Hydro 1 – Hydrology

Description: The hydrologic cycle; streamflow hydrographs; frequency

analysis; groundwater hydrology; water quality analysis;
mathematical models for data synthesis.

Credit: 3 units (2 hr lecture and 3 hr laboratory per week)

Schedule: 8:30 – 9:30 MW / 2:00 – 5:00 W
Room: EA 101
 Grading System:

Passing mark – 75%. The student is encouraged to obtain at least 75% of

all class activities which include three term examinations (TEs); quizzes;
problem sets; written class reports, among others. The distribution of
weights of the different activities will be TE:Quizzes:Others ≈
0.60:0.25:0.15. The aggregate / cumulative scores and the equivalent
grades will be as follows:
Hydrology defined …

 the science that treats the waters of the earth, their occurrence,
circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical properties, and
their reaction with their environment, including their relation to living
things. The domain of hydrology embraces the full life history of
water on the earth

 from the Greek words hyd𝑜𝑟

ҧ which means “water” and logos which
means “study”

 A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist whose work encompasses

among others earth or environmental science, physical geography,
geology or civil and environmental engineering
Domains of hydrology …

 Hydrology include hydrometeorology; surface hydrology; hydrogeology,

drainage basin management, and water quality – where water plays the
central role.

 Hydrology does not include oceanography and meteorology because

water is only one of many important aspects
Branches of hydrology …

 Chemical hydrology is the study of the chemical characteristics of water

 Ecohydrology is the study of the interaction between organisms and the
hydrologic cycle
 Hydrogeology is the study of the presence and movement of
groundwater
 Hydroinformatics is the adaptation of information technology to
hydrology and water resources application
 Hydrometeorology is the study of the transfer of water and energy
between land and water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere
 Isotope hydrology is the study of the isotropic signatures of water
 Surface hydrology is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or
near the Earth’s surface
Hydrologic Cycle
 The hydrologic cycle is defined as the set of reservoirs and fluxes which
hold and move water through the atmosphere, on the surface, and in the
subsurface of the Earth.

 There is a constant (almost) volume of water in the entire water cycle.

 Within the cycle, there are various reservoirs holding water and various
processes that move water within reservoirs and from one reservoir to the
next.

 The main reservoirs in the water cycle include the oceans, atmosphere,
rivers, freshwater lakes, the unsaturated soil moisture, the saturated
groundwater.

 The fluxes are all the processes that move water from one reservoir to the
next (e.g., evaporation, infiltration) or within a reservoir (e.g.
groundwater flow, ocean currents).
Processes in the Hydrologic Cycle …

 Precipitation. Condensed water vapor that falls to the earth surface.

Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog
drip, graupel, and sleet. Worldwide, approximately 505,000
𝑘𝑚3 (121,000 cu mi) of water fall as precipitation each year, 398,000
𝑘𝑚3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the ocean.
 Canopy interception. The precipitation that is intercepted by plant
foliage and eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than
falling to the ground.
 Snowmelt. The runoff produced by melting snow.
 Runoff. The variety of ways by which water moves across the land.
This includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the
water may infiltrate into the ground, evaporate into the air, become
stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other
human uses.
Processes in the Hydrologic Cycle …

 Infiltration. The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground.
Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.
 Subsurface flow. The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and
aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g. as spring water
or by being pumped) or eventually seeps into the ocean. Water returns to
the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated , under the
force of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to
move slowly, and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for
thousand of years.
 Evaporation. The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it
moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere.
The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation.
Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants
(evapotranspiration). Total annual evapotranspiration amounts to
approximately 505,000 𝑘𝑚3 (121,000 cu mi) of water, 434,000𝑘𝑚3
(104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the oceans.
Processes in the Hydrologic Cycle …

 Sublimation. The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to
water vapor.
 Advection. The movement of water – in solid, liquid, or vapor states –
through the atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over
the oceans could not precipitate over land.
 Condensation. The transformation of water vapor to liquid water
droplets in the air, producing clouds and fog.
 Transpiration. The release of water vapor from plants into the air. Water
vapor is a gas that cannot be seen.
 Rainfall Measurement

 Why is the need to measure rainfall?

Agriculture - what to plant in certain areas, where and

when to plant, when to harvest
Horticulture - how and when to irrigate
Engineers - to design structures for runoff control e.g.
storm-water drains, bridges, etc.
Scientists - hydrological modelling of catchments
 Things to know about rainfall

 Where to get rainfall information

 Rainfall sites in the area of interest
 Seasonal rainfall trends
 Variability of rainfall across places (spatial)
 Area specific rainfall
 Site specific rainfall
 Methods of measuring rainfall
 Where to place rainfall gauges - depends on the site
 How many gauges to place in area - depends on the experiment
 What to do with the rainfall data
 Farming Scenario
What information do you need?

 Seasonal rainfall
 Long-term average rainfall
 Risk of drought
 Chance of rain
 Southern Oscillation Index effect on rainfall prediction
 Comparison of rainfall sites

300
y = 1.0431x
R2 = 0.8563
250

Katanning monthly rainfall

 What if you live between 200
Wagin and Katanning?
150
 Can you use their rainfall
data to predict rainfall at 100

your farm? 50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Wagin monthly rainfall
What if you need to know the rainfall in a
catchment?

 Measure it yourself….

 Type of rain gauges?

 Where to put gauges?
 How many gauges?
 How do you map it?
 Methods of Measuring Rainfall
Manual
 Often have a funnel opening into a cylinder gauge.
 Come in a variety of shapes and sizes
 Calculate the rainfall (in mm) by dividing the volume of
water collected by the area of the opening of the cup.
(The gauge marking often accounts for this).
 Methods of Measuring Rainfall
Remote
 Tipping bucket rain gauge - The bucket tips when
precipitation of 0.2 mm, 0.5 mm, 1.0 mm has been
collected. Each tip is recorded by a data logger.

 Weather Station - Records rainfall, but also evaporation,

air pressure, air temperature, wind speed and wind
direction (so can be used to estimate evapotranspiration)

 Radar - Ground-based radar equipment can be used to

determine how much rain is falling and where it is the
heaviest.
Weather Station
 Placement of Rain Gauges

Gauges are affected by wind pattern, eddies, trees and the

gauge itself, therefore it is important to have the gauge
located and positioned properly.

 1m above ground level is standard - all gauges in a catchment

should be the same height

 2 to 4 times the distance away from an isolated object

(such as a tree or building) or in a forest a clearing
with the radius at least the tree height or place the
gauge at canopy level
 Placement of Rain Gauges

 shielded to protect gauge in windy sites

 or if obstructions are numerous they will reduce the
wind-speed, turbulence and eddies.
 Placement of Rain Gauges

 For sloping ground the gauge should be placed with the

opening parallel to the ground
 The rainfall catch volume (mm3) is then divided by the
opening area that the rain can enter
Number and Distribution of Gauges

Need to consider:

 size of area
 prevailing storm type
 form of precipitation
 topography
 aspect
 season
 Distribution of Gauges

 The distribution of gauges should not be random

 only fixed characteristics of areas can be sampled randomly.

Random events must be sampled by a systematic arrangement
of sampling points

 Practical considerations of access and exposure mean that some

pragmatism is required in designing a network

 It is useful to locate gauges so that isohyetal maps can be

drawn. Some gauges need to be near, or outside the catchment
boundary in order to cover the catchment completely.
 Number of Gauges

Depends on Storm type …

 Cyclonic storms (large areas, low intensities) -small

number of gauges may be O.K.

 Convective storms (local, intense, uneven distribution)

- denser network needed. Convective storms may have
seasonal dominance -need to consider this as well.

 Orographic rainfall due to mountains (not fronts) -may

need denser network than flatter area.
Based ONLY on area considerations the following tabulation
has been suggested:

Size of area Number of gauges

2 16 ha
3 40 ha
10 8 km2
15 16 km2
50 160 km2
300 1600 km2
1000+ 16,000 km2
 Methods of averaging rainfall data

 Arithmetic average
 Theissen polygons
 Isohyetal method

Although, most of these calculations are done with

computer mapping programs, it is still useful to understand
these methods.
 Thiessen method for Mapping Rainfall

This method involves determining the area of influence for each

station, rather than assuming a straight-line variation. It is
easier than the isohyetal method but less accurate
 Locate all rainfall stations on a
base map and record the
rainfall amount.
 Connect each station by
straight lines with the several
nearest stations to form a series
of triangles.
 Erect perpendicular bisectors
on each of these lines and
extend them to the intersect
with other bisectors, thus
forming a series of irregular
polygons
 Thiessen method for Mapping Rainfall
Measure the fraction of the catchment area in each polygon
(Thiessen constant), multiply by the rainfall catch at the station within
the polygon and sum to get the catchment average.

Thiessen constant Rainfall in each Weighted

Rainfall
(Fractional Area) Polygon, in Average, in
Station
(A) (B) (A*B)
A 0.144 33.4 4.81
B 0.110 34.2 3.76
C 0.104 33.3 3.46
D 0.133 34.5 4.59
E 0.132 35.0 4.62
F 0.113 37.0 4.18
G 0.064 37.3 2.39
H 0.105 35.5 3.73
I 0.103 35.0 3.60
Total 1.000 35.14
 Isoheyetal method for Mapping Rainfall

The most basic method of representing the spatial distribution.

This is generally the most accurate method but is also the most
laborious.

 Locate all rainfall stations on

a base map and record the
rainfall amount.

 Draw isohyets (lines of equal

rainfall) by proportioning the
distances between adjacent
gauges according to
differences in catch.
 Isohyetal method for Mapping Rainfall
 Then calculate the mean precipitation for the area
corresponding to each isohyet.

 Calculate the fraction of catchment area under each isohyet,

multiply by the mean precipitation for that area and sum to
get the catchment average.

Mean Rainfall Area Between Weighted Mean

Isohyets
Lower on Area, in Isohyets, ha Rainfall, in
Upper
(A) (B) (A*B)
38 37 37.5 130 4875
37 36 36.5 150 5475
36 35 35.5 300 10650
35 34 34.5 450 15525
34 33 33.5 200 6700
Total 1230 43225

Mean Rainfall = 35.14 i.e. from (43225/1230)

Methods of gridding or determining
missing data

 Arithmetic average
 Normal ratio method
 Inverse distance squared
 Methods of determining missing data
For example, station X is the station with data missing

 Arithmetic average: get the arithmetic average of the stations

surrounding station X and assign that value to it

 Normal ratio method:

 get observed rainfall at surrounding stations
 These are weighted by the ratio of the normal annual
rainfall at station X and normal annual rainfall at that
station.

1  n Nx 
Px    Pi 
x i
  1 I, N = N
Where: P = estimation of pp’n at station X, P =npp’n atistation
station X and Ni is pp’n at the ith surrounding stations
x
i 
normal pp’n at
 Inverse distance squared

 The closer a station is to station X the greater the

weight assigned to that station's precipitation.

 The inverse of the squared distance between a station

and station X is used as a weighting factor in
determining the rainfall at station X.
 Decisions based on rainfall data?
 You should know
 where to get rainfall information
 what rainfall information means

 Therefore you can

 determine best site for planting particular species
 make decisions for the coming season based on
rainfall averages
 Infiltration Rate

 The infiltration rate is the velocity or speed at

which water enters into the soil.

 It is usually measured by the depth (in mm) of the

water layer that can enter the soil in one hour. An
infiltration rate of 15 mm/hour means that a water
layer of 15 mm on the soil surface, will take one
hour to infiltrate the soil. .
 In dry soil, water infiltrates rapidly. This is called the
initial infiltration rate. As more water replaces the air
in the pores, the water from the soil surface infiltrates
more slowly and eventually reaches a steady rate. This
is called the basic infiltration rate.

 The infiltration rate depends on soil texture (the size of

the soil particles) and soil structure (the arrangement of
the soil particles) and is a useful way of categorizing
soils from an irrigation point of view

 The most common method to measure the infiltration

rate is by a field test using a cylinder or ring
infiltrometer
 Basic Infiltration Rates for various
Soil Types

Soil type Basic infiltration rate

(mm/hour)
Sand less than 30
Sandy Loam 20 - 30
Loam 10 - 20
Clay Loam 5 - 10
Clay 1-5
 Field Infiltration Test
Equipment required

 Shovel/hoe
 Hammer (2 kg)
 Watch or clock
 5-liter bucket
 Timber (7.5 cm x 7.5 cm x 40 cm)
 Jute cloth
 At least 100 li of water
 Ring infiltrometers of 30 cm diameter and 60 cm
diameter. Instead of the outer cylinder a bund could
be made to prevent lateral water flow.
 Measuring rod graduated in mm (e.g. 300 mm ruler)
Set-up of field test
 Methods
Step 1: Hammer the 30 cm diameter ring at least 15 cm into the soil.
Use the timber to protect the ring from damage during
hammering. Keep the side of the ring vertical and drive the
measuring rod into the soil so that approximately 12 cm is left
above the ground.
Step 2: Hammer the 60 cm ring into the soil or construct an earth
bund around the 30 cm ring to the same height as the ring and
place the hessian inside the infiltrometer to protect the soil
surface when pouring in the water.
Step 3: Start the test by pouring water into the ring until the depth is
approximately 70-100 mm. At the same time, add water to the
space between the two rings or the ring and the bund to the
same depth. Do this quickly.
The water in the bund or within the two rings is to prevent a
lateral spread of water from the infiltrometer.
 Step 4: Record the clock time when the test begins and note the water level
on the measuring rod.
Step 5: After 1-2 minutes, record the drop in water level in the inner ring on
the measuring rod and add water to bring the level back to
approximately the original level at the start of the test. Record the
water level. Maintain the water level outside the ring similar to that
inside.
Step 6: Continue the test until the drop in water level is the same over the
same time interval. Take readings frequently (e.g. every 1-2 minutes)
at the beginning of the test, but extend the interval between readings
as the time goes on (e.g. every 20-30 minutes).
Note that at least two infiltration tests should be carried out at a site to make sure
that the correct results are obtained.
 The Evapotranspiration Process

 Evapotranspiration (ET) is the combination of two separate processes

whereby water is lost on the one hand from the soil surface by
evaporation and on the other hand from the crop by transpiration

 Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to

water vapor (vaporization) and removed from the evaporating
surface such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet
vegetation. (vapor removal).

 Energy, provided by direct solar radiation and, to a lesser

extent, the ambient temperature of the air, is required to
change the state of the molecules of water from liquid to
vapor.
 The driving force to remove water vapor from the evaporating
surface is the difference between the water vapor pressure at the
evaporating surface and that of the surrounding atmosphere.
 As evaporation proceeds, the surrounding air becomes gradually
saturated and the process will slow down and might stop if the wet
air is not transferred to the atmosphere.
 The replacement of the saturated air with drier air depends greatly
on the following climatological parameters which should be
considered in assessing the evaporation process:

 solar radiation,
 air temperature,
 air humidity, and
 wind speed
 if the evaporating surface is the soil surface, the degree of
shading of the crop canopy and the amount of water
available at the evaporating surface (non-climatological
factors)
 Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in
plant tissues and its eventual removal to the atmosphere

 Crops predominately lose their water through stomata -- these are

small openings on the plant leaf through which gases and water vapour
pass
 Factors that should be considered in assessing transpiration:

 radiation,
 air temperature,
 air humidity
 wind speed
 soil water content
 the ability of the soil to conduct water to the roots, as do
waterlogging
 soil water salinity
 crop characteristics (type, crop development, etc.)
 environmental management aspects and
 cultivation practices
 Evaporation and transpiration or evapotranspiration occur
simultaneously and there is no easy way of distinguishing between the
two processes.

 Apart from the water availability in the topsoil, the evaporation from a
cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar radiation
reaching the soil surface. This fraction decreases over the growing
period as the crop develops and the crop canopy shades more and more
of the ground area
 ET rate is normally expressed in millimeters (mm) per unit time,
which expresses the amount of water lost from a cropped surface in
units of water depth. The time unit can be an hour, day, decade, month
or even an entire growing period or year

 As one hectare has a surface of 10000 m2 and 1 mm is equal to 0.001

m, a loss of 1 mm of water corresponds to a loss of 10 m3 of water per
hectare. In other words, 1 mm day-1 is equivalent to 10 m3 ha-1 day-l
 Water depths can also be expressed in terms of energy (or heat required
to vaporize free water) received per unit area.

 This energy, known as the latent heat of vaporization (l), is a function

of the water temperature. For example, at 20°C, l is about 2.45 MJ kg-
1. In other words, 2.45 MJ are needed to vaporize 1 kg or 0.001 m3 of

water. Hence, an energy input of 2.45 MJ per m2 is able to vaporize

0.001 m or 1 mm of water, and therefore 1 mm of water is equivalent
to 2.45 MJ m-2. The evapotranspiration rate expressed in units of MJ
m-2 day-1 is represented by l ET, the latent heat flux
 Conversion factors for evapotranspiration

energy per
depth volume per unit area
unit area *
mm day-1 m3 ha-1 day-1 l s-1 ha-1 MJ m-2 day-1
1 mm day-1 1 10 0.116 2.45
1 m3 ha-1 day-1 0.1 1 0.012 0.245
1 l s-1 ha-1 8.640 86.40 1 21.17
1 MJ m-2 day-1 0.408 4.082 0.047 1
* For water with a density of 1000 kg m-3 and at 20°C.

Exercise: On a summer day, the net solar energy received at a lake reaches
15 MJ per square meter per day. If 80% of the energy is used to vaporize
water, how large could the depth of evaporation be?
 Factors affecting evapotranspiration

Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental

aspects are factors affecting evaporation and transpiration ant their
interrelationship is depicted below:
 Weather parameters
 The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration
are: radiation, air temperature, humidity and wind speed
 The reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) is the evaporation
power of the atmosphere. This represents the evapotranspiration
from a standardized vegetated surface

 Crop factors
 The crop type, variety and development stage should be
considered when assessing the evapotranspiration from crops
grown in large, well-managed fields

 Differences in resistance to transpiration, crop height, crop

roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop rooting
characteristics result in different ET levels in different types of
crops under identical environmental conditions
  Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) refers
to the evaporating demand from crops that are grown in large
fields under optimum soil water, excellent management and
environmental conditions, and achieve full production under the
given climatic conditions.

 Management and environmental conditions

 Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility, limited

application of fertilizers, the presence of hard or impenetrable
soil horizons, the absence of control of diseases and pests and
poor soil management may limit the crop development and
reduce the evapotranspiration
 Other factors to be considered when assessing ET are ground
cover, plant density and the soil water content
 Additional consideration should be given to the range of
management practices that act on the climatic and crop factors
affecting the ET process.

 Cultivation practices and the type of irrigation method can

alter the microclimate, affect the crop characteristics or
affect the wetting of the soil and crop surface

 A windbreak reduces wind velocities and decreases the ET

rate of the field directly beyond the barrier. The effect can be
significant especially in windy, warm and dry conditions
although evapotranspiration from the trees themselves may
offset any reduction in the field.
 Soil evaporation in a young orchard, where trees are widely
spaced, can be reduced by using a well-designed drip or trickle
irrigation system. The drippers apply water directly to the soil
near trees, thereby leaving the major part of the soil surface dry,
and limiting the evaporation losses

 The use of mulches, especially when the crop is small, is another

way of substantially reducing soil evaporation. Anti-transpirants,
such as stomata-closing, film-forming or reflecting material,
reduce the water losses from the crop and hence the transpiration
rate.
Reference (ETo), crop evapotranspiration under standard (ETc) and
non-standard conditions (ETc adj)