Introduction

to Surface
Thank you for reading the Introduction to Surface Roughness
Measurement.

Roughness
This document includes the definition of and technical information
on the parameters defined in the new standard, ISO 25178 Surface
Texture. The content of this document provides explanations that

Measurement are related to our product specifications.

We hope that this introductory document will help answer your
questions regarding the new ISO 25178 measurement module.

200.0

100.0

30.20 m
0.0

0.0 m

0.0 m

100.0

200.0

INDEX
1 About Surface Roughness
1-1 What is Surface Roughness? 2
1-2 ISO 25178 Surface Texture 2
2 Basics of Surface Roughness
2-1 Surface Roughness Terminology 3
2-2 Process of Evaluation 4
2-3 Filtering 4
2-4 S-filter and L-filter 5
2-5 ISO 25178 Surface Texture Parameters Explained 6
2-6 Differences between ISO 25178 and JIS B 0601-2001 17
3 Surface Roughness Measuring Instruments
3-1 Contact-type Surface Roughness and Profile Measuring Instruments 19
3-2 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) 20
3-3 White Light Interferometer 21
3-4 3D Measurement Laser Scanning Microscope 23
1 About Surface Roughness
1-1 What is Surface Roughness?

If you look at machined parts, you will notice that their surfaces embody a complex shape made of a series of peaks and troughs of
varying heights, depths, and spacing. Surface roughness is defined as the shorter frequency of real surfaces relative to the troughs.
A products exterior cover, a vehicles dashboard, a machined panel---the differences in appearance, specifically whether something
is shiny and smooth or rough and matte, are due to the difference in surface roughness.
Surface roughness not only affects the objects appearance, but it also produces texture or tactile differences.
Appearance and texture can influence a products added value such as class and customer satisfaction.
If a part makes contact with something, its surface roughness affects the amount of wear or the ability to form a seal. If the part is to
be painted, the roughness also affects the thickness of the paint.
It has therefore been required in recent years to quantify the asperity of a surface.

Ceramic surface 6000 Paper fiber 1000 Gold-plated surface 400

1-2 ISO 25178 Surface Texture

ISO 25178 Surface Texture is a collection of international standards relating to the analysis of surface roughness.
While JIS B 0671-1 and ISO 13565-1 (Surface Texture: Profile Method) are based on analysis using the stylus method, ISO 25178
Surface Texture standards support two evaluation methods: contact type (stylus method) and non-contact type (optical probe).
The dual-method approach resolves existing problems in the profile method: variations in measurement results depending on the
measurement site and variations due to the scanning direction.

2
2 Basics of Surface Roughness
2-1 Surface Roughness Terminology

This section explains the terms used in ISO 25178 Surface Texture.

Real surface
Real surface indicates the surface from measurement data in the XY plane direction. Generally, the height data is the
subject of processing.

Primary surface
Primary surface is the surface obtained after S-filtering the real surface.

Surface filter
Surface filter is a filtration operator applied to a surface.

S-filter
S-filter is a filter eliminating the smallest scale elements from the surface (low-pass filter). This filter is equivalent to the
cutoff value s in JIS B 0601-2001. In the case of contact-type surface roughness measurement, noise due to edges is
removed.

L-filter
L-filter is a filter eliminating the largest scale elements from the surface (high-pass filter). This filter is used to remove
undulations and other lateral components from the surface, and thus allows for the extraction of only the roughness
components. L-filter is equivalent to the cutoff value c in JIS B 0633-2001.

F-operator
F-operator removes form from the primary surface. This filter is equivalent to tilt correction, suppressing the nominal
surface texture characterization.

S-F surface
Surface filter is a surface obtained after applying an F-operator to the primary surface.

S-L surface
S-L surface is a surface obtained after applying an L-filter to the S-F surface.

Scale-limited surface
Scale-limited surface means either the S-F surface or the S-L surface. It is the equivalent of the roughness profile or
waviness profile in the profile method.

Reference surface
Reference surface is the base for the scale-limited surface and represents the plane at the mean height of the evaluation
area as per the ISO 25178 Surface Texture function.

Evaluation area
Evaluation area is the portion of the scale-limited surface that is subject to evaluation.

Definition area
Definition area is the portion of the evaluation area that is used for parameter definition.

Height
The height represents the distance between the reference surface and each point on the scale-limited surface. A point
lower than the reference plane has a negative value.

Auto-correlation function
Auto-correlation function is used to evaluate the periodicity of surface roughness in the direction of the plane.

Angular spectrum (graph)

The angular spectrum indicates a graph for determining the direction of the lay (or surface pattern; hairline, in the case of
metal) comprising a surface.

3
2-2 Process of Evaluation

The parameters used in ISO 25178 Surface Texture are calculated from the following procedure.

Obtain the primary surface by surface filtering (using S-filter) the real surface.

According to the evaluation result, perform further surface filtering (using F-operator and
L-filter) to obtain the scale-limited surface.

Specify the evaluation area from the scale-limited surface.

Obtain the reference surface for the scale-limited surface and calculate the parameters.

2-3 Filtering

The standards for filtering are still under review by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). This section
introduces the filtering methods being evaluated by ISO for the S-filter and the L-filter.

Gaussian filter

The Gaussian filter is one kind of smoothing filter that suppresses noise using the Gaussian function. Gaussian filters that
are specified in JIS B 0632:2001 (ISO 11562:1996) and ISO 16610-21:2011 are applied to areal surface roughness
measurements.

Spline filter

The spline filter is one kind of filter used to obtain a smooth profile by interpolating the sections between effective adjacent
points using the spline function. Spline filters that are specified in ISO/TS 16610-22:2006 are applied to areal surface
roughness measurements.

4
 2-4 S-filter and L-filter settings

Cutoff wavelength for S-filter

A value equal to or more than 3 times the measurement resolution for the XY plane (horizontal plane) is used. If the set
value is not sufficiently effective, increase the set value until the scale-limited surface noise is removed. If a different kind
of filtering was applied beforehand, this may not be used.

Cutoff wavelength for L-filter

The cutoff wavelength for L-filter is difficult to uniformly specify based on lens magnification or stylus tip diameter;
therefore, it must be adjusted with reference to the real surface. Set a value 5 times the XY-directional length of the profile
that you want to remove as waviness.

Example:

0.18 Mil

0.16 Mil

0.14 Mil

0.12 Mil

0.10 Mil
0.000 Mil 0.79 Mil 1.57 Mil 2.36 Mil 3.15 Mil 3.94 Mil 4.72 Mil 5.32 Mil

Profile 1 Horizontal distance

Section 1 14.678 m 0.58 Mil

In the example above, the cutoff value is 0.1 mm 0.004".

14.678 x 5 = 73.39 0.1 mm 0.004"

5
 2-5 ISO 25178 Surface Texture Parameters Explained

The parameters used in ISO 25178 Surface Texture are calculated based on the following concept.

Reference surface

Obtain the reference surface (mean plane) for the measurement area (vertical M pixel, horizontal N pixel) specified on the
height screen and calculate the deviation of height distribution when
the height of the reference surface is 0.
M

N
ISO 25178 Surface Texture Parameters

Parameters are grouped into six categories in ISO 25178 Surface Texture.
1. Height parameters
2. Spatial parameters
3. Hybrid parameters
4. Functional parameters
5. Functional volume parameters
6. Feature parameters

The following evaluation parameters are defined for the categories.

Category Parameter Description

Sq Root mean square height

Ssk Skewness

Sku Kurtosis

Height parameters Sp Maximum peak height

Sv Maximum pit height

Sz Maximum height

Sa Arithmetical mean height

Sal Auto-correlation length

Spatial parameters Str Texture aspect ratio

Std* Texture direction

Sdq Root mean square gradient

Hybrid parameters
Sdr Developed interfacial area ratio

* Std, the texture direction, is classified in miscellaneous parameters in ISO 25178-2; 2012 (Surface texture parameters).

6
 Smr(c) Areal material ratio

Smc(mr) Inverse areal material ratio

Sk Core roughness depth

Spk Reduced peak height

Svk Reduced valley depth

Peak material portion (percentage of material that comprises the peak structures
Functional parameters Smr1
associated with Spk)

Valley material portion (percentage of the measurement area that comprises the
Smr2
deeper valley structures associated with Svk)

Svq Slope of a linear regression performed through the valley region

Spq Slope of a linear regression performed through the plateau region

Smq Relative areal material ratio at the plateau to valley intersection

Sxp Peak extreme height

Vvv Dale void volume

Vvc Core void volume

Functional volume parameters
Vmp Peak material volume

Vmc Core material volume

Spd Density of peaks

Spc Arithmetic mean peak curvature

S10z Ten point height of surface

S5p Five point peak height

Feature parameters S5v Five point pit depth

Sda(c) Closed dale area

Sha(c) Closed hill area

Sdv(c) Closed dale volume

Shv(c) Closed hill volume

7
1 Heig ht parameter s
The height parameters below are developed analogously from ISO 4287 and JIS B0601 and focus on the
height (displacement) of the evaluation area.

Category Parameter Description Notes

This parameter corresponds to the standard deviation

Sq Root mean square height of distance from the mean plane. It is equivalent to the
standard deviation of heights.

This parameter represents the symmetry of height

Ssk Skewness
distribution.

This parameter represents the kurtosis of height

Sku Kurtosis
distribution.
Height parameters
This parameter represents the maximum value of height
Sp Maximum peak height
from the mean plane of the surface.

This is the absolute minimum value of height from the

Sv Maximum pit height
mean plane of the surface.

This parameter represents the distance between the

Sz Maximum height
highest point and the lowest point on the surface.

This is the arithmetic mean of the absolute value of the

Sa Arithmetical mean height
height from the mean plane of the surface.

Supplementary Notes

Root mean square height (Sq)

This parameter represents the root mean square value of ordinate values within the definition area. It is
equivalent to the standard deviation of heights.

Sq = 1
A AZ 2 (x,y)dxdy

Skewness (Ssk)
Ssk values represent the degree of bias of the roughness shape (asperity).

Ssk = 1
Sq 3 [ 1
A AZ 3 (x,y)dxdy ]

Z Z Z

0 0 0

Ssk<0 Ssk=0 Ssk>0

Ssk<0 Height distribution is skewed above the mean plane.

Ssk=0 Height distribution (peaks and pits) is symmetrical around the mean plane.
Ssk>0 Height distribution is skewed below the mean plane.

8
Kurtosis (Sku)
Sku value is a measure of the sharpness of the roughness profile.

Sku = Sq1 [ 4
1
A AZ 4 (x,y)dxdy ]

0 0 0
Z Z Z

Sku<3 Sku=3 Sku>3

Sku<3 Height distribution is skewed above the mean plane.

Sku=3 Height distribution is normal distribution.
(Sharp portions and indented portions co-exist.)

Sku>3 Height distribution is spiked.

Maximum peak height (Sp)

This is the height of the highest peak within the defined area.

Sp = max
A
z(x,y)

Maximum pit height (Sv)

This is the absolute value of the height of the largest pit within the defined area.

Sv = |min
A
z(x,y)|

Maximum height (Sz)

This parameter is defined as the sum of the largest peak height value and the largest pit depth
value within the defined area.

Sz = Sp + Sv

Arithmetical mean height (Sa)

This parameter is the mean of the absolute value of the height of points within the defined area.

Sa = 1
A A|Z(x,y)|dxdy

9
2 S patial parameter s
Spatial parameters are parameters that focus on the direction of the plane (wavelength direction).

Category Parameter Description Notes

This parameter represents the horizontal distance in the

Sal Auto-correlation length direction in which the auto-correlation function decays to
the value[s] (0.2 by default) the fastest.

This parameter is a measure of uniformity of the surface

texture. The value is obtained by dividing the horizontal
distance in the direction in which the auto-correlation
Spatial parameters Str Texture aspect ratio function decays to the value[s] (0.2 by default) the fastest
(equivalent to Sal) by the horizontal distance in the
direction of the slowest decay of auto-correlation function
to the value[s].

This value[s] is the angle with which the angular spectrum

Std* Texture direction fAPS(S) is the largest. It represents the lay of the surface
texture.

* Std, the texture direction, is classified in miscellaneous parameters in ISO 25178-2; 2012 (Surface texture parameters).

Auto-correlation function used for the calculation of Sal and Str have the characteristic of allowing
you to identify surface features.

Auto-correlation function can also evaluate the

periodicity of each surface direction.

ty
The center of the image is the highest point (ACF = 1),
R min 0
and the ACF decays as the amount of shift away from
tx
the center increases. ACF falls rapidly to zero along
a direction where the short wavelength component is
dominant, and falls slowly when shifting along a direction
R max
where a long wavelength component is dominant.

The figure shows wavelength distribution, with the

Therefore, the decay is slower along the direction of lay
center as 0.
on an anisotropic surface, while the decay is rapid along - Frequent long periodic ups and downs:

the direction perpendicular to the lay. Data concentrates around the center
- Frequent fine ups and downs: Data is dispersed

10
 The angular spectrum graphs used for the calculation of Std can be displayed. Angular spectrum
graphs allow you to identify the lay (hairline) direction.

Angular spectrum
100 90 80
110 70
120 60
50
130
140 40

150 30

160 20

170 10

180 0

The angular direction of lay on the sample surface is reflected in the angular spectrum graph.
- Angle of lay in the image is the same as the angle of peak on the graph.
- Peak size changes according to the intensity of lay.

3 Hybr id parameter s
Hybrid parameters are parameters that focus on both the height direction and the direction of the plane
(wavelength direction).

Category Parameter Description Notes

Root mean square This parameter is calculated as a root mean square of

Sdq
gradient slopes at all points in the definition area.

Hybrid parameters
This parameter is expressed as the percentage of the
Developed interfacial
Sdr definition areas additional surface area contributed by the
area ratio
texture as compared to the planar definition area.

11
4 Fun c tional parameter s
Functional parameters are calculated using the areal material ratio (bearing area) curve. They are utilized to
evaluate the behavior of a surface that comes into strong mechanical contact.

Areal material ratio

Height
The areal material ratio, Smr(c), is the percentage of
the cross-sectional area of the surface at a height [c]
Areal material ratio curve
relative to the evaluation cross-sectional area.
c

0% Smr(c) 100%
Areal material ratio

Areal material ratio curve Height

Secant
The areal material ratio curve expresses the heights at
which the areal material ratio is 0% to 100%. Least steep secant

c 40%

40%

0% 100%
Areal material ratio

Equivalent line
Height
If you shift the secant line of an areal material ratio
40%
curve (obtained from subtracting the curve at areal
Equivalent line
material ratio difference of 40%) from areal material
Sk
ratio of 0%, the position that has the least steep secant
is called the center portion of the areal material ratio
curve. The equivalent line is the line where the sum of
squared deviation in the vertical-axis direction is the 100%
Smr1 Smr2
smallest in the center portion. Areal material ratio

Core surface Height Peak cross-sectional area A1

Core surface is obtained by removing the predominant Spk 40% Valley cross-sectional area A2
peaks and valleys (portions not included in the range Equivalent line

of heights at an equivalent line areal material ratio Sk

of 0% to 100%) from the definition area of the scale-

limited surface. Svk

The peaks with a height above the core surface are

0% 100%
called reduced peaks and the valleys below the core Smr1 Smr2
Areal material ratio
surface are called reduced valleys.

12
 Category Parameter Description Notes

This parameter is calculated as the difference of heights

at areal material ratio values 0% and 100% on the
Sk Core roughness depth equivalent line; specifically, it is a value obtained by
subtracting the minimum height from the maximum height
of the core surface.

This parameter represents the mean height of peaks

Spk Reduced peak height
above the core surface.

This parameter represents the mean depth of valleys

Svk Reduced valley depth
below the core surface.

Peak material portion

Functional parameters (percentage of material
Smr1 that comprises the peak
structures associated Smr1 and Smr2 represent the percentage of surface at
with Spk) the intersection of core surface maximum height and areal
Valley material portion material ratio curve, and the percentage of surface at the
(percentage of the intersection of core surface minimum height and areal
measurement area material ratio curve, respectively.
Smr2
that comprises the
deeper valley structures
associated with Svk)

This parameter is the difference of heights at the areal

Sxp Peak extreme height
material ratio values p% and q%.

5 Fun c tional volume parameter s

Functional volume parameters concern volumes that are calculated using the areal material ratio curve.
They are utilized to evaluate the behavior of a surface that comes into strong mechanical contact.

Inverse areal material ratio

Smc(p), the inverse areal material ratio, is the height [c] that gives the areal material ratio p%.

Void volume
Vv(p), the void volume, is the volume of space per unit area that is calculated based on the areal material
ratio curve of areal material ratio p% to 100%.

Material volume
Vm(p), the material volume, is the volume of material portion per unit area that is calculated based on the
areal material ratio curve of areal material ratio 0% to p%.

Category Parameter Description Notes

This parameter represents the void volume of dale at the

Vvv Dale void volume
areal material ratio p%.

This parameter represents the difference between the

Vvc Core void volume void volume at areal material ratio p% and the void
Functional volume volume at areal material ratio q%.
parameters This parameter represents the volume of material at areal
Vmp Peak material volume
material ratio p%.

This parameter represents the difference between the

Vmc Core material volume material volume at areal material ratio q% and the material
volume at areal material ratio p%.

13
 Vmp

Height

Vmc Vvc

Vvv

0% 100%
10% 80%
Areal material ratio

6 Feature parameter s
Feature parameters are calculated from results of peak and valley regions, respectively,
segmented from the scale-limited surface.

Peak
Point on the surface that is higher than all other points within the neighborhood of that point

Hill
Region around a peak such that all maximal upward paths end at the peak

Course line
Curve separating adjacent hills

Pit
Point on the surface that is lower than all other points within the neighborhood of that point

Dale
Region around a pit such that all maximal downward paths end at the pit

Ridge line
Curve separating adjacent dales

Saddle point
Point at which the ridge lines and course lines cross

Local peak height

Height difference between the peak and its nearest saddle point connected by a ridge line

Local pit height

Height difference between the pit and its nearest saddle point connected by a course line

14
Segmentation

Watershed algorithm
The watershed algorithm is employed to partition regions, which are used in the calculation of feature parameters.
Water is poured into the surface landscape and it runs along the surface shape and reaches the pit. Upon
continuing to pour water, the water surfaces of water filling different pits make contact with each other. The set of
these contact points is the ridge line that partitions the dale region. The same approach can be applied to the hill
region by vertically inverting the process.

Wolf pruning
Peaks and pits merely need to be higher or lower that other points in their respective neighborhoods. For this reason,
a surface with fine asperity can have a vast number of peaks and pits. Applying the watershed algorithm to such
surfaces can result in meticulous segmentation into minute peak and valley regions.
In order to suppress this over-segmentation, the Wolf pruning method is used to remove regions below a certain
height/depth threshold.
The threshold is provided as a percentage of the maximum height (Sz) of the surface. The default value is 5%.

Overflow

Dale depth Closest

saddle
point

Pits Pits

Image of scale-limited surface height Hill region partition using watershed algorithm
(Wolf pruning: 5%)

Closed area

Open area
A region that is in contact with the
Closed dale area Closed hill area
boundary of the definition area at the
material height c is called an open
area, while a region that is not is
called a closed area. Height c is
Image of
given in areal material ratio and the scale-limited
surface height Open hill area
default value is 50%. Open dale area

Cross-section image at areal material ratio of 60%

15
Mean dale area (Sda)
This parameter represents the average of the projected area of a closed or open area at different valley depths c.

Mean hill area (Sha)

This parameter represents the average of the projected area of a closed or open area at different hill heights c.

Mean dale volume (Sdv)

This parameter represents the average of void volume of a closed or open area at different valley depths c.

Mean hill volume (Shv)

This parameter represents the average of material volume of a closed or open area at different hill heights c.

Density of peaks (Spd)

This parameter is the number of peaks per unit area.

Arithmetic mean peak curvature (Spc)

This parameter represents the arithmetic mean of principal curvature of peaks within the definition area.
n

Spc = - 12 n1 ( x + y )
Z(x,y)
2
Z(x,y)
2

2 2

k=1

Ten-point height (S10z)

This parameter is the sum of five-point peak height and five-point pit height.

S10z = S5p + S5v

Five-point peak height (S5p)

This parameter represents the average height of the five highest hills (including the maximum peak) within the definition
area.

Five-point pit height (S5v)

This parameter represents the average height of the five deepest valleys (including the deepest pit) within the definition
area.

16
 2-6 Differences between ISO 25178 and JIS B 0601-2001

The chart below summarizes the differences between ISO 25178 and JIS B 0601-2001/JIS B 0671-2002.

Standard JIS B 0601-2001

ISO 25178
Item (ISO 13565-1)
Contact type and Contact type
Instruments
non-contact type measuring instruments (stylus method only)
Cross-section

Evaluation target S-F surface Cross-sectional profile

Filter S-filter s filter

Evaluation target S-L surface Roughness profile

Filter S-filter, L-filter s filter, c filter

Maximum peak height Sp Rp

Maximum pit height Sv Rv

Maximum height Sz Rz
Roughness

Height
Arithmetical mean height Sa Ra
parameters

Root mean square height Sq Rq

Skewness Ssk Rsk

Kurtosis Sku Rku

Spatial parameters Sal, Str, Std -

Hybrid parameters Sdq, Sdr Rq

Standard JIS B 0671-2002

ISO 25178
Item (ISO 13565-1998)
Level difference
Sk Rk
on core surface

Reduced peak height Spk Rpk

Roughness

Function
Reduced valley depth Svk Rvk
parameters

Peak material portion Smr1 Mr1

Valley material portion Smr2 Mr2

Caution The above chart is created based on the definitions of Surface Texture parameters specified in ISO 25178-2:2012. Please note that the above information may
be changed via standard revisions after April 2012.

17
3 Surface Roughness Measuring Instruments
Various measurement tools are available in the market for analyzing and evaluating surface roughness and shape.

This section introduces the principles and characteristics of typical contact-type measuring instruments (surface roughness

tester and atomic force microscope) and non-contact type measuring instruments (white light interferometer and laser

scanning microscope).

Method Contact type Non-contact type

Contact-type Atomic force microscope White light Laser

Measuring instrument
roughness tester (AFM) interferometer microscope

Measurement resolution 1 nm < 0.01 nm < 0.1 nm 0.1 nm

up to 1 mm < 10 m < a few mm < 7 mm

Height measurement range
up to 0.04" < 0.39 Mil < a few fractions of an inch < 0.28"

a few mm 1 to 200 m 40 m to 15 mm 15 m to 2.7 mm

Measurable range
a few fractions of an inch 0.04 to 7.87 Mil 1.57 Mil to 0.59" 0.59 Mil to 0.11"

Angular characteristic - Poor Fair Good

Data resolution - VGA VGA SXGA

Measurement site positioning - Optional Built-in optical camera Built-in optical camera

Damage to samples Contact Contact Non-contact Non-contact

18
 3-1 Contact-type Surface Roughness and Profile Measuring Instruments

In contact-type instruments, the stylus tip makes direct contact with the surface of a sample.

The detector tip is equipped with a stylus, which traces the surface of the sample. The vertical motion of the stylus is

electrically detected.

The electrical signals go through an amplification and digital conversion process to be recorded.

Driving unit
Stylus
Measurement
Processor
Detector
Detector
Measurement Displacement
target object

Surface of sample (target object)

Contact type surface roughness measuring system Surface roughness data collection

To precisely measure delicate shapes and roughness with a

Detector
contact-type surface roughness tester, the radius of the stylus tip

must be as small as possible with low contact pressure. Stylus

Styluses are made of sapphire or diamond and their tip radius is

usually about 10 m 0.39 Mil or smaller. A conical shape with a

ballpoint tip is considered ideal for a stylus.

Tip radius: r tip = 2 m, 5 m, 10 m 0.08 Mil, 0.20 Mil, 0.39 Mil

rti
p

Cone taper angle: 60, 90

* Unless otherwise specified, cones on ideal measuring instruments have a 60 taper. Shape of the stylus tip

<< Advantages >> << Disadvantages >>

Clear wave profile Stylus wear

Capable of long distance Measuring pressure can cause scratches on the sample surface

measurement Inability to measure viscous samples

Measurement limited by radius of stylus tip

Measurement takes time

Difficulties in positioning and identification of subtle measuring points

Requires sample cutting and processing for tracing by the detector

Contact-type surface roughness testers provide reliable measurement, because they directly touch the sample.

However, direct contact also causes disadvantages as outlined above.

More detailed explanations for some of these points are presented on the following pages.

19
Stylus wear Before wear After wear
Stylus
The stylus must be polished, because it will wear down Stylus

over time. The mode of wear varies, making the stylus flat
or rounded depending on the material and shape of the
measurement target object. Different stylus shapes will Sample Sample

naturally generate different wave profiles.

One method for determining stylus wear is to use a
commercially available wear inspection test piece. Wear is
determined by comparing the data profile (groove width) of
Differences in measurement results due to
the test piece before and after the wear of the stylus. wear of stylus

Markings on the sample from measuring pressure

As explained before, styluses are made of sapphire or
diamond---such hard materials can scratch the surface of the Enlarged view with laser scanning
microscope (6000x)
test object. Especially when repeating parallel adjustments, it
is easy for the stylus to scratch the sample during rapid feed. Markings in the
horizontal direction
Aluminum surface (400x)

Markings caused by measuring pressure

Grooves narrower than the radius of the stylus tip Wider groove Narrower groove
Stylus
cannot be measured Stylus

The tip of the stylus is spherical. The stylus tip cannot trace
Actual shape
the shape properly if the width of the groove (scratch, etc.) is
Sample Sample
narrower than the radius of the stylus tip.

Measurement
results

Radius of stylus tip and groove width of sample

3-2 Atomic force microscope (AFM)

The atomic force microscope measures the asperity of a sample using the atomic
Detector Semiconductor
(light-receiving laser
element) forces between the tip and the sample. To perform measurement, the user moves

the cantilever, equipped with a sharp tip (probe) at its end, into proximity of a

sample surface to a distance of several nanometers. In order to maintain a constant

Cantilever

force between the tip and the sample (a constant deflection of the cantilever), the
Sample
atomic force microscope gives feedback to the piezo scanner while scanning.
Stage
The displacement provided as feedback to the piezo scanner is measured to obtain
Probe
the z-axial displacement, which is the surface structure.

A common way of measuring the displacement of the piezo scanner is the adoption of the optical lever method in which a

laser beam is emitted on the back side of the cantilever and the reflected beam is detected by four-segment

(or two-segment) photodiodes.

20
<< Advantages >>

High resolution (resolution: minimum distance between resolvable points)

Capable of 3D measurement with super-high magnification. Collected data can be processed.

Observation in atmospheric conditions is possible, not needing pretreatment of sample

Capable of analyzing physical properties (electrical property, magnetic property, friction, viscoelasticity, etc.)

<< Disadvantages >>

Incapable of low magnification (wide range) measurement. Samples with significant asperity (level difference greater than

a few m = apx. 0.1 Mil) cannot be measured.

Difficulties in positioning due to the need to narrow down the field of view

Analysis for each sample takes time

Inability to measure large samples due to the need for pretreatment and processing

Relatively difficult operations; Experience required for cantilever replacement, etc.

Very small measurable range

The atomic force microscope (AFM) is a magnifying observation tool capable of measuring 3D textures of a minuscule
area. Unlike scanning electron microscopes, it can acquire height data in numeric values, which enable quantification of
sample and data post-processing. The AFM also allows for measurements in normal atmospheric conditions and is free from
restrictions such as the need for sample pretreatment and electrical conductivity. On the other hand, however, it is subject
to the limitation of narrow measuring range (XYZ) due to its high resolution capabilities. The AFM also suffer the difficulties of
accurately positioning the probe to the measurement area and the need for knowledgeable operation (correct mounting of
the cantilever, etc.)

3-3 White Light Interferometer

Light interference occurs when there is a difference in distance traveled

by the light (light path) from the surface of a target object to a certain

point. The white light interferometer uses this phenomenon to measure the
Objective lens
surface roughness of a sample. The figure on the left is a structural diagram

of an interferometer. The light emitted from the source (semiconductor

Corner cube
Reference
mirror laser, etc.) is separated into reference and measurement beams. While the

reference beam is passed to the reference mirror through a half mirror, the

measurement beam is reflected and guided to the sample surface. The

Sample

passed beam is reflected by the reference mirror to the CCD image sensor

and forms an interference pattern. The other beam is reflected off the sample surface, passes the half mirror, and forming

an image at the CCD image sensor.

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 The white light interferometer is designed so that the optical path length from the CCD

element to the reference mirror and that from the CCD element to the sample surface are

the same. The asperity on the sample surface causes these path lengths to be unequal,

which results in forming an interference pattern at the CCD element. The number of lines in

the interference pattern is translated to peaks and troughs (heights) on the sample surface.

Top view

Side view

Interference pattern

Image of
interference
pattern

<< Advantages >>

Capable of measuring a wide field of view.

Measurement in sub-nanometer range is possible.

Quick measurement

<< Disadvantages >>

No or limited angular characteristic

Use is limited on certain objects

White light interferometer can only measure when there is good reflection. Therefore, it does not support the measurement of a variety of objects.
Measurement may also not be possible when there is significant difference between the light reflected from the reference mirror and that reflected
from the measurement area. (White light interferometer handles mirrored surfaces well, but cannot measure spiky or bumpy samples or non-
reflective objects.)

Requires tilt correction

Prior to measurement, sample tilt correction must be performed using the goniometric stage. Tilted samples can cause closely-spaced
interference patterns, which hinders accurate measurement. Some white light interferometry systems are equipped with a tilt mechanism that
automatically corrects the sample tilt.

Low resolution for XY stage measurement

The resolution for XY stage measurements is low due to the low number of sampling data sets (approximately 300,000). Some white light
interferometry systems can scale up to use approximately 980,000 data sets.

Sensitive to vibrations
Place of installation is limited due to the equipments high sensitivity to vibrations. Shock-absorbing tables are necessary for installation.

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 3-4 3D Laser Scanning Microscope

Laser beam emitted from the laser source passes the XY scanning
Color
CCD camera
Half mirror optical system and scans the sample surface.
Short wavelength laser
light source Laser light-receiving elements detect the reflection information of the
Condensing lens
X-Y scanning position in the focus of the confocal optical system.
Half mirror optical system Pin hole
White light source
for illumination
Light-receiving element
A confocal image is created by accumulating the in-focus position
(Photomultiplier)
information in the Z direction.
Half mirror
At the same time, by memorizing the objective lens positions for the
in-focus positions, the laser scanning microscope measures the 3D
Objective lens
profile of the surface.
Observed target
object

<< Advantages >>

Deep depth of focus; Target object can be observed in color

Produces 3D profiles and displays color 3D images.

Capable of measuring film thickness of translucent objects such as resist for semiconductor fabrication

Analysis in atmospheric conditions is possible, not needing pretreatment of sample

No limitation on sample size and material; Easy operation makes for excellent general-purpose use.

<< Disadvantages >>

Incapable of high-definition observation and high-precision measurement (below 1 nm)

Information of the surfaces of the sample that do not receive laser beam emission (such as the sides) cannot be

acquired

Incapable of measuring materials that absorb laser beam wavelength

A 3D laser scanning microscope is an observation/measuring equipment that enables both the 3D measurement and
deep focus depth observation at the same time. It has no restrictions on the size or material of a sample and allows for
observation under normal environmental conditions. In addition, the 3D laser scanning microscope features user-friendly
operability similar to that of an optical microscope. Samples do not need pretreatment before measurement. Observation
can be done in color, which helps accurate analysis of the conditions of the target object. A 3D laser scanning microscope
can also be used for measuring the thickness of films, as well as for observing the surface, inside, and back side of a
translucent object.
While the 3D laser scanning microscope is better than a scanning electron microscope or an atomic force microscope in
terms of operability, it is inferior in observation magnification and measurement resolution. Bottom parts with high aspect
ratio and slopes with large angles cannot be measured or observed, because they do not reflect the laser beam.

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