ℓ2 = 1.2 m

So that the time difference becomes

Δt’ − Δt ≈ v2(ℓ1 + ℓ2)/c3 = 8 × 10−17 s

 Although a very small number, it was within the

experimental range of measurement for light waves.
20
Michelson’s Conclusion
 Michelson noted that he should be able to detect
a phase shift of light due to the time difference
between path lengths but found none.
 He thus concluded that the hypothesis of the
stationary ether must be incorrect.
 After several repeats and refinements with
assistance from Edward Morley (1893-1923),
again a null result.
 Thus, ether does not seem to exist!

21
Possible Explanations

 Many explanations were proposed but the

most popular was the ether drag hypothesis.
 This hypothesis suggested that the Earth
somehow “dragged” the ether along as it rotates
on its axis and revolves about the sun.
 This was contradicted by stellar abberation
wherein telescopes had to be tilted to observe
starlight due to the Earth’s motion. If ether was
dragged along, this tilting would not exist.

22
The Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction

 Another hypothesis proposed independently by

both H. A. Lorentz and G. F. FitzGerald suggested
that the length ℓ1, in the direction of the motion was
contracted by a factor of

…thus making the path lengths equal to account for

the zero phase shift.

 This, however, was an ad hoc assumption that could

not be experimentally tested.

23
2.3: Einstein’s Postulates
 Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was only two
years old when Michelson reported his first
null measurement for the existence of the
ether.
 At the age of 16 Einstein began thinking
about the form of Maxwell’s equations in
moving inertial systems.
 In 1905, at the age of 26, he published his
startling proposal about the principle of
relativity, which he believed to be
fundamental.
24
Einstein’s Two Postulates

With the belief that Maxwell’s equations must be

valid in all inertial frames, Einstein proposes the
following postulates:
1) The principle of relativity: The laws of
physics are the same in all inertial systems.
There is no way to detect absolute motion, and
no preferred inertial system exists.
2) The constancy of the speed of light:
Observers in all inertial systems measure the
same value for the speed of light in a vacuum.

25
Re-evaluation of Time
 In Newtonian physics we previously assumed
that t = t’
 Thus with “synchronized” clocks, events in K and
K’ can be considered simultaneous

 Einstein realized that each system must have

its own observers with their own clocks and
meter sticks
 Thus events considered simultaneous in K may
not be in K’

26
The Problem of Simultaneity
Frank at rest is equidistant from events A and B:

A B
−1 m +1 m
0

Frank “sees” both flashbulbs go off

simultaneously.

27
The Problem of Simultaneity
Mary, moving to the right with speed v,
observes events A and B in different order:

−1 m 0 +1 m
A B

Mary “sees” event B, then A.

28
We thus observe…

 Two events that are simultaneous in one

reference frame (K) are not necessarily
simultaneous in another reference frame (K’)
moving with respect to the first frame.

 This suggests that each coordinate system

has its own observers with “clocks” that are
synchronized…

29
Synchronization of Clocks

Step 1: Place observers with clocks throughout

a given system.

Step 2: In that system bring all the clocks

together at one location.

Step 3: Compare the clock readings.

 If all of the clocks agree, then the clocks

are said to be synchronized.

30
A method to synchronize…

 One way is to have one clock at the origin set

to t = 0 and advance each clock by a time
(d/c) with d being the distance of the clock
from the origin.
 Allow each of these clocks to begin timing when a
light signal arrives from the origin.

t=0

t = d/c t = d/c
d d

31
The Lorentz Transformations

The special set of linear transformations that:

1) preserve the constancy of the speed of light (c)

between inertial observers;
and,
2) account for the problem of simultaneity between
these observers

known as the Lorentz transformation equations

32
Lorentz Transformation Equations

33
Lorentz Transformation Equations

A more symmetric form:

34
Properties of γ
Recall β = v/c < 1 for all observers.

1) equals 1 only when v = 0.

2) Graph of β:
(note v ≠ c)

35
Derivation
 Use the fixed system K and the moving system K’
 At t = 0 the origins and axes of both systems are coincident with
system K’ moving to the right along the x axis.
 A flashbulb goes off at the origins when t = 0.
 According to postulate 2, the speed of light will be c in both
systems and the wavefronts observed in both systems must be
spherical.

K K’

36
Derivation

Spherical wavefronts in K:

Spherical wavefronts in K’:

Note: these are not preserved in the classical

transformations with

37
Derivation

1) Let x’ = (x – vt) so that x = (x’ + vt’)

2) By Einstein’s first postulate:

3) The wavefront along the x,x’- axis must satisfy:

x = ct and x’ = ct’

4) Thus ct’ = (ct – vt) and ct = (ct’ + vt’)

5) Solving the first one above for t’ and substituting into

the second...

38
Derivation

Gives the following result:

from which we derive:

39
Finding a Transformation for t’

Recalling x’ = (x – vt) substitute into x = (x’ + vt) and

solving for t ’ we obtain:

which may be written in terms of β (= v/c):

40
Thus the complete Lorentz Transformation

41
Remarks

1) If v << c, i.e., β ≈ 0 and ≈ 1, we see these

equations reduce to the familiar Galilean
transformation.

2) Space and time are now not separated.

3) For non-imaginary transformations, the frame

velocity cannot exceed c.

42
2.5: Time Dilation and Length Contraction
Consequences of the Lorentz Transformation:

 Time Dilation:
Clocks in K’ run slow with respect to
stationary clocks in K.

 Length Contraction:
Lengths in K’ are contracted with respect to
the same lengths stationary in K.

43
Time Dilation

To understand time dilation the idea of

proper time must be understood:

 The term proper time,T0, is the time

difference between two events occurring at
the same position in a system as measured
by a clock at that position.

Same location
44
Time Dilation

Not Proper Time

Beginning and ending of the event occur at

different positions

45
 Time Dilation

Frank’s clock is at the same position in system K when the sparkler is lit in
(a) and when it goes out in (b). Mary, in the moving system K’, is beside
the sparkler at (a). Melinda then moves into the position where and when
the sparkler extinguishes at (b). Thus, Melinda, at the new position,
measures the time in system K’ when the sparkler goes out in (b).

46
According to Mary and Melinda…
 Mary and Melinda measure the two times for the
sparkler to be lit and to go out in system K’ as times
t’1 and t’2 so that by the Lorentz transformation:

 Note here that Frank records x – x1 = 0 in K with

a proper time: T0 = t2 – t1 or

with T ’ = t’2 - t’1

47
Time Dilation

1) T ’ > T0 or the time measured between two

events at different positions is greater than the
time between the same events at one position:
time dilation.
2) The events do not occur at the same space and
time coordinates in the two system
3) System K requires 1 clock and K’ requires 2
clocks.

48
Length Contraction

To understand length contraction the idea of

proper length must be understood:

 Let an observer in each system K and K’

have a meter stick at rest in their own system
such that each measure the same length at
rest.
 The length as measured at rest is called the
proper length.

49
What Frank and Mary see…

Each observer lays the stick down along his or her

respective x axis, putting the left end at xℓ (or x’ℓ) and
the right end at xr (or x’r).

 Thus, in system K, Frank measures his stick to be:

L0 = xr - xℓ

 Similarly, in system K’, Mary measures her stick at

rest to be:
L’0 = x’r – x’ℓ

50
What Frank and Mary measure
 Frank in his rest frame measures the moving length in
Mary’s frame moving with velocity.

 Thus using the Lorentz transformations Frank measures

the length of the stick in K’ as:

Where both ends of the stick must be measured

simultaneously, i.e, tr = tℓ
Here Mary’s proper length is L’0 = x’r – x’ℓ
and Frank’s measured length is L = xr – xℓ

51
Frank’s measurement

So Frank measures the moving length as L given

by

but since both Mary and Frank in their respective

frames measure L’0 = L0

and L0 > L, i.e. the moving stick shrinks.

52
2.6: Addition of Velocities

Taking differentials of the Lorentz

transformation, relative velocities may be
calculated:

53
So that…

defining velocities as: ux = dx/dt, uy = dy/dt,

u’x = dx’/dt’, etc. it is easily shown that:

With similar relations for uy and uz:

54
The Lorentz Velocity Transformations

In addition to the previous relations, the Lorentz

velocity transformations for u’x, u’y , and u’z can be
obtained by switching primed and unprimed and
changing v to –v:

55
2.7: Experimental Verification
Time Dilation and Muon Decay

Figure 2.18: The number of muons detected with speeds near 0.98c is much
different (a) on top of a mountain than (b) at sea level, because of the muon’s decay.
The experimental result agrees with our time dilation equation.

56
Atomic Clock Measurement

Figure 2.20: Two airplanes took off (at different times) from Washington, D.C., where the U.S.
Naval Observatory is located. The airplanes traveled east and west around Earth as it rotated.
Atomic clocks on the airplanes were compared with similar clocks kept at the observatory to
show that the moving clocks in the airplanes ran slower.

57
2.8: Twin Paradox
The Set-up
Twins Mary and Frank at age 30 decide on two career paths: Mary
decides to become an astronaut and to leave on a trip 8 lightyears (ly)
from the Earth at a great speed and to return; Frank decides to reside
on the Earth.

The Problem
Upon Mary’s return, Frank reasons that her clocks measuring her age
must run slow. As such, she will return younger. However, Mary claims
that it is Frank who is moving and consequently his clocks must run
slow.

The Paradox
Who is younger upon Mary’s return?

58
The Resolution

1) Frank’s clock is in an inertial system during the entire

trip; however, Mary’s clock is not. As long as Mary is
traveling at constant speed away from Frank, both of
them can argue that the other twin is aging less rapidly.

2) When Mary slows down to turn around, she leaves her

original inertial system and eventually returns in a
completely different inertial system.

3) Mary’s claim is no longer valid, because she does not

remain in the same inertial system. There is also no
doubt as to who is in the inertial system. Frank feels no
acceleration during Mary’s entire trip, but Mary does.

59
2.9: Spacetime
 When describing events in relativity, it is convenient to
represent events on a spacetime diagram.

 In this diagram one spatial coordinate x, to specify

position, is used and instead of time t, ct is used as the
other coordinate so that both coordinates will have
dimensions of length.

 Spacetime diagrams were first used by H. Minkowski in

1908 and are often called Minkowski diagrams. Paths
in Minkowski spacetime are called worldlines.

60
Spacetime Diagram

61
Particular Worldlines

62
Worldlines and Time

63
Moving Clocks

64
The Light Cone

65
Spacetime Interval

Since all observers “see” the same speed of

light, then all observers, regardless of their
velocities, must see spherical wave fronts.

s2 = x2 – c2t2 = (x’)2 – c2 (t’)2 = (s’)2

66
Spacetime Invariants

 If we consider two events, we can determine

the quantity Δs2 between the two events, and
we find that it is invariant in any inertial
frame. The quantity Δs is known as the
spacetime interval between two events.

67
Spacetime Invariants
There are three possibilities for the invariant quantity Δs2:

1) Δs2 = 0: Δx2 = c2 Δt2, and the two events can be connected

only by a light signal. The events are said to have a lightlike
separation.

2) Δs2 > 0: Δx2 > c2 Δt2, and no signal can travel fast enough to
connect the two events. The events are not causally
connected and are said to have a spacelike separation.

3) Δs2 < 0: Δx2 < c2 Δt2, and the two events can be causally
connected. The interval is said to be timelike.

68
2.10: The Doppler Effect
 The Doppler effect of sound in introductory physics is
represented by an increased frequency of sound as a source
such as a train (with whistle blowing) approaches a receiver (our
eardrum) and a decreased frequency as the source recedes.

 Also, the same change in sound frequency occurs when the

source is fixed and the receiver is moving. The change in
frequency of the sound wave depends on whether the source or
receiver is moving.

 On first thought it seems that the Doppler effect in sound violates

the principle of relativity, until we realize that there is in fact a
special frame for sound waves. Sound waves depend on media
such as air, water, or a steel plate in order to propagate;
however, light does not!

69
Recall the Doppler Effect

70
The Relativistic Doppler Effect
Consider a source of light (for example, a star) and a receiver
(an astronomer) approaching one another with a relative velocity v.

1) Consider the receiver in system K and the light source in

system K’ moving toward the receiver with velocity v.
2) The source emits n waves during the time interval T.
3) Because the speed of light is always c and the source is
moving with velocity v, the total distance between the front and
rear of the wave transmitted during the time interval T is:

Length of wave train = cT − vT

71
The Relativistic Doppler Effect

Because there are n waves, the wavelength is

given by

And the resulting frequency is

72
The Relativistic Doppler Effect

In this frame: f0 = n / T ’0 and

Thus:

73
Source and Receiver Approaching

With β = v / c the resulting frequency is given

by:

(source and receiver approaching)

74
Source and Receiver Receding

In a similar manner, it is found that:

(source and receiver receding)

75
The Relativistic Doppler Effect

Equations (2.32) and (2.33) can be combined into

one equation if we agree to use a + sign for β
(+v/c) when the source and receiver are
approaching each other and a – sign for β (– v/c)
when they are receding. The final equation
becomes

Relativistic Doppler effect (2.34)

76
2.11: Relativistic Momentum

Because physicists believe that the conservation

of momentum is fundamental, we begin by
considering collisions where there do not exist
external forces and
dP/dt = Fext = 0

77
Relativistic Momentum
Frank (fixed or stationary system) is at rest in system K holding a ball
of mass m. Mary (moving system) holds a similar ball in system K that
is moving in the x direction with velocity v with respect to system K.

78
Relativistic Momentum
 If we use the definition of momentum, the
momentum of the ball thrown by Frank is
entirely in the y direction:
pFy = mu0

The change of momentum as observed by

Frank is
ΔpF = ΔpFy = −2mu0

79
According to Mary
 Mary measures the initial velocity of her own
ball to be u’Mx = 0 and u’My = −u0.

In order to determine the velocity of Mary’s

ball as measured by Frank we use the
velocity transformation equations:

80
Relativistic Momentum
Before the collision, the momentum of Mary’s ball as measured by
Frank becomes

Before

Before (2.42)

For a perfectly elastic collision, the momentum after the collision is

After

After (2.43)

The change in momentum of Mary’s ball according to Frank is

(2.44)

81
Relativistic Momentum
 The conservation of linear momentum requires the
total change in momentum of the collision, ΔpF + ΔpM,
to be zero. The addition of Equations (2.40) and (2.44)
clearly does not give zero.
 Linear momentum is not conserved if we use the
conventions for momentum from classical physics
even if we use the velocity transformation equations
from the special theory of relativity.
There is no problem with the x direction, but there is a
problem with the y direction along the direction the ball
is thrown in each system.

82
Relativistic Momentum
 Rather than abandon the conservation of linear
momentum, let us look for a modification of the
definition of linear momentum that preserves both it
and Newton’s second law.
 To do so requires reexamining mass to conclude that:

Relativistic momentum (2.48)

83
Relativistic Momentum

Some physicists like to refer to the mass in Equation

(2.48) as the rest mass m0 and call the term m = γm0 the
relativistic mass. In this manner the classical form of
momentum, m, is retained. The mass is then imagined to
increase at high speeds.
 Most physicists prefer to keep the concept of mass as an
invariant, intrinsic property of an object. We adopt this latter
approach and will use the term mass exclusively to mean
rest mass. Although we may use the terms mass and rest
mass synonymously, we will not use the term relativistic
mass. The use of relativistic mass to often leads the student
into mistakenly inserting the term into classical expressions
where it does not apply.

84
2.12: Relativistic Energy
 Due to the new idea of relativistic mass, we
must now redefine the concepts of work and
energy.
 Therefore, we modify Newton’s second law to
include our new definition of linear momentum,
and force becomes:

85
Relativistic Energy

The work W12 done by a force to move a particle

from position 1 to position 2 along a path is defined
to be

(2.55)

where K1 is defined to be the kinetic energy of the

particle at position 1.

86
Relativistic Energy

For simplicity, let the particle start from rest

under the influence of the force and calculate
the kinetic energy K after the work is done.

87
Relativistic Kinetic Energy

The limits of integration are from an initial value of 0 to a

final value of .
(2.57)

The integral in Equation (2.57) is straightforward if done

by the method of integration by parts. The result, called
the relativistic kinetic energy, is

(2.58)

88
Relativistic Kinetic Energy
Equation (2.58) does not seem to resemble the classical result for kinetic energy, K =
½mu2. However, if it is correct, we expect it to reduce to the classical result for low
speeds. Let’s see if it does. For speeds u << c, we expand in a binomial series as
follows:

where we have neglected all terms of power (u/c)4 and greater, because u << c. This
gives the following equation for the relativistic kinetic energy at low speeds:

(2.59)

which is the expected classical result. We show both the relativistic and classical kinetic
energies in Figure 2.31. They diverge considerably above a velocity of 0.6c.

89
Relativistic and Classical Kinetic Energies

90
Total Energy and Rest Energy
We rewrite Equation (2.58) in the form

(2.63)

The term mc2 is called the rest energy and is denoted by E0.
(2.64)

This leaves the sum of the kinetic energy and rest energy to
be interpreted as the total energy of the particle. The total
energy is denoted by E and is given by
(2.65)

91
Momentum and Energy

We square this result, multiply by c2, and

rearrange the result.

We use Equation (2.62) for β2 and find

92
Momentum and Energy (continued)
The first term on the right-hand side is just E2, and the second term is
E02. The last equation becomes

We rearrange this last equation to find the result we are seeking, a

relation between energy and momentum.
(2.70)
or
(2.71)

Equation (2.70) is a useful result to relate the total energy of a particle

with its momentum. The quantities (E2 – p2c2) and m are invariant
quantities. Note that when a particle’s velocity is zero and it has no
momentum, Equation (2.70) correctly gives E0 as the particle’s total
energy.

93
2.13: Computations in Modern Physics

 We were taught in introductory physics that

the international system of units is preferable
when doing calculations in science and
engineering.
 In modern physics a somewhat different,
more convenient set of units is often used.
 The smallness of quantities often used in
modern physics suggests some practical
changes.

94
Units of Work and Energy
 Recall that the work done in accelerating a
charge through a potential difference is given
by W = qV.
 For a proton, with the charge e = 1.602 ×
10−19 C being accelerated across a potential
difference of 1 V, the work done is
W = (1.602 × 10−19)(1 V) = 1.602 × 10−19 J

95
The Electron Volt (eV)

The work done to accelerate the proton

across a potential difference of 1 V could also
be written as
W = (1 e)(1 V) = 1 eV

 Thus eV, pronounced “electron volt,” is also a

unit of energy. It is related to the SI (Système
International) unit joule by the 2 previous
equations.
1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J
96
Other Units
1) Rest energy of a particle:
Example: E0 (proton)

2) Atomic mass unit (amu):

Example: carbon-12
Mass (12C atom)

Mass (12C atom)

97
Binding Energy
 The equivalence of mass and energy
becomes apparent when we study the
binding energy of systems like atoms and
nuclei that are formed from individual
particles.

 The potential energy associated with the

force keeping the system together is called
the binding energy EB.

98
Binding Energy

The binding energy is the difference between

the rest energy of the individual particles and
the rest energy of the combined bound system.

99
Electromagnetism and Relativity
 Einstein was convinced that magnetic fields appeared
as electric fields observed in another inertial frame.
That conclusion is the key to electromagnetism and
relativity.
 Einstein’s belief that Maxwell’s equations describe
electromagnetism in any inertial frame was the key
that led Einstein to the Lorentz transformations.
 Maxwell’s assertion that all electromagnetic waves
travel at the speed of light and Einstein’s postulate that
the speed of light is invariant in all inertial frames
seem intimately connected.

100
A Conducting Wire

101
CHAPTER 15
General Relativity

 15.1 Tenets of General Relativity

 15.2 Tests of General Relativity
 15.3 Gravitational Waves
 15.4 Black Holes
 15.5 Frame Dragging

There is nothing in the world except empty, curved space. Matter,

charge, electromagnetism, and other fields are only manifestations of the
curvature.

- John Archibald Wheeler

102
15.1: Tenets of General Relativity
 General relativity is the extension of special relativity. It
includes the effects of accelerating objects and their mass
on spacetime.
 As a result, the theory is an explanation of gravity.
 It is based on two concepts: (1) the principle of
equivalence, which is an extension of Einstein’s first
postulate of special relativity and (2) the curvature of
spacetime due to gravity.

103
Principle of Equivalence
 The principle of equivalence
is an experiment in
noninertial reference frames.
 Consider an astronaut sitting
in a confined space on a
rocket placed on Earth. The
astronaut is strapped into a
chair that is mounted on a
weighing scale that indicates
a mass M. The astronaut
drops a safety manual that
falls to the floor.

 Now contrast this situation with the rocket accelerating through space. The gravitational
force of the Earth is now negligible. If the acceleration has exactly the same magnitude g
on Earth, then the weighing scale indicates the same mass M that it did on Earth, and
the safety manual still falls with the same acceleration as measured by the astronaut.
The question is: How can the astronaut tell whether the rocket is on earth or in space?

 Principle of equivalence: There is no experiment that can be done in a small confined

space that can detect the difference between a uniform gravitational field and an
equivalent uniform acceleration.

104
Inertial Mass and Gravitational Mass
 Recall from Newton’s 2nd law that an object accelerates in
reaction to a force according to its inertial mass:

 Inertial mass measures how strongly an object resists a

change in its motion.

 Gravitational mass measures how strongly it attracts other

objects.

 For the same force, we get a ratio of masses:

 According to the principle of equivalence, the inertial and

gravitational masses are equal.

105
Light Deflection
 Consider accelerating through a region of
space where the gravitational force is
negligible. A small window on the rocket
allows a beam of starlight to enter the
spacecraft. Since the velocity of light is finite,
there is a nonzero amount of time for the light
to shine across the opposite wall of the
spaceship.
 During this time, the rocket has accelerated
upward. From the point of view of a
passenger in the rocket, the light path
appears to bend down toward the floor.
 The principle of equivalence implies that an
observer on Earth watching light pass
through the window of a classroom will agree
that the light bends toward the ground.
 This prediction seems surprising, however
the unification of mass and energy from the
special theory of relativity hints that the
gravitational force of the Earth could act on
the effective mass of the light beam.
106
 Spacetime Curvature of Space
 Light bending for the Earth observer seems to violate the premise
that the velocity of light is constant from special relativity. Light
traveling at a constant velocity implies that it travels in a straight
line.
 Einstein recognized that we need to expand our definition of a
straight line.
 The shortest distance between two points on a flat surface appears
different than the same distance between points on a sphere. The
path on the sphere appears curved. We shall expand our definition
of a straight line to include any minimized distance between two
points.
 Thus if the spacetime near the Earth is not flat, then the straight line
path of light near the Earth will appear curved.

107
The Unification of Mass and Spacetime
 Einstein mandated that the mass of the Earth creates a
dimple on the spacetime surface. In other words, the mass
changes the geometry of the spacetime.
 The geometry of the spacetime then tells matter how to move.
 Einstein’s famous field equations sum up this relationship as:

* mass-energy tells spacetime how to curve

* Spacetime curvature tells matter how to move

 The result is that a standard unit of length such as a meter

stick increases in the vicinity of a mass.

108
15.2: Tests of General Relativity
Bending of Light
 During a solar eclipse of the sun by the moon,
most of the sun’s light is blocked on Earth,
which afforded the opportunity to view starlight
passing close to the sun in 1919. The starlight
was bent as it passed near the sun which
caused the star to appear displaced.
 Einstein’s general theory predicted a deflection
of 1.75 seconds of arc, and the two
measurements found 1.98 ± 0.16 and 1.61 ±
0.40 seconds.
 Since the eclipse of 1919, many experiments,
using both starlight and radio waves from
quasars, have confirmed Einstein’s predictions
about the bending of light with increasingly
good accuracy.

109
Gravitational Lensing
 When light from a
distant object like a
quasar passes by a
nearby galaxy on its
way to us on Earth, the
light can be bent
multiple times as it
passes in different
directions around the
galaxy.

110
Gravitational Redshift
 The second test of general relativity is the predicted frequency
change of light near a massive object.
 Imagine a light pulse being emitted from the surface of the Earth to
travel vertically upward. The gravitational attraction of the Earth
cannot slow down light, but it can do work on the light pulse to lower
its energy. This is similar to a rock being thrown straight up. As it goes
up, its gravitational potential energy increases while its kinetic energy
decreases. A similar thing happens to a light pulse.
 A light pulse’s energy depends on its frequency f through Planck’s
constant, E = hf. As the light pulse travels up vertically, it loses kinetic
energy and its frequency decreases. Its wavelength increases, so the
wavelengths of visible light are shifted toward the red end of the
visible spectrum.
 This phenomenon is called gravitational redshift.

111
Gravitational Redshift Experiments
 An experiment conducted in a tall tower measured the “blueshift”
change in frequency of a light pulse sent down the tower. The energy
gained when traveling downward a distance H is mgH. If f is the
energy frequency of light at the top and f’ is the frequency at the
bottom, energy conservation gives hf = hf ’ + mgH.

The effective mass of light is m = E / c2 = h f / c2.

This yields the ratio of frequency shift to the frequency:
Or in general:

Using gamma rays, the frequency ratio was observed to be:

112
Gravitational Time Dilation
 A very accurate experiment was done by comparing the
frequency of an atomic clock flown on a Scout D rocket to
an altitude of 10,000 km with the frequency of a similar
clock on the ground. The measurement agreed with
Einstein’s general relativity theory to within 0.02%.

 Since the frequency of the clock decreases near the Earth,

a clock in a gravitational field runs more slowly according
to the gravitational time dilation.

113
Perihelion Shift of Mercury
 The orbits of the planets are ellipses, and the point closest to the
sun in a planetary orbit is called the perihelion. It has been known
for hundreds of years that Mercury’s orbit precesses about the sun.
Accounting for the perturbations of the other planets left 43 seconds
of arc per century that was previously unexplained by classical
physics.
 The curvature of spacetime explained by general relativity
accounted for the 43 seconds of arc shift in the orbit of Mercury.

114
Light Retardation

 As light passes by a massive object, the

path taken by the light is longer because
of the spacetime curvature.
 The longer path causes a time delay for
a light pulse traveling close to the sun.
 This effect was measured by sending a
radar wave to Venus, where it was
reflected back to Earth. The position of
Venus had to be in the “superior
conjunction” position on the other side of
the sun from the Earth. The signal
passed near the sun and experienced a
time delay of about 200 microseconds.
This was in excellent agreement with the
general theory.

115
15.3: Gravitational Waves
 When a charge accelerates, the electric field surrounding the charge
redistributes itself. This change in the electric field produces an
electromagnetic wave, which is easily detected. In much the same
way, an accelerated mass should also produce gravitational waves.
 Gravitational waves carry energy and momentum, travel at the speed
of light, and are characterized by frequency and wavelength.
 As gravitational waves pass through spacetime, they cause small
ripples. The stretching and shrinking is on the order of 1 part in 10 21
even due to a strong gravitational wave source.
 Due to their small magnitude, gravitational waves would be difficult to
detect. Large astronomical events could create measurable
spacetime waves such as the collapse of a neutron star, a black hole
or the Big Bang.
 This effect has been likened to noticing a single grain of sand added
to all the beaches of Long Island, New York.

116
Gravitational Wave Experiments
 Taylor and Hulse discovered a binary system of two neutron stars
that lose energy due to gravitational waves that agrees with the
predictions of general relativity.
 LIGO is a large Michelson interferometer device that uses four test
masses on two arms of the interferometer. The device will detect
changes in length of the arms due to a passing wave.

 NASA and the European Space

Agency (ESA) are jointly
developing a space-based probe
called the Laser Interferometer
Space Antenna (LISA) which will
measure fluctuations in its
triangular shape.

117
15.4: Black Holes
 While a star is burning, the heat produced by the thermonuclear reactions
pushes out the star’s matter and balances the force of gravity. When the
star’s fuel is depleted, no heat is left to counteract the force of gravity,
which becomes dominant. The star’s mass collapses into an incredibly
dense ball that could wrap spacetime enough to not allow light to escape.
The point at the center is called a singularity.
 A collapsing star greater than 3 solar masses
will distort spacetime in this way to create a
black hole.
 Karl Schwarzschild determined the radius of
a black hole known as the event horizon.

118
Black Hole Detection
 Since light can’t escape, they must be detected indirectly:
 Severe redshifting of light.
 Hawking radiation results from particle-antiparticle pairs created near the
event horizon. One member slips into the singularity as the other escapes.
Antiparticles that escape radiate as they combine with matter. Energy
expended to pair production at the event horizon decreases the total mass-
energy of the black hole.
 Hawking calculated the blackbody temperature of the black hole to be:

 The power radiated is:

This result is used to detect a black hole by its Hawking radiation.

 Mass falling into a black hole would create a rotating accretion disk. Internal
friction would create heat and emit x rays.

119
Black Hole Candidates
 Although a black hole has not yet been
observed, there are several plausible
candidates:
 Cygnus X-1 is an x ray emitter and part of a
binary system in the Cygnus constellation. It is
roughly 7 solar masses.
 The galactic center of M87 is 3 billion solar
masses.
 NGC 4261 is a billion solar masses.

120
15.5: Frame Dragging
 Josef Lense and Hans Thirring proposed in 1918 that a rotating body’s
gravitational force can literally drag spacetime around with it as the body
rotates. This effect, sometimes called the Lense-Thirring effect, is referred to
as frame dragging.
 All celestial bodies that rotate can modify the spacetime curvature, and the
larger the gravitational force, the greater the effect.
 Frame dragging was observed in 1997 by noticing fluctuating x rays from
several black hole candidates. This indicated that the object was precessing
from the spacetime dragging along with it.
 The LAGEOS system of satellites uses Earth-based lasers that reflect off the
satellites. Researchers were able to detect that the plane of the satellites
shifted 2 meters per year in the direction of the Earth’s rotation in agreement
with the predictions of the theory.
 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) had to utilize relativistic corrections for the
precise atomic clocks on the satellites.

121