Optical Fiber Communication

Light Basics

Dr. Abid Karim

[email protected]
 Course Contents
Week Topic to be Covered
1. Historical Background, The Nature of Light, Basic Laws of Light,
Interaction of Light with Materials. Historical Development,
Electromagnetic Spectrum
2 Advantages of Optical Communication Systems, Light Propagation in
Optical Fiber, Optical Fiber Losses
3 Dispersion and Fiber Bandwidth, Types of Optical Fibbers
4 Optical Fiber Components, Fiber Couplers, Optical Switching
5 Introduction to Lasers, Amplification in Two-Energy Level System and
Einstein Relations, Population Inversion, Optical Feedback, Lasing
Threshold, Lasers Modes and Gain Condition
6 Optical Absorption and Gain in Semiconductor Materials, Types of
Semiconductor Lasers and their Structure, Practical Laser
Characteristics
7 Single Mode Semiconductor Lasers and its requirement in Optical
Communication
8 Light sensitive Material, Principle of Photodetection, Semiconductor
photodetectors
Mid Term Examinations
 Course Contents
Week Topic to be Covered
9 Types of Photodiodes, Responsitivity and Quantum Efficiency of a
Photodiode
10 pn-Photodiode, pin-Photodiodes, Avalanche Photodiodes
Photodiode, Biasing Techniques, Noise Consideration of
Photodetector, Phototransistor and Optocoupler
11 Light Amplifiers, Types of Amplifiers
12 Erbium Doped Optical Amplifiers
13 Modulation and Multiplexing, Systems Design Considerations 
14 Wavelength Division Multiplexing and Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing
15 Optical Networks
16 Revision and group discussion
Final Examinations

Quizzes Due on– 3, 7, 11, 15th Week Assignment Due on – 5, 10, 16th Week
 Recommended Books

• Fibre Optic: Communication and other

Applications, By Henry Zanger & Cynthia Zanger
• Optical Fibre Communication: Practice and
Principles, By John. M. Senior
• Optical Technology, Compiled by Abid Karim
• Fiber-Optic Communications Technology, By D.
K. Mynbaev & Lowell L. Scheiner
 Marks Distribution

• Assignments + Class Quizzes +

Project(s) + Presentation(s) 25%

• Midterm Examination 25%

• Final Examination 50%

 Assignments
• Assignments would be assigned at least one
week before the due date
• Must be submitted on or before due date
• No late assignment will be accepted
• Total of 3 assignments would be assigned
during the semester.
• Handwritten
• Avoid plagerism
• Do not try copy
 Quizzes
• To check the class performance, sudden
death test or class quizzes
• At least 4 quizzes
• Quizzes have to be solved in the class
• There would be no LATE submission or
MAKEUP for quizzes.
 Why Light?

Increase in Bit Rate-Distance product

 Why Light?

Progress In Lightwave Communication Technology

 The Nature of Light
• Wave Theory – Light travels as a
transverse electromagnetic wave
• Quantum or Particle Theory – Light
consists of small particles (photons)
• Ray Theory – Light travels along a
straight line and obeys laws of
geometrical optics. Ray theory is
valid when the objects are much
larger than the wavelength
 The Nature of Light
Light ray model Wave model
• Particle-like view • Traces motions of wave
• Photons travel in straight fronts
lines • Best explains
• Applications – Interference
– Mirrors – Diffraction
– Prisms – Polarization
– Lenses
 Light – Wave Nature
• Light is the part of Electromagnetic
Radiation Spectrum. Speed of Light can
be calculated by
1
c
 o o
• Electromagnetic energy is radiant energy
that travels at 300,000km/s or 186,000
miles/s.
 Light – Wave Nature
• Hence Light is an electromagnetic
wave.
• Other electromagnetic waves:
– Radio Waves
– Radar
– X-Rays
– Gama Rays
– Cosmic Rays
 Light – Particle Nature
• Einstein lead to concept of packet of
energy (Photons) – Based on Plank’s work
on emission of light from hot bodies
• Plank’s observation – Light emits in
multiple of certain minimum energy unit.
• The size of the unit (quantum) depends on
the wavelength (λ) and given by.

E  hv
 Nature of Light: Waves and
Particles
• Wave theory of light explains most phenomena
involving light:
– propagation in straight line
– reflection
– refraction
– superposition, interference, diffraction
– polarization
– Doppler effect
• Wave theory does not explain:
– frequency dependence of thermal radiation
– photoelectric effect
Nature of Light: Waves and Particles
• Light exhibits properties of waves and
particles – Wave-Particle Duality (by Louis de
Broglie 1924)
h

p
where h is the Plank’s constant and p is the
momentum.
• Complimenting each other rather than
opposing each others
Nature of Light: Waves and Particles

• The duality of light will be used in

understanding the propagation of light
in particular medium.
– Wave Nature – When photons are
moving
– Particle Nature – When light is detected
or generated
 Electromagnetic Wave
• Consists of a oscillating electric and
magnetic fields at right angles to each
other
• Direction of propagation perpendicular to
both field
• Frequency (): Number of cycles/second
• Wavelength (): Distance between the
same 2 points.
Electromagnetic Wave
 Frequency and Wavelength
• Relationship of frequency and wavelength:
wavelength = velocity/frequency
c


• In free space or air velocity is the speed of
light.
• The higher the frequency the shorter the
wavelength.
 Wavelength Examples
• 50 Hz power has a wavelength of 3100
miles. That is, the wave will have traveled
6000 miles before the wave begins a new
cycle.
• A 55.25 MHz signal (TV Channel 2) has a
wavelength of 5.42 m.
• Deep red has a frequency of 430THz and
wavelength of 700nm (billionths of a meter).
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous
spectrum of energy from subsonic to RF to
microwaves to visible light and beyond.
• Visible light has wave lengths from 400nm
(violet) to 700nm (red).
• Ultraviolet light has a shorter wavelength and
infrared has a longer wavelength.
• Fiber commonly uses infrared (890nm –
1600nm) due to different reasons.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
power, radio frequencies, "microwaves", millimeter waves, IR,
,visible, UV, X-rays  .rays, and cosmic rays -

Optical Fiber Communications

~1.7µm - 0.8µm
Microwave
Short Wave Infrared Visible Spectrum
Far Infrared ~0.7µm-~0.4µm
Standard Broadcast UHF Rays
VHF mm XRays
wave
long wave UV Cosmic Rays
Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum
Wavelength Ranges
Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum
Nuclear Decay

Electrons in Atoms
(High Energy)

Electrons in Atoms
(Low Energy)

Thermal Vibrations of
Molecules

Microwave Oven

FM Radio

AM Radio

Typical Source
 Photons
• A photon has zero rest mass (unlike an electron).
i.e. If it is not in motion, it does not exist!
• It has no charge
• Energy of a Photon would not change – Colour
would be the same
• Energy possessed by a photon is proportional to its
frequency.
hc 1.24
E  hv   (eV)
  ( m)
where h is Plank's constant which is equal to 6.63x10-34 J-s
Interaction of Light with Materials
• The 'Speed of Light' is simply the velocity of
an electromagnetic wave in a vacuum.
• Light travels slower in materials.
• As light passes from one material to another,
its direction changes – Reflected or Refracted
• Different wavelengths of light travel at
different speeds in the same material.
Interaction of Light with Materials
• Interaction begins at
surface and depends on
– Smoothness of surface
– Nature of the material
– Angle of incidence
• Possible interactions
– Absorption and
transmission
– Reflection
– Refraction
 Law of Reflection
• With reflection, n1 > n2
the angle of
reflection is equal
to the angle of
incidence.
 Speed of Light in a Medium
As a monochromatic wave propagates through media
of different refractive indices, its frequency remains
same, but its velocity and wavelength are altered.
 Index of Refraction
• The Index of Refraction is a unit representing
the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to
the velocity of light in a material
c
n   r r
v
 Index of Refraction
• As the index of refraction increases, the
slower the wave will travel and the greater
it will 'bend' when entering from a material
with a lower index.
 Definitions for Refraction
• Normal: Imaginary line
perpendicular to the
interface between 2
materials.
• Angle of incident: Angle
between the incident ray
and the normal.
• Angle of Refraction: Angle
between the normal and
the refracted ray. n 1 < n2
 Refraction for n1>n2
n 1 > n2
• With n1 > n2, as the incidence
angle increases, the
refractive angle increases.
• At the critical angle, the
refractive angle is 90
degrees.
n 1 > n2
• Above the critical angle, the
incident ray is totally
reflected.
 Law of Refraction: Snell's Law
• The relationship between the incident ray
and refracted ray is:
n1sin1 = n2 sin2
• For reflection to occur, angle of incidence
must exceed the critical angle - crt. The
critical angle 2 may be found by:
crt = arcsin(n2/n1)
 A Practical Example

• Assuming there are 2 layers of glass with

indices of 1.48 (n1) and 1.42 (n2)

crt = sin-1(1.46/1.48) = 80.6

 Fresnel Reflections
• Even when refraction occurs and light
enters a material, a small amount is
reflected back – Fresnel Reflection ().
• The greater the index of refraction, the
greater the amount of losses.
2
 n 1 
  
 n 1
For boundry between air and material
n is index of refraction for material.
 Fresnel Reflections
• Fresnel losses occur when:
– Light from source enters fiber
– Between connected fibers.
– Losses are the same regardless of the
order of materials (from air to glass or
from glass to air).
– Loss (dB) = 10 log(1- ρ)
 Total Reflection
• With the angle of incidence greater than
the critical angle, total reflection occurs.
 Total Internal Reflection
• With material with indices on both sides
(cladding), the light will be continually
reflected and follow the core.
Polarization

(Transverse
Direction)

Electromagnetic Wave
 Polarization
Light is polarized when its
electric fields oscillate in a
single plane, rather than
in any direction
perpendicular to the
direction of propagation

A phenomenon that
occurs in transverse
waves only
 Polarization
• These waves are plane or linearly
polarized
• All the motion is confined to a plane
 Diffraction
• Light beam cannot bend itself
• Light beam can be bent by reflection,
refraction and Diffraction
• The amount of bending that occurs
depends on the relative sizes of the
object and the wavelength of the wave
• Longer wavelengths bend easier than
short ones
Diffraction
 Interference
When the Intensity of diffracted light
from the top slit.
waves are
hitting the
edges of
something,
the new
bending Screen
waves tend
to interfere
with each
other and we
get some Intensity of diffracted light
from the bottom slit.
new patterns Aperture
 Interference
Interference is the superposition of two or more waves
resulting in a new wave

E1 Etotal = E1 + E2
Etotal
E2 Constructive
Interference

E1 Etotal = 0
Etotal
E2 Destructive
Interference

Constructive and destructive interference requires that the

interfering waves have the same frequency (wavelength) and
polarization