Optics I

University of Baghdad Subject: Optics I

College of Science Semester: First
Department of Physics Year: First Year Physics
1- Nature and propagation of light
1-1 Introduction.
1-2 Properties of light.
1-3 Refractive index.
1-4 Optical path.
1-5 Speed of light.
1-6 Shadows.
1-7 The wavelength of light.
1-8 Electromagnetic spectrum.
1-9 Visible region.
1-10 Dual nature of light.
1-11Fermat principle
2- Reflection and refraction at plane surfaces
2-1 Light rays
2-2 Reflection and refraction at plane surface
2-3 Critical angles and total internal reflection
2-4 Refraction by plane parallel plates
2-5 Refraction by prism
2-6 Minimum deviation angle
2-7 Dispersion
2-8 Rainbow.

3- Reflection and refraction at spherical surfaces

3-1 Sign convention
3-2 Reflection and refraction at spherical surfaces
3-3 Mirrors
3-4 Lateral and longitudinal magnification
3-5 Focal points and focal lengths
3-6 Virtual images
3-7 Derivation of Gaussian formula .

4- Lenses
4.1 Lenses terminology
4.2 Thin lenses
4.3 Focal points and focal lengths
4.4 Conjugate points
4.5 Image tracing
4.6 Lens maker’s equation
4.7 Gaussian formula of thin lenses
4.8 Magnification
4.9 Power of the lens
4.10 Compound lenses and equivalent focal length
4.11 Thick lens optics.
 _______________________________________________________________
References:
Halliday, Resnick and Walker; Fundamentals of Physics; 8th edition 2008.
F.Sears, Addison-Wesley publishing company , Optics 1964.
F.Jenkins& H.White, Fudamentals of Optics by , McGraw Hill book company,4th
edition ,1985.
University of Bagdad Subject: Optics I
College of Science Semester: First
Department of Physics Year: First year Physics
Dr. Sarmed S Alawadi
Chapter One
Nature and propagation of light

 Optics----- is the branch of physics which involves the behavior and

properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the
construction of instruments that use or detect it.

 Geometrical Optics----Subset of optics concerning interaction of light

with macroscopic material
Dimension larger than a human hair ≈ 50 mm

geometric optics is a good geometric optics breaks down

approximation whenever when light’s wavelength cannot
light’s wavelength is be neglected (e.g., diffraction
negligibly small compared to occurs when the size of the
other relevant length scales slit is ≤ λ)

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  So Light can travel through:
 empty space,
 air, glass, water,
 cornea, eye lens etc.
Each one referred to as a medium

A Brief History of Light

 From around the 6th-5th century BC

o In ancient India, the Hindu schools developed theories on light
 Al-Hasan Ibn AI-Haitham
o Put it the basics of optics and wrote a lot of in it. He's books which
authored in 11th century in optics science still as references until the 17 th
century
 1000 AD
o It was proposed that light consisted of tiny particles
 Newton
o Used this particle model to explain reflection and refraction
 Huygens
o 1678
o Explained many properties of light by proposing light was emitted
in all directions as a series of waves in a medium
 Young
o 1801
o Strong support for wave theory by showing interference
 Maxwell
o 1873
o Showed that an oscillating electrical circuit should radiate
electromagnetic waves. The velocity of propagation of the waves
could be reflected, refracted, focused by a lens, polarized, and so
on, just as could waves of light
 Planck
o EM radiation is quantized
 Implies particles
o Explained light spectrum emitted by hot objects
 Einstein
o 1900
o Wave-Particle nature of light (dual nature)
o Explained the photoelectric effect

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The modern concept of light contains elements of both Newton's and Huygens
descriptions. Light is said to have "dual nature"; certain phenomena, such as
interference, exhibit the wave nature of light. Other phenomena" the photoelectric
effect, for example, display the particle aspect of light.

 The Particle Nature of Light

“Particles” of light are called photons
Each photon has a particular energy
E=hƒ
h is Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10-34 J s

 Geometric Optics – Using a Ray Approximation

 Light travels in a straight-line path in a homogeneous medium until it
encounters a boundary between two different media
 The ray approximation is used to represent beams of light

Example:
What is meant by wave front and rays?
Answer:
 A wave front is a surface passing through points of a wave that have the
same phase and amplitude

 A ray of light is an imaginary line drawn along the direction of travel of

the light beams. The rays, corresponding to the direction of the wave
motion, are perpendicular to the wave fronts

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So we must understand that:
 In describing the propagation of light as a wave we need to
understand two ideas:
1. wave fronts: a surface passing through points of a wave that
have the same phase.
 We can choose to associate the wave fronts with the instantaneous
surfaces where the wave is at its maximum.
 Wave fronts travel outward from the source at the speed of light: c.
 Wave fronts propagate perpendicular to the local wave front surface.

2. rays: a ray describes the direction of wave propagation.

 The propagation of the wave fronts can be described by light rays

when a small section near the optical axis is considered.
 And in free space, the light rays can be thought of as they travel in
straight lines, perpendicular to the Wave fronts.

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  What is light?
 Light is a form of electromagnetic energy –detected through its effects,
e.g. heating of illuminated objects, conversion of light to current,
mechanical pressure (“Maxwell force”) etc.
 Light energy is conveyed through particles: “photons”–particle behavior,
e.g. shadows
 Light energy is conveyed through waves–wave behavior, e.g.
interference, diffraction
 Quantum mechanics reconciles the two points of view, through the
“wave-particle duality” assertion
Electromagnetic radiation is a type of energy consisting of oscillating electric
(E) and magnetic (B) fields, which move through space.

 Electromagnetic radiation include:

Light is propagating electromagnetic waves

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 Nature and propagation of light

1. Foundation of optical phenomena are Maxwell's Equations

2. Light is an electromagnetic wave (electromagnetic spectrum )
3. Can also be viewed as a stream of corpuscles (particles)
4. Speed of light in vacuum is about 300,000Km/sec= 3 x 108 m/sec
5. Speed of light different in different materials ,but frequency remins
constant according to :
Speed = frequency x wavelength = vmedium = f . λmedium (recall that f=1/T)
6. Visible light: 400 nm-700 nm(1nm =10-9 m)

1. Source of light
1. Microscopic level:
2. Phenomenological level:
 Incandescent light ( hot bulb , thermal excitation):

• When light is given off as a result of high temperatures an object is

said to be incandescent.

• The electromagnetic wave model is used to explain incandescent

light.

• Luminescent light (cool light) : fluorescent, chemi-luminescent,

bio- luminescent (fireflies),tribo- luminescent (mechanical)[
Luminous: When something produces light it is said to be luminous]

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• Black Body Radiation

• Three different objects emitting blackbody radiation at three different

temperatures. The intensity of blackbody radiation increases with
increasing temperature and the peak wavelength emitted shifts toward
shorter wavelengths.

 Sun light
Sunlight is about 9 percent ultraviolet radiation, 40 percent visible
light, and 51 percent infrared radiation before it travels through the
earth's atmosphere

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  Course divided into two "halves".

 Geometric Optics: based upon Newton’s idea. Propagation of light

is governed by Fermat’s Principle.
 Wave (Physical) Optics: based upon Huygens’ idea. Propagation of
light is governed by Huygens' Principle (wave motion).

In other word
 Optics – two approaches
1. Ray tracing (geometrical optics)
2. Wave optics ( wave properties fundamentally important)

 Waves and geometrical optics

1. geometrical optics↔ wavelength˂˂ objects under study
2. ray = line giving the direction of travel of wave; it is
perpendicular to the wave fronts (surface constant phase)
3. media boundaries: incident; reflected; refracted rays
4. index of refraction:
n= c/ vmedium ≥ 1= speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in medium≥ 1
thus vmedium = c/ n

For non- magnetic material, r=1.

5. light is slower in matter:

Material Index (n) vmedium
 Vacuum 1.00 300000 Km/s
 Air 1.0003
 Water 1.333 225564 Km/s
 Glass 1.5(depend on type)
 Diomond 2.42 123967 km/s

6. n is one of important properties of materials ;

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 n depend on λ  n = n(λ)(chromatic dispersion), which mean
that the variation of the index of refraction with frequency
cause chromatic dispersion.

 Index of Refraction n:
In materials, light interacts with atoms/molecules and travels slower
than it can in vacuum, e.g.,

The optical property of transparent materials is called the Index of

Refraction:

Since v material ˂ c always n ˃ 1ǃ

 Index of Refraction and Wave Aspects of light:

Note: frequency of the EM wave is dictated by the oscillations of the charge and
the timing of this oscillation can’t change for an observer in either medium a or
b.

f does not change across media

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Recall for a EM wave, we have: va = f λa and vb = f λb

So, in the two medium, we have va = f λa and vb = f λb

Dividing these two equations, we have:

𝒗𝒂 𝒇 𝝀𝒂 𝝀𝒂 𝝀𝒂 𝒄⁄𝒏𝒂 𝝀𝒂 𝒏𝒃
𝒗𝒃
= 𝒇 𝝀𝒃 = 𝝀𝒃
→ 𝝀𝒃
= 𝒄⁄𝒏𝒃 → 𝝀𝒃
= 𝒏𝒂
So, the wavelength of a light must change in different medium accordingly,

na λa = nb λb

With one medium being a vacuum, we have λn = λ / n

Examples
1-Light – Wave or stream of particles?
Answer: Yes! As we’ll see below, there is experimental evidence for both
interpretations, although they seem contradictory.

2-What is a wave?
Answer: More familiar types of waves are sound, or waves on a surface of
water. In both cases, there is a perturbation with a periodic spatial pattern which
propagates, or travels in space. In the case of sound waves in air for example,
the perturbed quantity is the pressure, which oscillates about the mean
atmospheric pressure. In the case of waves on a water surface, the perturbed
quantity is simply the height of the surface, which oscillates about its stationary
level

There are five primary properties of light are:

1. Intensity,
2. Frequency or Wavelength,
3. Polarization,
4. Phase,
5. Orbital angular momentum.

 Properties of Waves
 A wave is described by four properties
–The wavelength (λ) - units of length
–The amplitude of the wave (a)
–The speed of the wave (c) -units of speed length/time

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 –The frequency of the wave (f) - units of 1/time
 Three of these properties are interrelated
–c = λ x f

 The Wave Nature of Electro-Magnetic Radiation

 Light is just one form of electro-magnetic radiation
 Light often behaves like a wave;
–Diffraction
–Interference

 James Clark Maxwell (1831-1879) derived 4 laws which describe electricity

and magnetism
– These are known as Maxwell’s equations
– These predict that a varying magnetic field causes an electric field and
vice versa
– Maxwell’s equations correctly predict the speed of light
 All EM radiation is composed of two waves
– An electric field
– A magnetic field
– The fields are orthogonal
– It needs no medium to be transmitted through
– Energy is carried by the wave

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- Maxwell equations is:

The properties of the light according to Maxwell, are:

1. Have a wave nature.
2. It is a transverse wave.
3. Speed of light is 3x108 m/sec.
4. There is a relation between the relative values for the electric and magnetic
fields.
5. If an electric and magnetic field effect on a certain point, energy flux will
happen, i.e. have momentum for the same point.

Example:

Today I noticed a maple tree outside of my office window had turned

orange. It looks orange to me because it is reflecting orange light (λ=670
nm) while absorbing the other colors of visible light. What is the energy
of a photon of orange light?

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 The Study of Light: Optics

 Geometric (or Rays) Optics:

 In most daily situations, light (rays) travel in a straight line

in a uniform medium.

 At the boundary between two materials (air & glass), a ray’s

direction might change.

 Wave characteristics of light are not important.

Geometric Optics is the study of the propagation of light with the

assumption that rays are straight lines in a fixed direction through an
uniform medium.

 Condition for Rays Optics:

L ˃˃ λ

Relevant system size >> wavelength;

In this approximation, wave characteristic of light is not important and rays
model of light gives accurate predictions.
(Visible light: λ ~ 500 nm << LRays Optics works well with typical optical
instruments: mirror, lens, cameras, telescopes,…)

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Huygens’ Principle:
 1. In 1678, Huygens proposed the wave theory of light.
At that same time, Newton maintained that light acted like a particle. As we
saw in the last section, Planck derived in 1900 that light has the characterizes of
both a wave and a particle = ⇒ a wavelet, which he called a photon.

 2. Huygens state that "every point of a wave front may be considered as the
source of small secondary wavelets, which spread out in all directions from
their centers with a velocity equal to the velocity of propagation of the
wave".
After time t, the new wave front is then found by constructing a surface
tangent to the secondary wavelets, or as it is called, the "envelope" of the
wavelets. Huygens' Principle is illustrated in figures bellow.

i.e: All points on a wave front act as new sources for the production of spherical
secondary waves

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 Shadows
A shadow "is an area where direct light from a light source cannot reach
due to obstruction by an object, it occupies all of the space behind an
opaque object with light in front of it.

We suppose that when light travels through a homogeneous medium it moves

along straight lines. That observation is often called the law of rectilinear
propagation. The existence of shadows is good evidence for the ray model of
light. When light from a small (or 'point') source goes past the edges of an
opaque object it keeps going in a straight line, leaving the space behind the
object dark

The sharpest shadows are from -

a) Large bulbs like an overhead projector
b) Small bulbs
c) Candles
d) Two light sources
e) Fluorescent tubes
i.e The best shadows come from a point source, for example a small light source
or candle

• To figure out the shadow location, we use geometrical optics - light travels in
straight lines.

Example:
Which light source will give a sharper shadow, the Fluorescent tubes or the
lamp?
Shadows tell us -
a) What direction the light is shining from
b) That something is blocking the light
c) That light travels in straight lines
d) Where energy is being absorbed

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 Shadow Generation -Point Light Source
 Hard shadows
 Sharp transition from dark shadow to brightly-lit non-shadow region
 For a point source there is one shadow region called umbra

 Shadow Generation - Real Light Sources

 Generally have measure
 able cross-section
 Two shadow regions
1. Umbra : is the region behind the obstacle that receives no light at all
2. Penumbra: is the region that receives partial light from the source and
surrounded the umbra region.
- Its large when the source is extensive (limit is ambient!) or Source is
close
- Its small when the Source is small or ar away

shadow of (a) point source, (b) not a point source

• Umbra/Penumbra ratio==decreases
- with increasing size of source,
-with distance

So we can compute the length of the shadow when we know the length of the
object (a) and the angle between the point of light and the object (θ), (i.e.):

Length of shadow = tan(θ) x a

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Atmospheric Refraction:
 The velocity of light in all material substances is less than its velocity in
free space and in a gas the velocity decreases as the density increases.
The density of the earth's atmosphere is greatest at the surface of the
earth and decreases with increasing elevation. As a result, light waves
entering the earth's atmosphere are continuously deviated in below fig.

 Another phenomenon produced by atmospheric refraction is the mirage.

A mirage is an optical effect of the atmosphere caused by refraction
when light passes from air with one density into air with a different
density and the object appears displaced from its true position

 The deviation of light by atmospheric refraction decreases with

increasing angle of elevation of the light above horizontal, falling to
zero for light incident normally on the earth's surface.


-The mirage called an inferior mirage occurs when the image appears
below the true location of the observed object.

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 - During a phenomenon called looming, objects sometimes appear to be
suspended above the horizon.
- Looming is considered a superior mirage because the image is seen
above its true position.

 A mirage that changes the apparent size of an object is called towering.

 A type of towering, called Fata Morgana, is frequently observed in
coastal areas as towering castles that appear out of thin air.

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 Fermat’s Principle:

 The laws of reflection and refraction may be show to follow from a

general principle first stated by Fermat in 1658.

 In optics, Fermat's principle or the principle of least time is the

principle that the path taken between two points by a ray of tight is the
path that can be traversed in the least time. This principle is sometimes
taken as the definition of a ray of light.

𝑑 (𝑂𝑃𝐿)
 Therefore the mathematical formula for Fermat principle is =0
𝑑𝑥

 It can be used to describe the properties of light rays reflected off

mirrors, refracted through different media, or undergoing total internal
reflection.

 The path taken by a ray of light between two points is path of shortest
time, but
t=l/c
where l is the optical path length, or time (t) is equal to the distance
traveled l at a particular velocity (v).
t=l/v
 The mathematical formula for Fermat's principle for the ray travels from
an arbitrary point “P” to another arbitrary point “Q” is:

t = l1 / v1 + l2 / v2

 A derivation of “Snell’s Law of Reflection”

If  represents the velocity of propagation. The length of path is s+s 1, and the
time t along the path is:

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It is seen from the diagram that:
s = a sec 𝝓
s1 = b sec r
It follows from the two preceding equation that:
𝟏
t = (a sec 𝝓 + b sec r)
𝒗

If the point O displaced slightly, the angles  and r will change by d and dr, and
the corresponding change dt in the time is:
𝟏
dt = ( a sec 𝝓 tan 𝝓 d 𝝓 + b sec r tan r dr )
𝒗

If the time is a minimum, dt = 0 and

a sec 𝝓 tan 𝝓 d 𝝓 = ‫ ــ‬b sec r tan r dr

The differential d and dr are not independent. From the figure:

c + d = constant = a tan + b tan r
Taking differentials of both sides, we obtain:
0 = a sec2 𝝓 d 𝝓 + b sec2 r dr

When the condition for minimum time is combined with this equation, we
obtain:
sin 𝝓 = sin r
𝝓=r

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  That is the light path AOB that is traversed in the shortest time is that for
which the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.

 A derivation of “Snell’s Law of Refraction”

In figure below, MM represents the boundary plane between two substances

having indices of reflection n and n', and velocities  and '. AOB is a path of a
ray from A to B,  and ' are the angles of incidence and of refraction. The time
from A to B is:

If the point O is displaced slightly,

If the time minimum, dt = 0 and

Also, since c + d= constant,

Dividing one of the preceding equations by the other, obtain:

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 Since =c/n and'=c/n', this reduces to:
n sin 𝝓 = n' sin 𝝓′

 Optical Path Length and Refractive Index:

Optical Path Length (OPL) is the distance light travels in a vacuum (also air)
in the same time it travels a distance L in a medium.

In free space light travels in straight lines. For two points separated by a
distance Lair time taken for the light to travel between them is

t = Lair / c

where c is the speed of light, being 2.998 × 10 8 m/sec

If there is a media between the two points (say glass), the speed of light is
reduced by a factor n, so the time is:

tn = n Lair / c

Where n is the refractive index a physical characteristic of the medium.

Useful to introduce the optical path length l, physical path length scaled by the
refractive index, so

l = n Lair ⇒ tn = l / c

The refractive index for a material is not constant, dependence known as

dispersion, depends on:

Gases: pressure and wavelength.

Liquids: temperature and wavelength

Solids: wavelength, and slightly on temperature.

Glasses: wavelength, slightly on temperature.

Note: refractive index of air ≈ 1, normally taken at exactly unit

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Because light always travels slower in a material (medium), the optical path
length (distance in air) will always be longer than the actual thickness l of the
medium.

Distance = velocity · time

Lair = c. t

l = v. t = (c / n). t

∴ Lair = OPL = n. l

If light travels through “m” different media, the total OPL is the sum of the
optical paths in each of the different media:

OPLtotal = n1.l1 + n2. l2 + …… + nm. lm

OPLtotal = ∑𝒎
𝒊=𝟏 𝐧𝐢. 𝒍𝐢

Optical Path Difference:

Optical Path Difference (OPD) is the difference between two optical path
lengths. Like OPL, it also has units of length
For example: a wave passed through glass will appear to travel a greater
distance than an identical wave in air.
OPD ≡ (n2 l2) - (n1 l1)
Why???
This is because the source in the glass will have experienced a greater number
of wavelengths due to the higher refractive index of the glass

Example:
Suppose a laser beam travels through a 10mm-thick glass window that has an
index of refraction = 1.517. What is the OPL through this window?

OPL = nglass l glass

= (1.517). 10 mm = 15.17 mm

► In the time it takes the laser beam to travel 10mm through the glass window,
it would have traveled 15.17mm through air.

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Example:
what is the distance that this laser beam would travel through the air, in the
same amount of time it takes it to travel through the actual window of a
thickness 5 mm?)
OPL = nglass l glass

= (1.517). 5 mm = 7.585 mm

Example:
How long did it take this laser beam to travel through the 10mm-thick window?
t glass = (distance / velocity)= (l / v glass) = (nglass l glass / c)
= (1.517x 0.1 m)/ (3x108m sec-1)= 50.56 femtoseconds
femtoseconds = 10-11sec

Example:
How long did it take this laser beam to travel through the equivalent air-
thickness (the OPL)?
tair = (Lair / c)
= (.01517 m) / (3x108m sec-1) )
= 50.56 femtoseconds
► The same amount of time, by definition!

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25
  Traveling through two different mediums with different velocities, the
total time the ray travels from an arbitrary point “P” to another
arbitrary point “Q” is:

t = l1 / v1 + l2 / v2

Given, velocity is: v=c/n

Then our equation becomes:

t = l1 / (c/n1) + l2 / (c/n2)

This can be rewritten as:

t = (n1/c) * l1 + (n2/c) * l2

The distances r1 and r2 can be found by simple trigonometry.

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The distance the ray travels is therefore the hypotenuse of two triangles.

l1= √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 , l2=√𝑏 2 + (𝑑 − 𝑥)2

We assign “thetas” for the angles between the rays and the normal's to the
surface.

Putting the two equations together, and differentiating it with respects to

time yields:
𝑑𝑡 𝑛1 𝑑 𝑛2 𝑑
= √𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2 + √𝑏 2 + (𝑑 − 𝑥)2
𝑑𝑥 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑐 𝑑𝑥

Deriving the equation gives:

𝑑𝑡 𝑛1 1 2𝑥 𝑛2 1 2(𝑑−𝑥)(−1)
= ∗2∗ +∗ ∗ ∗
𝑑𝑥 𝑐 √𝑎2 +𝑥 2 𝑐 2 √𝑏2 + (𝑑−𝑥)2

Simplifying and setting the equation equal to “0” yields:

𝑛1𝑥 𝑛2(𝑑−𝑥)
− =0
𝑐 √𝑎2 +𝑥 2 𝑐 √𝑏2 + (𝑑−𝑥)2

Recognizing the Trigonometric function of sines:

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 𝑥
Sinθ1 = (opposite / hypotenuse) = √𝑎2 +𝑥2

(𝑑−𝑥)
Sinθ2 = (opposite / hypotenuse) =
√𝑏2 + (𝑑−𝑥)2

Simplifying the equations yields (Snell’s Equation for the Law of

Refraction)

n1 Sin θ2 - n2 Sin θ2 = 0

Or

n1 Sin θ2 = n2 Sin θ2

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N_University of Bagdad Subject: Optics I
College of Science Semester: First
Department of Physics Year: First year Physics
Dr. Sarmed S. Alawadi

Chapter Two
Reflection and Refraction at Plane Surfaces

Reflection and Refraction at Plane Surface

When light hits a surface, one or more of three things may happen. The light
may be - reflected back from the surface, transmitted through the material (in
which case it will deviate(‫) انحرف‬from its initial direction, a process known as
refraction) - or absorbed by the material if it is not transparent at the wavelength
of the incident light.
The travel of light waves can often(‫ ) غالبا‬be approximate by straight lines
(rays).The study of the properties of light with this approximation is called
geometric optics.
The figure below shows an example of light waves traveling in approximately
straight lines. A thin beam of light, angled upwards from the lower right and
traveling through water, encounters a flat surface (plane) of intersection
between water and air. Part of the light is reflected by the surface, forming a
beam directed downward toward the left. This reflected beam travels as if it
bounced from the surface. The other portion of light travels through the surface
and into the air, forming a beam directed upward and to the left.

Fig. (2-1): Reflection and train of plane waves.

1
The travel of light through a surface (or interface) that separates two different
materials is called refraction. The direction of the beam is “bent” at the surface
as it travels from the water to the air, and is said to be refracted. Note that the
bending occurs only at the surface.

Reflection of Light
1. When light travels from one medium to another, part of the light can be
reflected at the media interface.i.e: at the boundary between two media, the light
ray can change direction by reflection, this means it is directed backward into
the first medium or refraction

a) Reflection off of a smooth surface and mirrors is called specular(‫)براق‬

reflection "which can be described as reflection without scattering".
Some examples of specular reflectors are the surfaces of many types of
glass, polished metals and the undisturbed surfaces of liquids. Some of
these, such as glass and many liquids, also transmit light, whereas light
does not penetrate beyond the surface of a metal. The fact that light is not
transmitted through metals can be explained in terms of the interaction
between the light and electrons within the metal.

The incident light on a smooth can be represented by a bundle(bundle) of

parallel rays. The reflected light will also travel in a well-defined direction
which can be represented using another bundle of parallel rays. Since there is no
scattering, for each incident ray there is only one reflected ray.

Fig. (2-2)

a) Reflection off of a rough surface (not shiny) is called diffuse reflection.

In diffuse reflection, a single ray of light scatters into many directions.

2
 Fig. (2-3)

Law of Reflection
In order to describe the relation between reflected and incident rays we need to
look at the point where the incident ray meets the reflecting surface. At that
point we imagine a line constructed perpendicular to the surface, called the
normal to the surface. The reflected ray also departs from the same point. The
angle between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of incidence θ1
and the angle between the normal and the reflected ray is called the angle of
reflection θ1'. The behavior of the rays in specular reflection can be described
completely by two laws, illustrated in figure (2-4):

θ1 θ1'

Fig. (2-4)

1. The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray all lie in one plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

θ1 = θ1'
Law of reflection: a plane wave is reflected from a plane surface with the angle of
reflection equal to the angle of incidence.

 Note that the amount of light reflected cannot be predicted(‫ (توقع‬from these
laws. That depends on the reflectivity of the surface.

3
Refraction of Light
When a ray of light traveling through a transparent medium encounters a
boundary leading into another transparent medium, part of the ray is reflected
and part of the ray enters the second medium. The ray that enters the second
medium is bent at the boundary. This bending of the ray is called refraction. The
angle of refraction, θ2, depends on the properties of the medium.

n1
n2

Fig. (2-5)
Law of refraction: at the boundary between any two given materials; the ratio of
the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is equal to the
ratio of the velocities in the two media.

Since by definition:

It follows that:

Equation (2-2) may be written as:

Or

This is called as Snell's law. It follows from the low of refraction that:

The constant is known as the refractive index of material (2) with respect to
material (t).

4
 It can be shown that:

When light is travelling from material (2) to material (1) we use the refractive index
of (1) with respect to (2), 2n1. It follows from above equation that:

It is evident from Snell's law that:

1. Rays of light passing from a medium of smaller refractive index

into one of larger index (n1 < n2), as from air into glass, Fig. (2-6):

 Light may refract into a material where its speed is lower

 The angle of refraction is always less than the angle of incidence, (1 >2)
 The ray bends toward the normal

Fig. (2-6)

2. Rays of light passing from a medium of large refractive index into

one of smaller index (n2 > n1), as from glass into air, i.e. travelling in the
opposite direction, Fig. (2-7):

 Light may refract into a material where its speed is higher

 The angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence, (1 <2)
 The ray bends away from the normal

5
 Fig. (2-7)
Examples
1. Find the angle of refraction: (a) when a ray of light is travelling from air to glass
at an angle of incidence of 40o, (b) when a ray of light is travelling from glass to
air at an angle of incidence of 20o. (Refractive index of glass with respect to air =
1.5).
Solution:
(a) By Snell's law:

The angle of incidence 1is 40o and therefore:

(b) The angle of incidence 1 is 20o. In this case light is travelling from glass to air
and therefore we require the refractive index of air with respect to glass. This is the
reciprocal of the refractive index of glass with respect to air and therefore:

6
2. Sunlight strikes the surface of a lake. A diver sees the Sun at an angle of
42.0° with respect to the vertical. What angle do the Sun’s rays in air make
with the vertical?

n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
1.00sin 1  1.333sin 42
sin 1  0.8920
1  63.1

Problems
1. What is the speed of light in quartz? Answer: 1.97 x 108 m/s.
2. What is the angle of refraction when a ray from air with an angle of incidence
of 25 o is incident to water? Draw the ray diagram. Answer: 18.5 o.
3. The light shown in the figure makes an angle of 20o with the normal NN' in
the linseed oil (n=1.48). Determine angles θ and θ'.

4. A monochromatic light ray f= 5.09 x 1014 Hz is incident on medium X at 55˚.

The absolute index of refraction for material X is 1.66. What is material X?
Determine the angle of refraction. Determine the speed of light in medium X.

7
The index of 1.66 is Flint Glass. To find the angle of refraction use Snell’s Law.
θ2= 30˚
To find the speed use n=c/v.
v = 1.8 x 108 m/s

5. A ray of light traveling through air is incident on a smooth surface of water at

an angle of 30° to the normal. Calculate the angle of refraction for the ray as
it enters the water.

Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R.) and Critical Angle

If the light is propagating from the denser medium to the less dense medium
n1> n2, at a large angle of incidence. For example: light going from glass-to- air
or from water- to- air. It is possible for the angle of incidence to be such that the
angle of refraction is 90o, fig. (2-8b).

The angle of incidence at which this happens is called the critical angle (c), fig.
(2-8b). From Snell's law;
nl sin 90= n2 sin c (2-9)

Critical angle: It is the angle of incidence in the optically dense medium which
have right refraction angle (90o).
Since sin 90o=1

n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
n1 sin  c  n2 sin 90  n2
n2
sin  c 
n1

θc= sin-1 (n2 /n1) (2-10)

8
Fig. (2-8): Three possibilities when light travels towards a less dense medium.

 If  < c, the light is refracted in the normal way, fig. (2-8a).

 If 1 > c, the light is totally reflected back into material 2, fig. (2-8c).

This is known as Total Internal Reflection (T. I. R).

 Total internal reflection cannot occur when the light is travelling towards an
optically more dense material.

 Total internal reflection is different from ordinary reflection in that it really is

‘total’; there are no losses and the totally internally reflected light has the
same intensity as the incident light.

 Fiber optic cables rely on the principle of total internal reflection at the
glass/air interface to transmit light over long distances with almost zero
losses.

9
Problems
1- Determine the critical angle for both water and diamond with respect to air.

2- Calculate the critical angle for sapphire surrounded by air.

n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
1.77 sin  c  1.00  sin 90
sin  c  0.565
 c  34.4

3- The refractive index of diamond with respect to air is 2.42. Calculate the
critical angle for diamond-air boundary.
θ c= sin-1(n2/n1)
= sin-1(1/2.42)
= sin-1(0.413)

4- Find the critical angle between a water-diamond interfaces.

n1sin i = n2 sin r
1.54 sin ic = 1.00 sin90
sin ic = 1.00/1.54
ic = sin-1.649 = 40°

5- Light travels from air into an optical fiber with an index of refraction of
1.44:
(a) In which direction does the light bend?
(b) If the angle of incidence on the end of the fiber is 22o. What is the angle
of refraction inside the fiber?
(c) Sketch the path of light as it changes media

10
 (a) Since the light is traveling from a rarer region (lower n) to a denser region
(higher n), it will bend toward the normal.

(b) n1 sin i = n2 sin r

(1.00) sin 22o = 1.44 sin r.
sin r = (1.00/1.44) sin 22o = 0.260
r = sin-1 (0.260) = 15o.
(c)

Refraction by plane parallel plate

When a ray of light is refracted successively at two parallel plane surfaces, it
passes from the first medium into the second and passes into the first again.
This is shown in fig. (2-9), where the ray of light actually coming from object O
appears to come from image I along a line parallel to its original direction of
travel.

Fig. (2-9)
Let i1 and r1 be the angle of incidence and refraction at the upper surface, and i2
and r2 be the angle of incidence and refraction at the lower surface.
Let n be the index of the medium on either side of plate, and the index of the
plate be n', n'> n; and from Snell law:
n sin i1 = n' sinr1
n' sin i2 = n sin r2
But as is evident from the diagram
11
 r1 = i2
Combining these relations, we find:
i1 = r2
The important concept is this: When light approaches a layer which has the
shape of a parallelogram that is bounded on both sides by the same material,
then the angle at which the light enters the material is equal to the angle at
which light exits the layer. i.e: that is:
1- The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
2- It is not deviated in passing through the plate but is displace by the
distance d, which equal to:

Problem
A ray of light in air is approaching the boundary with a layer of crown glass at
an angle of 42 degrees. Determine the angle of refraction of the light ray upon
entering the crown glass and upon leaving the crown glass.

Boundary 1
1.00 sin (42) = 1.52 sin(r)
0.669 = 1.52 sin (r)
0.4402 = sin (r)
sin-1 (0.4402) = 26.1
r =26.1

Boundary 2:
1.52 sin (26.1) = 1.00 sin( r)
1.52 (0.4402) = 1.00 sin ( r)
0.6691 = sin (r)
sin-1 (0.6691) = r
r = 42.0 degrees

12
Refraction by a prism
The prism is one or another of its many forms, is second only to the lens as the most
useful single piece of optical apparatus.
Consider a light ray incident at an angle i on one face of a prism as in fig. (2-10).
Let the index of the prism be n. The included angle at the apex be A, and let the
medium on either side of the prism be air. It is desired to find the angle of deviation,
D.

Deviation by a Prism
The deviation produced by a prism depends on the angle at which the light is
incident on the prism. It can be shown, that the deviation is a minimum when the
light passes symmetrically through the prism. The situation is shown in fig. (2-10),
where Dm is the minimum deviation.

Fig. (2-10): Minimum deviation by a prism.

In XWZ:
Dm = ZXY + ZYX
Dm = (i - r) + (i - r)
Dm = 2i - 2r (2-11)
In  WXY:
180o = A+WXY+WX
180o = A + (90o - r) + (90o - r)
A = 2r (2-12)
Adding eqs. (2-11) and (2-12) leads to:

From eq. (2-12):

From Snell's law:

13
If the light is incident from air, n1=1, and therefore:

If the angle of prism is small, the angle of minimum deviation is small also and we
may replace by the sins of the angles by the angles.

where n2 is the refractive index of the material of the prism.

Dispersion by a Prism
When a narrow beam of white light is refracted by a prism, the light spreads into
a band of colors - the spectrum of the light. The effect was first explained by
Newton. He identified the colors as ranging from red at one side of the band,
through orange, yellow, green, blue, and indigo, to violet at the other.

The index of refraction in anything except a vacuum depends on the wavelength

of the light. This dependence of n on λ is called dispersion. The variation in
refractive index with color is called dispersion because the speed of light is
slightly different in glass for each frequency of light (n=c/v). (In vacuum all
colors have speed c=3x108m/s).

Fig. (2-11): In a prism, material dispersion causes different colors to

refract at different angles, splitting white light into a rainbow.
14
 Fig. (2-12)

Dispersion is the separation of white light into its component colors. It is plays
a very important role in fiber optical communications.
- The index of refraction for a material usually decreases with increasing
wavelength (‘normal’ dispersion)
- Violet light refracts more and red least light when passing from air into a
material (through a glass prism). Colors between blue and red are bent
proportional to their position in the spectrum.

The light is said to be dispersed into a spectrum and "the difference between the
angles of deviation of any two rays is called the angular dispersion of those
particular rays".

The dispersive power ω is "the ability of the optical elements (prism) to

disperse the white light to it's components", and is given by the relation:

Where nB, nR, and nY are the indices for blue, red, and yellow position of
spectrum respectively.

15
Example
The dispersive power of a silicate flint glass for which nB = 1.632, nY = 1.62, and
nR = 1.613 is:

While that of a silicate crown glass for which n B=1.513, nY=1.508, and nR =
1.504 is:

The angle  considered the mean deviation of the spectrum, while "the
difference between tow mean deviation angles, such as  B –  R is a measure of
the dispersion of the spectrum".
The dispersion is small if the angle of the prism is small, then for example:
 B = (nB - 1) A
 R = (nR - 1) A (2-16)
 Y = (nY - 1) A

Fig. (2-13): Angles of deviation for the rays.

The dispersion,  B -  R, is therefore:

 B -  R = (nB - 1) A- (nR - 1) A = (nB - nR) A

And the ratio of the dispersion to the mean deviation is:

16
The dispersive power is equal to the ratio of the dispersion to the mean
deviation, when light is dispersed at minimum deviation by a prism of small
angle.

Example
Compute the mean deviations and dispersions produced by the flint and crown
glasses above, if the prism angle is l0o.

Solution:
For the flint glass:
Mean deviation =  Y = (nY - 1) A = (1.62 - l) 10 = 6.2o
Dispersion =  Y = 0.03l x 6.2 = 0.192.

For the crown glass:

Mean deviation =  Y = (nY - 1) A = (1.508 - l) 10 = 5.08 o
Dispersion =  Y = 0.0l8 x 5.08 = 0.0191.

The Rainbow
The separation of colors by a prism is an example of dispersion. At the surfaces
of the prism, Snell's law predicts that light incident at an angle  to the normal
will be refracted at an angle arcsin (sin () / n). Thus, blue light, with its higher
refractive index, is bent more strongly than red light, resulting in the well known
rainbow pattern.

 The rainbow takes the concept of dispersion and multiples it through the
atmosphere
 The sun shines on water droplets in a cloud or when it is raining
 The light is dispersed by the raindrop into its spectral colors

17
 At the back surface the light is reflected
 It is refracted again as it returns to the front surface and moves into the air
 The rays leave the drop at various angles
 The angle between the white light and the violet ray is 40°
 The angle between the white light and the red ray is 42°

Observing the Rainbow

 If a raindrop high in the sky is observed, the red ray is seen

 A drop lower in the sky would direct violet light to the observer
 The other colors of the spectra lie in between the red and the violet

Problem
The index of refraction for crown glass for red light is 1.514.What is the speed
of red light in crown glass? Answer: 1.98 x 10 8 m/s

18
University of Bagdad Subject: Optics I
College of Science Semester: first
Department of Physics Year: First year
Dr.Sarmed S. Alawadi

Chapter Three

Reflection and Refraction at Spherical Surfaces

3-1 Introduction
Most of lenses and mirrors are spherical or plane, because only
spherical and plane surfaces can be produced by machine
methods at reasonable cost. When a train of light waves passes
through an optical instrument, the curvature of the wave fronts is
altered at each boundary surface.

A ray, in its passage (‫ )فقرة‬through an optical instrument, is made

up of a number of segments (‫) القطع‬of straight lines, deviated at
reflecting or refracting surfaces by angles which can be
computed from the law of reflection or from Snell's law. The
problem of tracing (‫ ) البحث عن‬the path of a ray reduces to a
problem in geometry and this branch of optics is called
geometrical optics.

3-2 Reflection at Spherical Surfaces

Figure (3-1) shows a spherical surface with radius, R forms

an interface between two media with refractive indices n1 and
n2.
 A line OVC through the center of curvature is called axis.
 The point V, where the axis intersects (‫ )يتقاطع‬the surface, is
called the vertex (‫)قمةالرأس‬.
 Fig. (3-1a) shows a pencil of rays diverging from apoint O,
called the object.

1
 The surface forms an image I of a point object O as shown in
figure (3-1b).
 The distance from the object to the vertex is called the object
distance and is represented by d. The distance d' is the image
distance.

(a)

(b)

Fig. (3-1): Refraction of rays at a spherical surface.

 The incident ray OP makes an angle α with the axis and is

incident on the refracting surface at point, p.
 Point C is the centre of curvature of the spherical surface
and PC is normal.
 The incident ray OP making an angle θ1with the normal
and is refracted to ray PI making an angle θ2 where n1<n2.

2
  The refracted ray crosses the axis at point I at a distance d'
to the right of the vertex, and makes an angle γ with the
axis.

 For small values of the angle α all rays from O intersect at

I, which is called the image of the point O.

From the figure, the triangle OPC and the law of sines:
OPC ‫اي بتطبيق قانون الجيوب على المثلث‬
sin(𝜋 − 𝜃1 ) sin 𝛼
=
𝑅+𝑑 𝑅
or
sin(𝜋 − 𝜃1 ) 𝑅 + 𝑑
=
sin 𝛼 𝑅
:‫حيث ان الزاويا المكملة لزاوية معينة يساوي جيب الزاوية نفسها اي ان‬
And since sin (-θ) = sin θ,
So
𝑅+𝑑
sin 𝜃1 = sin 𝛼 (3-1)
𝑅

The angle of refraction θ may found by Snell's law.

𝑛1
sin 𝜃2 = sin 𝜃1 (3-2)
𝑛2

Since the slop of the ray PI is negative with respect to the axis,
then the angle γ is negative. And the sum of the inside angles of
the triangle OPI equal to 𝜋

α + (𝜋 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝜃2 + (−𝛾) = 𝜋

α + (𝜋 − 𝜋) − 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 𝛾

𝜃2 + α − 𝜃1 = 𝛾 (3-3)

3
 The image distance d' is found from the triangle PCI, by the
law of sines to be:
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
=
𝑅 𝑑′ − 𝑅
So the images distance:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
𝑑′ = 𝑅 − 𝑅 (3-4)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾
From the figure,

∆POC → 𝜃1 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 (3-5)

∆PIC → 𝛽 = 𝛾 + 𝜃2

𝜃2 = 𝛽 − 𝛾 (3-6)

By using ∆POD, ∆PCD and ∆PID thus

𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐷
tanα = ; tanβ = ; tanγ =
𝐷𝑂 𝐷𝐶 𝐼𝐷

By considering point P very close to the pole V or; all angles that rays
make with surfaces are small, take approximation sin≈ 
known as the paraxial region; so:

.𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 = 𝜃1 ; 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 = 𝜃2
and
; 𝑡𝑎𝑛α = α; 𝑡𝑎𝑛β = β; 𝑡𝑎𝑛γ = γ

OD ≈ OV = d ; CD ≈ CV = R ; ID ≈ IV = d'

And Snell’s law can be written as

𝑛1 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝜃2 (3-7)

By substituting eq. (3-5) and (3-6) into eq. (3-7), thus

𝑛1 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑛2 (𝛽 − 𝛾)

4
 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )𝛽
Then

𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐷
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 = ( 𝑛2 − 𝑛2 )
𝑑 𝑑′ 𝑅
𝑛1 𝑛2 ( 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 )
𝑑
+
𝑑′
=
𝑅
 (3-8)
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

Where
d' : image distance from pole
d: object distance from pole
n1: refractive index of medium 1 (Medium containing the incident ray)
n2: refractive index of medium 2 (Medium containing the refracted ray)

􀁻 Note :
If the refraction surface is flat (plane)
R=

𝑛1 𝑛2
+ ′ =0
𝑑 𝑑

Examples:

1-A cylindrical glass rod in air has refractive index of 1.52. One end
is ground to a hemispherical surface with radius, R =2.00 cm as shown
in figure below.

Find,
a. the position of the image for a small object on the axis of the
rod,8.00 cm to the left of the pole as shown in figure.
b. the linear magnification.(Given the refractive index of air , na=
1.00)‫هذا الفرع سابق الوانه‬

2- The end of a solid glass rod of index 1.50 is ground and polished to a

5
hemispherical surface of radius 1 cm. A small object is placed in air on
the axis 4 cm to the left of the vertex. Find the position of the image.
Assume n = 1.00 for air.

3- A concave surface with a radius of 4 cm separates two media of

refractive index n = 1.00 and n' = 1.50. An object is located in the first
mediumat a distance of 10 cm from the vertex. Find (a) the primary focal
length, (b) the secondary focal length, and (c) the image distance.

3-3 CONVENTION (‫)اتفاقية‬OF SIGNS

It is necessary a convention of signs for distances and

angles. Many such conventions are in use and all have some
points in their favor (‫)صالح‬. Most of us use the following set of
conventions:

1. All figures are drawn with the light traveling from left to right.
2. Consider object distances (d) positive when the object lies at
the left of vertex of the refracting or refracting surface.
3. Consider image distances (d') positive when the image lies at
the right of vertex of the refracting or refracting surface.
4. Consider radii of curvature (R) positive when the center of
curvature lies at the right of the vertex Vice versa. [ or : All
convex surfaces are taken as having a positive radius, and all concave
surfaces are taken as having a negative radius].
5. Consider angles positive when the slope of the ray with
respect to the axis (or with respect to a radius of curvature) is
positive.
6. Consider transverse dimensions positive when measured
upward from the axis.
7. A positive value of the image distance d' indicates a real
image, while a negative value indicates a virtual image.

3-4 Reflection at Spherical Surface

6
When light is incident on a surface bounding two transparent
media of different indices of refraction, some light is reflected at
the surface, with the angle of reflection of any ray equal to the
angle of incidence. A ray such as OP in fig. (3-1a) gives rise to a
reflected ray as well as a refracted ray. If the surface is convex
(‫ )محدب‬toward the left, as in fig. (3-2), the reflected rays appear
to diverge from a virtual image of O at Q1.

The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is found
from the law of reflection instead of from Snell's law as in eq.
(3-2).

Fig. (3-2): Reflection at a spherical surface.

7
The angle of incidence θ of a ray from O in fig. (3-2) given by
eq. (3-1). That is, if θ is the angle of reflection instead of
eq. (3-2),
θ = − θ'

The negative sign enters since the reflected ray has a negative
slope with respect to the normal. The same formulas that were
derived for refraction can be used for reflection also. If we
assume in Snell's law that n1= n2, this law reduces to:

sinφ1 = - sinφ2
φ1 = - φ2

If we let n1= n2 and let the primed quantities in eqs. (3-1) to (3-
8) apply to the reflected as well as the refracted rays, these
equations can be used for reflecting as well as for refracting
surfaces.

A virtual(‫ )الظاهري‬image formed by a mirror lies at the right of

the reflecting surface, so that a positive value of d' corresponds
to a virtual image and a negative value of d' to a real image.

As an illustration, consider the formation of an image by plane

mirror.
 If the radius of curvature of such a mirror is infinite and
setting R = ∞ and n1 = - n2 in eq. (3-8), we find:

d= d'

Since the object distance d is positive if the object is real, the

image distance d' is positive also. Therefore

8
  a plane mirror forms a virtual image of a real object, at the
same distance behind the mirror that the object is in front
it.

 If the radius of curvature of the mirror is finite, eq. (3-8)

becomes:
1 1 2
+ 𝑑′ = − 𝑅 (3-9)
𝑑

3-5 Mirrors

A mirror is an object that reflects light and it's simply a piece of

glass polished metal surface. In the past they were usually made
by coating glass with silver (because of it is high efficiency in
the UV and IR).

Now a day, vacuum evaporated coatings of aluminum on highly

polished substrates have become the accepted standard for
quality mirrors.

3-5-1 Plane Mirrors

Plane mirrors are ground to be flat – the flatter the more expensive.
(Typically good ones have - where we use visible radiation- no hills or
valleys larger than 500nm).
 1. Images formed by plane (i.e., flat) mirrors have the following
properties:

a) The image formed by a plane mirror is upright, identical in size to the

object, and as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.

9
b) The image is unmagnified, virtual, and erect.

 2. Image orientation(‫)اتجاه‬:

a) Erect(‫معتدل‬:‫(اركت‬: Image is oriented the same as the object.

b) Inverted(‫)مقلوب‬: Image is flipped 1800 with respect to the object.

 3. Image classification:

a) Real: Image is on the same side of mirror as the object light rays
actually pass through the image point.

b) Virtual: Image is on the opposite side of mirror from object  light

rays appear to diverge from image point [ i.e Light rays reflect on a
plane mirror, and produce a virtual image behind the mirror. What’s a
virtual image? It means the light rays are NOT coming from a real
point, there is no light where the image appears. Or in other word the
image is called virtual because it does not really exist behind the
mirror]

the properties of plane mirror image is:

10
The image distance equals the object distance.
• The image is unmagnified.
• The image is virtual.
• The image is not inverted )‫(مقلوبة‬.
• Left and right are reversed )‫(عكوسة‬
**The intensity of the reflected beam depends upon the angle of
incidence and the indices of refraction and they type of coating.

 4. Image size is determined by the magnification of an object

which is given by
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ′
M= =
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ

h'= image height

h= object height

 5. Ray Tracing Rules:

• Draw Two Rays From Object to Point on Mirror.

• Draw Perpendicular Line to Mirror From Each Point.

• Use θi=θr To Draw Reflected Rays to Eye.

11
 • Extend Reflected Rays behind Mirror to Find Virtual Image

Image distance is minus Object distance, do = –di , means image is

behind (minus) the mirror and | do |= |di| means image is behind mirror
same distance object is in front.

What is meant by :
Virtual image: means no light actually is at the image location (optical
illusion).in other word is meant by the light appears to come from the
virtual image, but in fact does not come from there.

Real image:The light comes from the image (rather than appearing to
come from there). You may need a screen to see it.

Magnification m = +1 means image has same height as object (|m|=1) and

image is right-side up (m is plus).

3-5-2 Spherical Mirrors

12
A spherical mirror is a mirror whose surface shape is spherical with
radius of curvature R.or in other word is a section of a sphere. It may be
concave [reflective on either the inside ] or convex [reflective on either
the outside ]. **The principal axis (optical axis, vertex) is the straight
line between C and the midpoint of the mirror

Concave mirror: Reflecting surface is on the “inside” of the curved

surface.

Convex mirror: Reflecting surface is on the “outside "of the curved

13
A concave mirror((converging)(left) focuses incoming parallel
rays at the focal point.
A convex mirror (diverging) bends incoming parallel rays
outward (‫)نحو الخارج‬, as though they came from a focal point
behind the mirror.

Mirrors Images: formed by spherical mirrors may be found by

using the parallel, chief, and focal rays.

14
 Fig. (3-4): Spherical mirrors
a. A ray of light which is parallel and close to the principal
axis of a concave mirror F, of the mirror.[see above fig.1]
in other word the incident ray (1) parallel to the principal
axis is reflected and then ; after reflection itpasses through the
focal point F;
b. The incident ray (2) passing through (or travelling
towards) C is reflected back along its original path.
c. The incident ray (3) passing through (or travelling
towards) F is reflected back parallel to the principal axis;

For a concave mirror, the type of image formed depends on the

position of the object.

15
 i. C is the centre of curvature of the mirror; it is the centre of
the sphere of which the mirror's surface forms part.
ii. P is the pole (‫ )القطب‬of the mirror.
iii. CP is the radius of curvature, R, of the mirror.
iv. The line through CP is the principal axis of the mirror.
v. In each case FP is the focal length, f of the mirror, and:
f= R/2
vi. The Mirror Formula
1 1 1 𝑅
+ = =−
𝑠 𝑠′ 𝑓 2
vii. Where s = object distance, s'= image distance, f = focal
length, and R = radius of curvature (All distances are
measured to the pole of the mirror).

In order to distinguish between real and virtual images, and the

two types of spherical mirror, it is necessary to employ a sign
convention(‫)اتفاقية‬.There will uses the Real is Positive
convention, in which:
i. The focal lengths and radii of curvature of concave mirrors
are positive, and those of convex mirrors are negative;
ii. Distances from mirrors to real objects and real images are
positive, whereas distances to virtual objects and virtual
images are negative.
16
viii We can also find the magnification (ratio of image height to object
height).

ℎ𝑖 𝑠′ 𝑓
𝑚= =− =
ℎ𝑜 𝑠 𝑓−𝑠

The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted. When s,s’ >0 ,
m<0 inverted and if s/s’<0, m>0 upright or erect (‫)منتصب‬

If the object is between the center of curvature and the focal point,
and its image is larger, inverted, and real.

If an object between focus F and mirror of a concave mirror, its

image will be virtual, right-side, further from the mirror than the
object; and larger than the object→magnification.

If an object is outside the center of curvature of a concave mirror,

its image will be inverted, smaller, upside down; and real.

Examples:-
1- An object 2cm high is located 10cm from a convex mirror with a

17
radius of curvature of 10cm. Locate(‫ )حدد‬the image, and find its height.

Focal length: f= r/2= -10cm/2= -5cm.

Image position: 1/s' =1/f -1/s = -1/5cm –1/10cm= -3/10cm

s'= - 10/3cm = -3.33 cm: the image is virtual.

Magnification: m= -s'/s= - (-3.33cm)/(10cm)=+0.33 (upright, smaller).

If the object image is 2cm, the image height is 0.33 x 2cm=0.67 cm.

2- What if we put a light source at the focal point of a concave

mirror?

All the rays emitted go through the focal point, and are therefore
reflected parallel to the axis of the mirror -> flashlight

3- A convex mirror whose radius of curvature is 30 cm forms

an image of a real object which has been placed 20 cm
from the mirror. Calculate the position of the image and the
magnification produced.

s = + 20 cm (real object), s'= s', R = -30 cm (convex mirror)

18
Since the image distance has turned out to be negative, the
image is virtual. The image is therefore 8.6 cm behind the
mirror. The magnification, m, can given by:

Note: The minus sign in s'= -60/7 cm has been ignored. Thus,
the magnification is 3/7, i.e. the image is three-sevenths the size
of the object.
4- The inside of a spoon bowl is a concave surface with a radius of
curvature of a couple of inches. If you hold it about a foot from
your face, what will your face look like?
a) Normal size, upside down b) Normal size, right side up
 ( c ) Smaller, upside down d) Smaller, right side up

3-6 Focal points and focal lengths

The first focal point of a refracting or reflecting surfce,

designated F, is: "axial object point which is imaged by the
surface at infinity".
Rays diverging from the first focal point are parallel to the axis
of the surface after reflection or refraction.

19
Below fig.(a) shows the first focal point F of a refracting surface
and fig. (b) that of a concave mirror. The distance from the first
focal point to the vertex(‫ ) قمة الراس‬of the surface is called the
first focal length, f,

𝑛 𝑛′ 𝑛′ − 𝑛
+ =
𝑠 𝑠′ 𝑅
Fig. (a) First focal point of a refracting surface,
(b) first focal point of a concave mirror.

The first focal length can be computed from Eq.

by setting s' = ∞. This gives:
𝑛 𝑛′ 𝑛′ − 𝑛
+ =
𝑠  𝑅
and since in this case, the object distance s equals the first
1 1 1
focal length f,( + = )
𝑠 𝑠′ 𝑓
𝑛
𝑓= ′ 𝑅
𝑛 −𝑛

For a mirror, we set n = -n', and obtain:

𝑅
𝑓=−
2

If the mirror is concave, as in above fig. (b), R is a negative

quantity, f is positive, and the first focal point lies at the left of
the vertex, half way between it and the center of curvature.

20
The second focal point of a surface designated F', is:"the image
of an infinitely distant object point on the axis".
That is, it is the point at which incident rays originally parallel to
the axis intersect after reflection or refraction, see below fig. (a).
The distance from the vertex to the second focal point is the
second focal length, f.
If we set s = ∞ in Eq.
𝑛 𝑛′ 𝑛′ − 𝑛
+ =
𝑠 𝑠′ 𝑅
we find:
𝑛 𝑛′ 𝑛′ − 𝑛
+ =
 𝑠′ 𝑅

1 1 1
And since s' = f',( + = )
𝑠 𝑠′ 𝑓′
1 𝑛′
= ′ 𝑅
𝑓′ 𝑛 − 𝑛

Setting n' = -n, we find for the second focal length of a mirror,

1 𝑅
=
𝑓′ 2
If the mirror is concave, R is negative, s' and f are negative also
and, since they refer to image distances, the second focal point
lies at a distance R/2 to the left of the vertex as in above fig.( b).
In other words, the first and second focal lengths of a mirror are
equal, and the first and second focal points of a mirror coincide.
It is necessary to distinguish between them and ordinarily one
simply speaks of the focal point of a mirror. The first focal
length of a mirror is considered to be the first focal length,
f = -R/2. While the focal lengths of a refracting surface, are
unequal, as in above eqs.

21
Fig.: (a) Second focal point of a refracting surface, (b) second
focal point of a concave mirror.
Virtual Images

When the eye receives the reflected rays they appear to come
from a source, but do not actually pass through. In order to
produce a virtual (‫ ) خيالية‬image a surface other than a plane one
is required.
The image M'Q' in below fig. is a real image in the dense that if
a flat screen is located at M' a sharply defined image of the
object MQ will be formed on the screen.

All rays leaving the object point Q, are brought to a focus at

the image point Q'.

Not all images can be formed on a screen, as is illustrated in

below fig. Light rays from an object point Q are shown refracted
by a concave spherical surface separating the two media of index
n=1 and n'=1.5, respectively. The focal lengths have the ratio
1:1.5.
22
 All rays leaving the object point Q, appear to be coming
from the virtual image point Q'.
Since the refracted rays are diverging, they will not come to a
focus at any point. To an observer's eye located at the right, such
rays will appear to be coming from the common point Q'. In
other words, Q' is the image point corresponding to the object
point Q. similarly M' is the image point corresponding to the
object point M. Since the refracted rays do not come from Q' but
only appear to do so, no image can be formed on a screen placed
at M'. For this reason such an image is said to be virtual.

23
University of Bagdad Subject: Optics I
College of Science Semester: first
Department of Physics Year: First year
Dr.Sarmed S. Alawadi
Chapter Four
Lenses
4-1 Lenses Terminology (‫)مصطلحات‬

A lens is an optical system bounded by two or more refracting surfaces

having a common axis. If the lens has two surfaces only, it is called a simple
lens; if there are more than two surfaces, a compound lens. All high quality
lenses are compound lenses, that is, they consist of a number of simple lenses
having a common axis. The surfaces of the lenses may be in contact, or there
may be air spaces between them.

Except when it is incident normally on one of the surfaces, a ray passing

through a simple lens undergoes deviation at both surfaces. The axial
thickness of many simple lenses is sufficiently small so that the entire
deviation of a ray can be considered to take place in a single plane through the
center of the lens. When this approximation can be made, the lens is called a
thin lens. Any lens, simple or compound, that is not a thin lens, is called for
brevity(‫) باختصار‬a thick lens.

Most of lenses and mirrors are spherical or plane, because only spherical and
plane surfaces can be produced by machine methods at reasonable cost. When
a train of light waves passes through an optical instrument, the curvature of
the wave fronts is altered(‫) يتغير‬at each boundary surface.

A ray, in its passage through an optical instrument, is made up of a number of

segments(‫) تقاطع‬of straight lines, deviated at reflecting or refracting surfaces
by angles which can be computed from the law of reflection or from Snell's
law. The problem of tracing(‫) تتبع‬the path of a ray reduces to a problem in
geometry and this branch of optics is called geometrical optics.

4-2 Thin Lenses

1
Lenses :are refractive optical devices with two spherical sides. Diagrams of
several standard forms of thin lenses are shown in fig. (4-1). They are shown
there as illustrations of the fact that most lenses have surfaces that are
spherical in form. Some surfaces are convex, others are concave, and still
others are plane. When light passes through any lens, refraction at each of its
surfaces contributes to its image forming properties. Not only does each
individual surface have its own primary and secondary focal points and
planes, but the lens as a whole has its own(‫) خاص‬pair of focal points and focal
planes. In other word the most common use optical component is the lens with
either one on two curved surfaces. Lenses are classified into six types,

Fig. (4-1): (a) Types of converging lenses, (b) types of diverging lenses

2
A thin lens may be defined as one whose thickness is considered small in
comparison with the distances generally associated with its optical
properties and are either Positive or Negative depending on their focal
length. Such distances are, for example, radii of curvature of the two spherical
surfaces, primary and secondary focal lengths, and object and image
distances.
Lenses are of two kinds, converging and diverging. A converging lens is
thicker in the middle than at its rim; a diverging lens thinner in the middle.
As in fig. (4-2a), a converging lens brings parallel beam of light to a single
focal point F. Here F is called a real focal point because the light rays pass
through it.
A diverging lens spreads out a parallel beam of tight so that the rays seem to
have come from a focal point F behind the lens, as in fig. (4-2b). In this case
F is called a virtual focal point because the tight rays do not actually pass
through it but only appear to.

Fig. (4-2): (a) Converging lens, (b) Diverging lens.

Example 1:-
Compare between Converging lens, and Diverging lens
Solution:
a) Converging lens:
i) Lens thicker at center than edges.
ii) Light rays are refracted towards the focal point, F, on the other side of the
lens.

3
b) Diverging lens:
i) Lens thinner at center than edges.
ii) Light rays are refracted in a direction away fromthe focal point, F, on the
inner side of the lens.

4-3 Focal Points and Focal Lengths

Diagrams showing the refraction of light by an equiconvex lens and by
an equiconcave lens are given in fig. (4-3).The axis in each case is a straight
line through the geometrical center of the lens and perpendicular to the two
faces at the points of intersection. For spherical lenses this line joins the
centers of curvature of the two surfaces.
‫تعريف‬Focal Point (F): the point to which light beam parallel to principal
axis converge.
The primary focal point F is an axial point having the property that any ray
coming from it, or proceeding toward it, travels parallel to the axis after
refraction .
Every thin lens in air has two focal points, one on each side of the lens and
equidistant from the center).
The secondary focal point F' is an axial point having the property that any
incident ray traveling parallel to the axis will, after refraction, proceed
toward, or appear to come from, F'.

Fig. (4-3): Primary and secondary focal point ; F and F'.

4
‫مهم‬The distance between the center of a lens and either of its focal points is
called its focal length. These distances, designated f and f ', usually measured
in centimeters or inches, have a positive sign for converging lenses and a
negative sign for diverging lenses. In other word Focal Length (f): Distance
between focal point and the mirror or lens.
It should be noted in fig. (4-3) that the primary focal point F for a converging
lens lies to the left of the lens, whereas for a diverging lens it lies to the right.
For a lens with the same medium on both sides, we have, by the reversibility
of the light rays, f = f ',and F is the focal point. f is the focal length, an
important characteristic
A plane perpendicular to the axis and passing through a focal point is i.e. the
significance of the focal plane is illustrated for a converging lens in fig. (4 -4).

Fig. (4-4): Paraller incident rays are brought to a focus at the secondary focal plane of
a thin lens.
4-5 Image Formation--- Gaussian formula of thin lenses calculation
If we know the focal length of a thin lens and the position of an object, there
are three methods of determining the position of the image. One is by
graphical construction, the second is by experiment, and the third is by use of
the lens formula.

So we can drive the lens formula by Ray diagrams which are useful in
sketching the relationship between object and image. Relationship may also be
calculated

5
Triangles AOB and DOC are similar

𝑦 𝑦′
=
𝑠 𝑠′

𝑦′ 𝑠′
=−
𝑦 𝑠

Triangles EFO and DCF are similar

𝑦 𝑦′
=− ′
𝑓 𝑠 −𝑓

𝑦′ 𝑠′ − 𝑓
=−
𝑦 𝑓
′
𝑠′ 𝑠 −𝑓
=−
𝑠 𝑓

1 1 1
+ = (4 − 1)
𝑠′ 𝑠 𝑓

6
Object distance s
positive if object is in front of lens
negative if object is behind lens
Image distance s′
positive if image is formed behind the lens (real)
negative if is formed in of the lens (virtual)

Focal length f
•positive -- convex lens
•negative --concave lens
1
)‫(تعريف القدرة‬The reciprocal focal length, called lens power or (Strength) P= 𝑓
(f is in meter) The unit of lens power is the Diopter, with conventional label
D, with units m−1. Most often used in relation of visual system, power of
spectacle lenses always quoted in Diopters.

Power Focal Length

5D 200 mm
10 D 100 mm
-5 D -200 mm
-10 D -100 mm

Converging lenses have a positive power, while diverging lenses have a

negative power. By use of the lens makers' formula; eq. (4-2) we may write:
1 1
𝑝 = (𝑛 − 1)( + )
𝑅1 𝑅2
where R1 and R2 are the two radii, measured in meters, and n is the refractive
index of the glass.

Magnification is defined as
𝑠′ 𝑦′
𝑀=− =
𝑠 𝑦
M Negative :
inverted image
M Positive:
Upright image

4-8 Lensmaker’s Equation

7
If a lens is to be ground to some specified focal length, the refractive index of
the glass must be known, the radii of curvature must be so chosen as to satisfy
the equation:
1 1 1
The focal length f for a lens:- =(n-1)( + ) (4 − 2)
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
Important note:

1. R1 and R2 are positive for convex outward surface and negative for concave
surface.
2. Focal length f is positive for converging and negative for diverging lenses.
Substituting the value of l/f from lens formula, we may write:
1 1 1 1
′
+ = (𝑛 − 1) ( + ) (4 − 3)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑅1 𝑅2
Examples
1- A plano-convex lens having a focal length of 25 cm, fig. (4-l) is to be
made of glass of refractive index n: 1.520. Calculate the radius of
curvature of the grinding and polishing tools that must be used to make
this lens.
Solution:
Since a plano-convex lens has one flat surface, the radius for that surface is in
infinite, and r1 in eq. (4-2) is replaced by ∞. The radius r2 of the second
surface is the unknown. Substitution of the known quantities in eq. (4-2)
gives:

8
Transposing and solving for r2;

If this lens is turned around, as in the figure, we will have r1 = +13 cm, r2 = ∞.

2- The radii of both surfaces of an equiconvex lens of index 1.60 are equal
to 8 cm. Find its Power.
Solution:
The given quantities to be used in the above equation are n= 1.60, r1 = 0.08 m,
andr2 = -0.08 m.

3- What is (a) the position, and (b) the size, of a large 7.6cm high flower placed 1m from 50mm focal
length camera lens?

Solution
‫باالستعانة بالشكل اعاله وباستخدام معادلة العدسات نحصل على االتي‬

‫وعليه‬

‫وللحصول حجم الصورة نحسب التكبير على النحو التالي‬

‫ ومقلوبة الن اشارة التكبير سالبة‬4mm ‫أي ان ارتفاع الصورة‬

9
 4- An object is placed 10cm from a 15cm focal length converging lens. Determine the image position
and size.
Solution

‫اي ان الصورة خيالية وللحصول حجم الصورة نحسب التكبير على النحو التالي‬

‫الصورة مكبرة ومعتدلة وتخيلية‬.

4-9 Compound Lenses and Equivalent Focal Length

For the purpose of minimizing aberrations, most lenses in optical instruments

are compound, that is, they consist of several simple lenses having a common
axis. The surfaces of adjacent lenses may be in contact, or there may be air
spaces between them.
Consider two well separated lenses

The simple rule is

The image of the first lens becomes the object for the next

10
First lens of focal length f1 forms an image at S1 where
1 1 1 1 1
= − = −
𝑠′2 𝑓2 𝑠2 𝑓2 𝑑 − 𝑠′1
1 1 1
= −
𝑠′1 𝑓1 𝑠1
This image then becomes the object for the second lens with object distance
S2 = d - S'1
Assumed to be positive, which then form an image as S'2, where
substitute for s'1 to produce a very messy equation for s'2 in terms of s1, f1,
f2&d.
For Special case of two thin lenses of focal length f1 and f2 in contact
(a)

The first lens gives image located at S1

1 1 1
= −
𝑠′1 𝑓1 𝑠1
The second lens has a virtual object located at
S2 = −S'1
so it will form an image at, S'2, given by
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − =[ + ]+
𝑠′2 𝑓2 𝑠2 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑠1
which is just the Gaussian lens formula for a single lens of effective focal
length fe, where
1 1 1
=[ + ]
𝑓𝑒 𝑓1 𝑓2
so lenses is contact add in parallel.

11
Effective strength (Seff) of combination of a number of thin lenses close
together
peff =p1+p2+p3+…..

4-10 Thick Lens Optics

When the thickness of a lens cannot be considered as small compared with its
focal length. The lens must be treated as a thick lens. The thick lens may
therefore include several component lenses, which may or may not be in
contact. Or it is an optical system may contain many lenses, but can be
characterized by a few numbers

A simple form of thick lens comprises two spherical surfaces as shown in

below fig. . Each surface, acting as an image-forming component, contributes
to the final image formed by the system as a whole.
Let n, n', and n" represent the refractive indices of three media separated by
two spherical surfaces of radius r1 and r2. A light ray from an axial object
point M is shown refracted by the first surface in a direction T1M'and then
further refracted by the second surface in a direction T2M".
M and M" are conjugate points for the thick lens as whole, and all rays from
M should come to a focus at M".

Fig. Refraction of a ray at both surfaces of a thick lens.

12
The general formulas given for calculating image distances:

Consider the simple thick lens illustrated in below fig.. The second focal point
F' of this lens is located by finding the position of the image of an infinitely
distant axial object point. That is, we let s1 in the same fig. equal infinity, find
s1', then, s2, and finally s2'. This gives the position of the second focal point,
measured from the second vertex.

Fig.: A simple thick lens.

The next step is to calculate the focal length of the lens. Above Fig. shows a
single ray originating at an infinitely distant axial object point. This ray is
incident on the first surface of the lens at point A, at a height h above the axis,
and it leaves the second surface at point D, at a height h'.
Projections of the incident and emergent rays intersect at point E, which
locates the second principal plane and the second principal point, H'.
From the similar triangles ABG and DCG, to within the precision of first order
theory,

13
From the similar triangles EH'F' and DCF',

When the first of these equations is divided the second, we get:

Or

The distances s1', s2 must all be computed in the process of locating the
second focal point.

Summary:

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Converging and Diverging Lens If a smooth surface replaces the
prisms, a well-defined focus produces clear images.

The Focal Length of Lenses

The Principal Focus Since light can pass through a lens

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 Types of Converging Lenses
In order for a lens to converge light it must be thicker near the
midpoint to allow more bending.

Types of Diverging Lenses

In order for a lens to diverge light, it must be thinner near the midpoint
to allow more bending.

Terms for Image Construction

1- The near focal point is the focus F on the same side of the lens as the
incident light.
2- The far focal point is the focus F on the opposite side to the incident light.

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 Image Construction(‫)تكون‬:
Ray 1: A ray parallel to the lens axis passes through the far focus of a
converging lens or appears to come from the near focus of a diverging
lens.

Ray 2: A ray passing through the near focal point of a converging lens
or proceeding toward the far focal point of a diverging lens is refracted
parallel to the lens

Ray 3: A ray passing through the center of any lens continues in a straight
line. The refraction at the first surface is balanced by the refraction at the
second surface.

-:‫مالحظات مهمة‬

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1- Object Outside 2F
 The image is inverted; i.e., opposite to the object orientation.
 The image is real i.e., formed by actual light rays in front of
mirror.
 The image is diminished in size; i.e., smaller than the object.
 Image is located between F and 2F

2- Object at 2F

 The image is inverted ; i.e., opposite to the object orientation.

 The image is real ; i.e., formed by actual light rays in front of the
mirror.

 The image is the same size as the object .

 Image is located at 2F on other side.

3- Object Between 2F and F

 The image is inverted; i.e., opposite to the object orientation.

 The image is real ; formed by actual light rays on the opposite side
 The image is enlarged in size; i.e., larger than the object.
 Image iFs located beyond 2F

4- Object at Focal Length F

 When the object is located at the focal length, the rays of light are
parallel. The lines never cross, and no image is formed.

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 5- Object Inside F
 The image is erect; i.e., same orientation as the object.
 The image is virtual; i.e., formed where light does NOT go.
 The image is enlarged in size; i.e., larger than the object.
 Image is located on near side of lens

Diverging Lens Imaging

 All images formed by diverging lenses are erect, virtual, and
diminished. Images get larger as object approaches.

Examples:
1- A glass meniscus lens ( n = 1.5 ) has a concave surface of radius
–40 cm and a convex surface whose radius is +20 cm. What is the focal
length of the lens?

1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1)( + )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

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 1 1 1 2−1
= (1.5 − 1) ( + ) = (0.5)( )
𝑓 20cm (−40cm) 40cm

f=20.0 cm converging (+)lens

2- What must be the radius of the curved surface in a plano -convex lens in
order that the focal length be 25 cm?
R1 = , f = 25cm, R2=??

1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1)( + )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1)( + )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1
= (1.5 − 1)( + )
25 𝑐𝑚  𝑅2

R2 = 0.5(25cm)= 12.5cm convex(+)surface

3- A magnifying glass consists of a converging lens of focal length 25 cm.

A bug is 8 mm long and placed 15 cm from the lens. What are the
nature, size, and location of the image?

1- The nature and location:-

𝑠𝑓 (15𝑐𝑚)(25𝑐𝑚)
𝑠′ = = = −37.5𝑐𝑚
𝑠 − 𝑓 (15𝑐𝑚 − 25𝑐𝑚)

The fact that s' is negative means that the image is virtual (on same side as
object).

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 2- The size:- A magnifying glass consists of a converging lens of focal
length 25 cm. A bug is 8 mm long and placed 15 cm from the lens.
What is the size of the image?

𝑦′ − (−37.5𝑐𝑚)
𝑀= =
8𝑚𝑚 15𝑐𝑚
y' = +20mm

The fact that y' is positive means that the image is erect. It is also larger than
object.

4- What is the magnification of a diverging lens ( f = - 20 cm ) if the

object is located 35cm from the center of the lens?

𝑠𝑓 (35𝑐𝑚)(−20𝑐𝑚)
𝑠′ = = = +12.7𝑐𝑚
𝑠 − 𝑓 35𝑐𝑚 − (−20𝑐𝑚)
𝑠′ −(−12.7𝑐𝑚)
𝑀= = = +0.364
𝑠 35𝑐𝑚

5- Derive an expression for calculating the magnification of a lens when

the object distance and focal length are given.

1 1 1
+ =
𝑠 𝑠′ 𝑓
𝑠𝑓
𝑠 ′ ==
𝑠−𝑓
𝑦′ −𝑠′
𝑀= =
𝑦 𝑠
From last equation:
𝑠 ′ = −𝑠𝑀
Substituting for s' in second equation gives . . .

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 𝑠𝑓 −𝑓
𝑠𝑀 = =
𝑠−𝑓 𝑠−𝑓
Use this expression to verify answer in Example 4.

6- An object 2cm high is placed 4cm from a bi-convex lens with

r1=10cm and r2=15cm, and index of refraction n=1.5. Find the
position and size of the image.

7- An object 0.5 cm in height is placed 8 cm from a convex lens of focal

length 10 cm. Determine the position, magnification, orientation and
height of the image.

8- An object is placed 45 cm from a lens of focal length -25 cm.

Determine the position, magnification, and orientation of the image.

9- Determine the combined strength of a thin convex lens and a thin

concave lens placed close together if their respective focal lengths are
10cm and -20cm.

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