1

To the point;-

For

BS ,Bsc and all Other Relevant Exams

Dedicated to Students

Compiled by Adnan Ali

BS Botany 6th Semester
GPGC Khar Distt;Bajaur Pak
 2

PREFACE

In the name of Allah the most merciful and the Beneficent who gave me the
courage and strength to write this short notes.

Importance of plant ecology is increasing day by day .plant ecology is

interrelated to every aspect of life; and it will decide the economic, social
,Environmental
onmental and political future of the globe. it deals with the study of
relationship between plants and with their Environment. Plant ecology also
known as Phyto-ecology.

I have written this short notes on Plant Ecology in accordance with the
syllabus
abus of BS and Bsc. All material is arranged in strict relevancy to the subject
and the subject matter is treated in a simple and lucid manner.

I hope this will fulfill all the needs and requirements of the aspirants. This is
surely the most comprehensive
ehensive and to the point. Simple ,clear and lucid language
is used in this. The material is most authentic and collected from reliable original
documents,books,publications and reports.

I am very thankful to all those who directly or indirectly ccontributed

ontributed by
sharing their valuable ideas and suggestions regarding my preparation.oue special
thanks extended to our parents,teachers,colleagues and family members.

I wish and pray that this short notes enlighten/educate students with the best
knowledge
wledge gathered at one place. Fruitfull suggestions to improve the subject will
be highly appreciated.
 3

CouRsE ContEnts

1) Introduction ,History,Recent Development and

Importance/Applications ,
2) Introduction to Soil,Composition,Formation,properties and
importance.
3) Introduction to Soil Erosion,Causes,problems with soil Erosion and
control measures.
4) Nutrients cycling,Macro nutrients ,micro nutrients,Hydrological/Water
cycle and Nitrogen Cycle.
5) Water in the soil plant atmosphere continuum (SPAC).
6) Light is an Ecological factor (Abiotic Factor).
7) Temperature is an Ecological factor (Abiotic Factor).
8) CO2, general properties,Sources,stomatal Regulation, CO2
Assimilation,results of increase level of CO2, Importance ,productivity
response of photosynthesis to environmental factors.
9) Oxygen deficiency .
10) Water is Environmental factor,importance, Distribution of
Water,water status in soil,ecological groups of plants with respect to
water availability etc.
11) Wind is an Ecological Factor
12) Fire is an Environmental Factor
 4

The word ecology is derived from two Greek words ‘Oikos’ means “Home
life”/”Place of living” and ‘Logos’ that means “ Study”/Discussion”. So Literally
means the study of Home life.

According to Haeckel and Reiter in 1866, Ecology is the study of

relationship/interaction b/w living organisms and their environment. Ecology
deals with the organisms and its place of living.

Different definitions of Ecology by different ecologists

According to Haeckel;- The study of organisms with their environment.

According to Frederick Clement;-Ecology is the science of community.

According to Charles Elton;- Ecology is the scientific natural history.

According to Odum;- the study of structure and function of nature.

According to Margalef;- Ecology is the study of Ecosystem.

Woodbury. The science which investigate organisms in relation to their

environment.
 5

Animal ecology and plant ecology

As living organisms are of mainly two types , Plants and Animals. So Ecology is
divided into plant ecology and animal ecology respectively.

Animal Ecology;- Animal ecology deals with the study of relationship/interaction

b/w animals and their environment.

Plant Ecology;- plant Ecology deals with the study of relationship/interaction

b/w plants and with their environment. In recent years Ecology also called “
Ecobiology”/ Environmental biology.

Factors that study Ecology

There are two factors that Ecology study such as;

The Biotic factors/ components;- also called Biological components / living

factors , simply means Living organisms. Biotic factors are all living beings live an
environment. I,e Producers ( plants). Producers ( plants). Consumers ( Animals).
Microbes ( Micro organisms).

Abiotic factors;-( non living components).these are the non living factors of an
ecosystem , such as Light, Temperature, Soil, Water, Air, Fire etc. So ecology is
the study of interaction b/w biotic and abiotic factors.

Majors Branches of Ecology

There are major three branches of Ecology;

Auto ecology;- the branch of ecology that deals with the study of individual
organism with their environment. It is the study of life history and response to its
environment of a single individual. 0r simply the ecology of an individual a single
individual. 0r simply the ecology of an individual organism. Synecology ;-the
branch of ecology deals with the study of community( group of populations)with
their environment.

Ecosystem ecology;- ecology deals with the study of ecosystem and with their
environment.
 6

Divisions of Ecology

There are mainly two types of Divisions of Ecology.

Terrestrial Ecology(Dry land ecology);-the study of variety of ecosystems found

on land.  It may be classified as ;- Forest ecology, Grassland ecology, Mountains
ecology, Wildlife ecology etc. Mountains ecology, Wildlife ecology etc.

Aquatic Ecology (water ecology);- the study of ecosystems found in water

bodies. It may be

Marin ecology. I,e oceans and sea . Fresh water ecology. I,e river, ponds, lakes
etc.

Ecology concerned with;-

Biochemistry

Cytology

Physiology

Genetics

Morphology

Behavior

Geology etc.

Levels of organization of Ecology

Species ;-A group of individuals that can interbreed together and produces fertile
offspring, called species. Such as a group maintains a certain particular set of
morphological and physiological characters. Population;- A group of similar
species living in a particular,called Population. 0r A group of similar species living
in a particular area under similar environment in a given time and share the same
environmental resources. e.g wheat plants in a field.
 7

Community ;- A group of populations in a particular area and their relation to

environment. Or A group of similar 0r dissimilar species living together. I,e A
forest with various trees, shrubs, herbs, animals , birds etc is considered as a
community.

Ecosystem;- A unit of living things and non living environment that interact and
exchange the materials, called Ecosystem/ecological system. It may be;

- Aquatic ecosystem and Terrestrial ecosystem

Biosphere ;-the part of universe contains living organisms. 0r A part of universe

b/w geosphere and atmosphere.

Lithosphere ;-the outer part of the earth consists of crust and the upper mantle.

Hydrosphere ;- A part of universe that contains water.

Atmosphere ;- A layer of gaseous mixture above the soil surface . 0r The mixture
of different gases surround us.

History of Ecology

Hippocrates (460 BC);- Hippocrates was called “the father of Medicines”. He

discussed about air , water and places.

Theophrastus (3oo BC);- theophrastus was considered to be the “ father of

Botany”. He wrote/studied about plant be the “ father of Botany”. He
wrote/studied about plant communities in different habitat particularly Land
plants, Aquatic plants and marshy plants.

Alberuni (941 A.D);- He studied about the plants habits and habitats in sub
continent( indo pakistan). Habit is the physical appearance of an organism like
short 0r tall etc, and Habitat is the living place of an organism.

Linneaus (1753);- He described plants , their distribution and relation to the

nature of habitat.
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Abu Mohammad abdullah ibn ahmad Al baitar(1197-1241 A.D);-He described

habit and habitat of 1700 plants.

Van Leeuwenhoek(1632-1723);-He gave the idea of Food  Van

Leeuwenhoek(1632-1723);-He gave the idea of Food chain.

Charles Darwin(1809-1882);- Charles studied the evolution of organisms by

means nof natural selection.He was considerd to be the founder of ecological
studies of soil.

Howard odum(1924-2002);-co founder of ecosystem ecology and ecological

thermodynamic concepts.

Recent development in Ecology

Ecology describes all relations of all plants, animals and microbes in relation to
the physical environment.

Recent ecological studies are based on three main approaches.

 Taxonomic Approaches
 Habitat Approaches
 Organism Approaches

Taxonomic Approaches

The exploration of plants or animals living in a broad area is known as Taxonomic

approaches. It performed by Botanists and zoologists who are specialized in
taxonomy. It may includes;

Distribution , Topography , Habit, Morphological features , Floral characters ,

Flowering and fruiting seasons and Seed dispersal mechanisms.

Habitat Approaches

Habitat means Home 0r natural environment of an organism. The study of living

organisms in relation to environmental conditions of the habitat is called Habitat
approaches.
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There are different types of habitat nature.They may includes;

Forest habitat.\ecosystem, Grassland habitat , Oceans habitat , Desert habitat

etc. Ecological studies at the habitat level leads to habitat ecology.

Organism Approaches

The study of living organisms at individual 0r population 0r community level in

relation to the environment is called “organism approaches”. Based on the living
organism considered for the study , the organism approaches are divided into two
categories; They are;

Auto ecology and synecology.

Importance /Applications of plant Ecology

Ecology has a great importance in the life of living organisms and can be applied
in different ways such as;

Plant ecology maintains the balance b/w the living organisms and their
environment.

 Provide the food production

 Provide the food production
 Control the energy crises
 Control pollution
 Control of water logging and salinity
 Maintain atmosphere
 Use of environmental resources
 Wildlife management
 Utilization of wastes
 Forestory management
 Soil and land management
 Improvement in water supply
 Control soil erosion
 Agricultural management.
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• The word soil is derived from the Latin word ‘SOLUM’ meaning
“Earthy Materials in which plants grows”. • Soil is the uppermost weathered
fertile layer of earth crust in which plants can grow.
• According to Thomson, soil is a mixture of minerals matters , organic
matters 0r Humus(partially decomposed organic matters) soil water ,soil
air and soil living organisms that is capable of supporting plants life.
• The science(study) of soil is called “Pedology”, while the process of
formation of soil is term as “Pedogenesis”.
Soil is the combination of minerals, organic materials , water and air.
• Soil is considered as the skin of the earth b/c it is the outermost layer of
the earth crust. • Soil covers most land surfaces. • It is the bridge of life and
the inanimate world. • Soil is considered as the natural habitat for plants
and other living organisms. • Soil is a natural resource that can be
categorized into different soil types , each which distinct characteristics.
Composition of Soil
• The soil is the combination of major four components, such as
• Minerals Matters(inorganic matters)45%.
• Organic matters (Humus) 5-10%.
• Soil water 25 %.
• Soil Air 25%.
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Formation of Soil
• Soil evolved/formed from the weathering of solid material
(Rocks), weathering of minerals and decomposition of organic matters
through time.
• Weathering may be physical , chemical and biological.
• The bulk(major portion) of soil consists of minerals particles composed of
silicate ions combined with various metals, round about 45% . • The
process of formation of soil is called “Pedogenesis”.
Weathering
• The process in which the parent materials (Rock) are broken
down and results in soil formation, is said to be the weathering.
• The breaking of parent rock into small pieces and fine powder, is called
weathering. • The process of soil formation is called “Pedogenesis”. • The
weathering may be, physical, chemical and biological weathering.
Physical /Mechanical weathering;-the breakdown of the rocks due to
strong wind, running of water, wave action,rainfall,Snowfall, Temperature
and gravitational forces etc. temperature is the most powerful agent of the
physical/mechanical weathering.
• Chemical weathering;-the weathering due to hydrolysis,
carbonation,oxidationand acid rain. Acid rain is thrmost powerful agent of
chemical weathering.
• Biological weathering;-weathering due to the activities of living things
especially lower plants such as lichens and mosses. they secrete acids like
chemicals that break the rocks. Sometimes the roots of plants, rhizoids and
man’s activities also take part in biological weathering.
Importance of soil
• Soil is the store house of minerals elements.
• Maintenance of life.
• Habitat of living organisms.
• Provide nutrients.
• Store water.
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• Plants get nutrients from soil and plants then provide Glucose and
oxygen.
• Place of decomposition and recycling of nutrients.
• Responsible for plants fixation.
• Source of Medicines, e.g calcium.
• Keep atmosphere cool.
• Soil is the foundation of all terrestrial ecosystem.
• Soil is a medium for the filteration and breakdown of injurious wastes.

Properties of Soil
• 1) chemical properties; 2)physical prroperties;-
• Mineral matters(inorganic matters) Soil Texture
• Organic matters Soil Structure
• Soil water Soil Colour
• Soil water Soil Density
• Soil air Soil Porosity
• Soil PH Soil consistency etc.
• Soil Temperature etc.

1)Chemical Properties of Soil;-

Mineral matters(inorganic matters);• In the soil many minerals are present
which are important for plants. the minerals are extremely variable in size .
Some are larger as the smaller rock fragments, other such as colloidal
particles are so small that cannot be seen without the aid of an electronic
microscope. • The soil contains Ca,Mg, Iron and nitrogen and other
minerals also. These are dissolved in water and taken in by the roots of
plants. About 20 minerals make almost 99% of the earth crust. It is nearly
45% by volume.
• Nitrogen ;-Nitrogen is essential constituent/element of all biomolecule
both in plants and animals. N2 gas are found 78.084% on atmosphere of
earth. N2 is the major substance in plants next to water. Play an important
role in growth , metabolism, reproduction and heredity. Plants absorbs
 13

nitrogen in the form of nitrates from soil. Atmospheric nitrogen is

converted into nitrates by certain bacteria and blue green algae.
• Calcium;-plants absorbs Ca in the form of carbonates and Ca carbonates
from the rhizosphere. • Found in middle lemalla of cell wall. • Act as an
activator of some enzymes.
• Sulphur;-plants absorbs sulphur in the form of sulphate from rhizosphere.
• Sulphur is the main component of Vitamins. • Component of certains
Amino acids, I,e Metheonine. • Take part in photosynthesis and overall
metabolic processes.
• Deficiency symptoms may includes; Necrosis, leaves curling and leaves
and fruits falling.
• Phosphrous;-plants absorbs phosphrous in the form of H3Po4
(phosphate). • Phosphorous comes from Humus. • Found in
nucleic acids, mono nucleotides and cell membrane. • Deficiency symptoms
may includes; stunted growth ,pre mature leaves falling, sickleness etc.
• Organic matters(Humus);-soil organic matters are derived from the
decomposition of dead remains of plants and animals bodies. • It is nearly
about 5-10% by volume. • Humus is the main source of Nutrients for
plants .

• Soil water;-the soil particles have pores paces that occupy by water and air.
• Soil water makes soil solution which essential for the supply of nutrients.
• Due to the amount of water in soil different plants communities are developed.
soil water is about 25% by volume.

• Soil Air;-it is nearly about by 25% in volume. The movement of gases like Co2
and o2 in the soil occurs by diffusion. • This provide energy for the uptake of
minerals ions by the roots. • Soil air is present in the interspaces b/w the soil
particles. • It is essential for respiration of underground parts of plants and soil
organisms. • In the absence of soil air germination of seed is effected.

• Soil PH;-The measure of soil acidity and alkalinity is called soil PH. • Best soil PH
is from 6.6 –7.3 for plants growth and development. If PH is high then we add
sulphur to that soil.
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2)Physical Properties of Soil;-

• Soil Texture;-soil texture refer to the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in
a soil. Soil texture determines the amount and size of spaces b/w soil particles .
• This control how quickly water moves through the soil and how much water the
soil holds. Soil containing equal amount of sand,silt and clay is called “Loam”.
• Sand + silt + clay= Loam I,e 15% clay,20% silt and 65% sand then is called
Sandy loam.

On the basis of soil Texture

• The soil may be;

• Sand;-sand consists of large particles of soil. • their size from 0.05-2mm in

diameter. it is loose and appears as single grained. • Water cannot stay in sand
b/c it have large intersapces. It is more hairy.

• Ideal for crops such as peanut and watermelon.

• Ideal for plants such as Tulips ,Hibiscus etc.

• Silt;- silt size from 0.002 to 0.05mm in diameter. • this soil consists of small
particles than sand. • Water and air cannot moves through the silt. it can absorbs
water 0r retain the water. Not grainy 0r rocky.

• Clay ;-size less than 0.002mm. Consists of very small particles not apparent to
eyes. • Have large water holding capacity. When absorbs water it swell up and
become sticky and plastic. have very small spaces. Ideal for crops such as leafy
vegetables and tomatoes etc. Ideal for plants such as Roses and Asters etc.
 15

Soil structure;-soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles. Followings

are soil structures;• Platy (plate like particles). • Granular (Grains like).
Spheroidal(Rounded). • Columnar (prism like).

• Soil colour;-soil colourgives an indications of the various processes going on the

soil as well as the type of minerals in the soil. I,e • The red colour of soil is due to
the abundance of ironoxide. • Dark colour is due to the accumulation of highly
decayed organic matters etc.

Prepared by Adnan Ali

BS Botany 6th Semester
GPGC Khar Distt;Bajaur Pak
0301-8018712
 16

The word ‘Erosion’ derived from the Latin word “Erodere” that means
“To eat away” 0r “To excavate”. Soil Erosion means the Loss of Soil.
The Loss of superficial fertile layer(top soil) by various agents like water and wind,
called Soil Erosion.
Soil erosion is the detachment and transport of soil particles by various factors.
Soil erosion is the washing 0r blowing away of the top layer of soil.

Soil erosion involves three distinct actions, such as Detachment ,

Movement and Deposition. Soil erosion occurs when soil is removed through the
action of wind and water at a greater rate than it is formed. It has been observed
that the chief agents for soil erosion are water and wind. If soil has eroded , the
crops will not grow very well . Measured as Mass/unit area.

Soil Erosion is Caused by;-

Soil Erosion is caused by the following main two factors;

Natural processes;-without the influence of human activities, such as Water,

Wind, Gravity and Glaciers etc.

Anthropogenic Activities;- with the influence of human activities, such as

Overgrazing, Deforestation, Over cropping, Overstocking and Inappropriate
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farming techniques etc. Erosion occurs when farming practices are not
compatible with the fact that the soil can be washed away 0r blown away.

Problems/Losses with Soil Erosion;-

Soil erosion caused many losses such as;

Loss of naturally formed soil.
Loss of soil Nutrients.
Loss of soil organic matters.
Loss of soil micro organisms.
Flood may occur.
Land Degradation.
Decrease of water reservoir.
Disease and public health hazards.
Reduced the crop production.
Reduction of infiltration rate.
Plant productivity decline.
Clogging/blocking of water channels.
Desertification.(the gradual transformation of habitable land into desert).
Habitat loss.
Food scarcity. Etc

Erosion By Water;-

The removal/loss of soil by rain water, melted snow , and running flood water
,known as erosion by water.

Water erosion increases with Deforestation, Overgrazing, Desertification and

burnning processes etc. Water erosion depends upon nature of soil and and
intensity of soil.

Erosion By Wind;-

Wind erosion is the loss of soil by strong wind.  Soil erosion by wind is
common in dry(arid) regions.
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Two characteristics of such soil as ,the soil is mainly sandy .The vegetation is
very poor 0r even absent.

The wind erosion is most common in desert areas and sea shores.Due to less
rainfall in desert areas the soil surface becomes powdery dry.

Control Measure of Soil Erosion;-

Soil erosion can be controlled by the following methods;-

 The soil erosion is mainly controlled by vegetation covered.

 When the soil is covered with vegetation .
 When the soil is covered with vegetation throughout the year, it will be less
exposed to erosion.
 The roots of plants act as natural dams in holding water and soil.
 Tillage ;cultivation of soil for raising of crops.
 Trees and shrubs are planted against the direction of wind to reduce the
velocity of wind.
 Soil conservation is mainly concerned with keeping the soil in place, the
maintenance of soil fertility and efficient use of land.
 Overgrazing should be avoided to maintain the soil fertility.
 Reduce the water runoff.
 Growing legumes crops helps to maintain soil fertility.
 Allow indigenous(native/endemic) plants to grow along riverbanks.

Prepared by Adnan Ali

BS Botany 6th Semester
GPGC Khar Distt;Bajaur Pak
0301-8018712
 19

• Nutrient ;- A substance (element or compound) that promotes growth and

health in living things 0r

• Matters that organisms require for their life processes.

• Cycle;-A periodically repeated sequence of events.

• The cyclic exchange/flow of essential chemical, elements or compounds

between living organisms and their environment, is called nutrient
cycling/Biogeochemical cycle.

• The complex cycles in nature where nutrients continuously circulate

throughout the environment.

• A nutrient cycle refers to the movement and exchange of organic and

inorganic matter back into the production of living matter.

• The process is regulated by the food web pathways .

• Nutrient cycles/Biogeochemical cycles occur within ecosystem.

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• Nutrients maybe;-

 Macronutrients which are required in large amounts and include

Nitrogen,Carbon and phosphorous.

 Micronutrients which are required in small amounts and include

Magnesium, sodium etc

• In ecosystem both living and non living organisms live together.

• All living organisms need essential elements and compounds for their
nutrition.

• After their death, their dead bodies are decomposed into simpler
compounds.

• And all important substances are again transferred back to the

environment.

• These materials are used by plants again and increase their growth.

• After that these materials are migrated to animals.

• In this way circular processes remain continue.

• These are known as “Biogeochemical cycle”.

• Some elements are found in gaseous form like O2,N2,H2 etc while others
are found in compound form called Nutrients.

• Among these cycles two cycles are very prominent.

 Atmosphere Reservoir cycles;-

• In these cycles atmosphere plays an important role.

• These are Nitrogen, Carbon, Hydrogen and Water cycle.

 Sedimentary Reservoir cycles;-

• In these cycles land has prominent role.

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• These include Sulphur and phosphorous cycles.

HYDROLOGICAL/WATER CYCLE;-

• The circulation of water and moisture between living organisms,

atmosphere and earth, is called Hydrological/water cycle.

• The continuous movement of water on , above and below the surface of

earth.

• The water cycle consists of three major processes,

Evaporation(transpiration), Condensation and precipitation.

• Water is essential for life.

• Water is used in various physiological and chemical processes of living

organisms.

• It is a part of cells and tissues.

Overall process;-

 Evaporation of Water;-

• The water is evaporated from oceans,rivers and lakes. Then the vapours
form the clouds.

 Transpiration of water;-

• The water is removed from the body of plants in the form of vapours, it is
called Transpiration.

 Formation of Clouds;-

• The water vapours which is evaporated from the different water bodies and
plants are then get cool and condensed to form clouds due to moisture air.

 Precipitation of water vapours in the form of rain and snow;-

 22

• The clouds which are formed from water vapours cool down precipitate the
water.

• It leaves the atmosphere in the form of rain or snow.

• It falls again into the oceans or land areas and can form rivers,ponds,
streams or lakes .

• A great amount of water is absorbed into the soil and form underground
channels.

• A part of this water is again returned to atmosphere through evaporation.

Water cyclig by living organisms;-

• The living organisms get water from the environment .

• The animals get water by drinking and plants by absorption from soil.

• This water is used in the formation of various substances in the body.

• Many chemical reactions take place in the presence of water.

• Plants use water during photosynthesis and release water by transpiration

and animals release by respiration, evaporation from body surface and
 23

excretion through discharge of wastes.

Prepared by Adnan Ali

BS Botany 6th Semester

0301-8018712
 24

What is Nitrogen?

N itrogen is essential constituent/element of all biomolecule both in plants

and animals. N2 gas is found78.084% on atmosphere of earth. N2 is the
major substance in plants next to water. Play an important role in growth ,
metabolism, reproduction and heredity.

Major constituent element of;-

Nitrogen is the major constituent of Chlorophyll ,proteins,Nucleic acids,

Cytochromes ,Alkaloids and Many vitamins. Most of the plants obtain nitrogen
from soil in the form of nitrate or ammonium ion but it is limited. Atmosphere
consists of 78.084% nitrogen but plants unable to covert this molecular nitrogen
into a usable form b/c they lack the enzyme notrigenase. Only prokaryotic species
posses this enzyme.

Forms of Nitrogen;- Nitrogen present in variety of froms;-

 25

Organic nitrogen;- Ammonium(NH4),Nitrite(NO2),Nitrate(NO3) Nitrous

oxide(NO).

Inorganic Nitrogen as Nitrogen gas(N2).

What is Nitrogen Cycle?

Nitrogen cycle is a continuous cycle and consists of series of processes that

converts N2 to organic substance. 0r

Nitrogen cycle is a biochemical process through which Nitrogen is converted

into many forms, passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and back
into the atmosphere.. 0r

The Nitrogen cycle is a repeating cycle of processes during which Nitrogen

moves through both living and non living things. Processes of the nitrogen cycle
transforms Nitrogen from one form to another.

Steps while during Nitrogen Cycle;

Cycle;-

Nitrogen
Fixation

Denitrificati
Nitrogen Ammonificat

Cycle
on ion

Nitrification
 26

 Nitrogen Fixation;- Nitrogen fixation is the first step of Nitrogen cycle

where molecular nitrogen is reduced by nitrogen fixing bacteria to yield
ammonia.

Nitrogen fixation is a process by which nitrogen of the earth

atmosphere is converted into ammonia(NH3) , nitrogen salts or other molecules
available to living organisms.

Nitrogen Fixation may be;-

Symbiotic
Fixation
Biological
Fixation
Nitrogen Non Symbiotic
Fixation Fixation
Non Biological
Fixation

Biological Nitrogen Fixation(BNF);-

Fixation of atmospheric Nitrogen into usable Nitrogen with the help of Micro
organisms.BNF occurs when atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by an
enzyme called Nitrogenase. N2 fix by prokaryotes b/c they have the Nitrogenase
enzymes.These micro organisms are called Diazotrophs.

Non Biological Fixation;-

Nitrogen may be fixed by an electrical discharge of lightning in the

atmosphere.The microorganisms don’t take part and mostly it occurs in rainy
season during lightning,or occurs by the natural factors such as thunder , lightning
etc. N2 + O2 → 2NO . It is also called physical N2 fixa on.

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation;- Fixation carried out by micro organisms in soil living
symbiotically inside the plants.Symbiosis may be; e.g Nodule formation in
 27

leguminous plants. e.g Rhizobium . Nodule formation in non leguminous plants.

Nostoc, Anabaen.

Non Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation;- Fixation carried out by free living micro
organisms. They are free living Nitrogen fixer .They inhibit both terrestrial and
aquatic habitat.May be Aerobic, Anaerobic and blue green algae. Free living
Aerobes; Azobacter . Free living Anaerobes; clostridium.

Industrial processes (By Haber-Bosch process): In industries, under elevated

temperature (about 200⁰C) and high pressure (about 200 atm), N₂ combines with
H₂ to form ammonia. These extremes conditions required to overcome high
activation energy and amount of nitrogen fixed is more than 80×10¹²g/year.

 Ammonification;-
The conversion of dead animals and plants wastes into Ammonia(NH3),
called Ammonification. After all living organisms have use the organic
nitrogen ,decompsers bacteria convert the nitrogen into nammonia.the
remains of all living things,and their waste products are decomposed by
microorganisms which yields ammonia. The bacteria involved in this
process are called Ammonifying bacteria. It is carried out by diverse array of
microorganisms such as Clostridium and Micrococcus. These bacteria use
organic compounds for their metabolism and release ammonia or
ammonium ions as by-product either released to atmosphere or absorbed
by plants.
 Nitrification: The conversion of ammonia into nitrate by nitrifying bacteria.
Nitrosomonas bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites. Nitrobacter oxidize
nitrite into nitrates. NH₃  NO₂⁻ NO₃⁻
 Denitrification: the back of conversion of Nitrates(NO3) Nto Nitrite(No2)
and then to free Nitrgen. Reduction of nitrates back into nitrogen(N₂)
completing the nitrogen cycle. It is performed by Denitrifying bacteria such
as Pseudomonas and Clostridium under anaerobic conditions. They use
nitrates in the soil to carry out respiration in place of oxygen and release
nitrogen (N₂).
NO3NO2+N2
 28

Importance of the nitrogen cycle:

• Nitrogen cycle helps bring in the inert nitrogen from the air into the biochemical
process in plants and then to animals.
 29

• Plants need nitrogen to synthesize chlorophyll and so the nitrogen cycle is

absolutely essential.

• During the process of ammonification, the bacteria help degrade decomposing

animal and plant matter. This helps in naturally cleaning up the environment.

• Due to the nitrogen cycle, nitrates and nitrites are released into the soil which
helps in enriching the soil with nutrients needed for cultivation.

• As plants use nitrogen for their biochemical processes, animals obtain the
nitrogen and nitrogen compounds from plants. Nitrogen is needed as is an
integral part of the cell composition. It is due to the nitrogen cycle that animals
are also able to utilize the nitrogen present in the air

Prepared by Adnan Ali

BS Botany 6 th Semester
GPGC Khar Distt;Bajaur Pak
0301-8018712
 30

The soil plant Atmosphere Continuum (SPAC) is the pathway for water moving
from soil through plants to the atmosphere. 0r

 SPAC is a mechanism that how the water is absorbed from the soil to the roots
and then goes up the plant body and then transpire to the atmosphere by the
process of transpiration.

Continuum is the description highlights the continuous nature of water

connection through the pathway.

In the whole process the water is in continuity from the soil to the plant and
then to the atmosphere. The process includes the following processes;-

 Water movement in the soil and to the plant root.

 Water movement through the plant , from the root to the stem to the leaf;
and
 Water movement from the plant into the atmosphere by transpiration.
 31

1)Absorption of Water;-
In higher plants water is absorbed through root hairs which are in
contact with soil water and form a root hair zone a little behind the root
tips . Root hairs are tubular hair like prolongations of the cells of the
epidermal layer (when epidermis bears root hairs it is also known as
piliferous layer) of the roots. The walls of root hairs are permeable and
consist of pectic substances and cellulose which are strongly hydrophilic
(water loving) in nature. Root hairs contain vacuoles filled with cell sap.
During absorption of water by roots, the flow of water from
epidermis to endodermis may take place through three different
pathways:
(i) Apoplastic pathway (cell walls and intercellular spaces),
(ii) Trans-membrane pathway (by crossing the plasma membranes) and
(iii) Symplast pathway (through plasmodesmata).

2)Transpiration;-
The loss of water from the aerial parts of the plant in the
form of water vapours is called transpiration. Leaves are the principal
organs of transpiration and most of the transpiration takes place through
their stomata.
This is termed as stomatal transpiration. A small amount of water vapours
is lost from the leaves and herbaceous stems by direct evaporation from
the epidermal cells through the very thin cuticle. This is called cuticular
transpiration.
The amount of water lost through stomatal transpiration is very high. The
loss of water vapours also takes place through lenticels of fruits and woody
stems. This is called lenticular transpiration. In woody stems, transpiration
takes place through bark or cork.
 32

Role of Soil In Continuum

Plant growth depend upon the use of two important natural resources
,Soil and Water.
Soil provides the mechanical and nutrient support necessary for the
plant growth and water is the major input for the growth and
development of all types of plants.
Soil provides food and fertilizers to the crops where as water mobilize
organism of plant growth.
Soil provides the room for water to be used by plants through the roots
present in the same medium.

Prepared by Adnan Ali

BS Botany 6th Semester

0301-8018712
 33

• Light is one of the most important factor for life because the life could not
exist without light.

• Light is a form of energy which travels in the form of electromagnetic waves

and act as a packets or beam of particles ,known as Photons.

• Sun is the main source of light/energy for all living organisms on earth
surface.

• Light is essential factor for the production of the plant materials upon
which all others living organism depend directly or indirectly.

• Light affects the daily and seasonal activities of plants and animals in many
ways.

Composition ;-

• On the basis of wavelength the sunlight is composed of the following

radiations/rays;-
 34

 Ultraviolet Rays(UV);-

• UV rays has low wavelength and produced high energy.

• Its wavelength is 390nm and damage the photosynthetic pigments.

• UV rays are screened out by ozone layers.

 Infra Red Rays(IR rays);-

• It has high wavelength and low producing rays.

• Its wavelength is above from 760nm.

• Called less producing rays.

 Visible light;-

• Also called radiant energy.

• Visible light wavelength is from 390 – 760nm .

• It has seven different colours (VIBGYOR).

• The visible lights are the most important to life that ranges from 390 –
760nm wavelength.

• The total light which enters our atmosphere is about 40% of that reaches to
earth surface,the rest 60% is either absorbed by the atmosphere or
scattered into the space.

• Out of 40% ,2-5% used by the green plants.

Absorption Spectrum;-

• Photosynthetic pigments absorb and utilize a portion of visible spectrum.

• The chlorophyll helps in the absorption of visible light.

• Chlorophyll absorbs mostly violet blue wavelength 390-430nm and red

wavelength 630-760nm wavelength.
 35

• Green light is reflected so the plants look like green.

• Without light many plants would not be able to produce the energy needs
to grow.

Effect of light on Plants;-

• Light effects the;-

 Photosynthesis process

 Transpiration

 Seed germination

 Photoperiodism

 Reproduction and Growth

 Influence upon number and position of chloroplast

 Changes in leaf structures etc.

Uses/importance of light;-

• In all ecosystem light is the main source of energy.

• Light is required for the height and surface area of plants.
• Light is used in the process of photosynthesis as well as involves in the
formation of chlorophyll.
• Light is necessary for stomatal regulation/closing and opening of stomata.
• Helps in the formation of flowers ,fruit and seeds.
• Helps in the plant movement (phototrophism).
• Improve seed germination and break seed darmancy.
• Helps in the permeability of cell membrane.

Light intensity;-

• The quantity of visible light that is emitted in unit of time.

 36

• The rate of photosynthesis would go up as intensity increased.

• However very high intensity slow down the rate of photosynthesis beyond
the optimal intensity.

• The normal sunlight is quite sufficient for a normal rate of photosynthesis.

• Light intensity/light Quantity is very important for all living organisms in the
ecosystem.

It depend upon seasons,latitude, day time and angle of incidence.

• The intensity of light is measured by an instrument called photometer/Lux

meter.

• Unit of light intensity;- the candela(cd) is the SI unit of light intensity. The
name candela is derived from the fact that a common candle produces
approximately 1 candela of brightness in a given direction.

• According to the tolerance of light intensity ,following four groups of

plants;-

 Heliophytes ;-these are sun plants.

• Grow best in full sunlight.

 Sciophytes;- these are shade plants.

• Grow best at low light intensity.

 Facultative Heliophytes;-plants grow in sunlight but can also grow under

shade environment.
 37

 Facultative Sciophytes;-plants grow in shade environment but can also

grow in full sunlight environment.

Light Duration;-

• Duration of light is called Photoperiodism.

• Duration of light is required for growth and development of plants.

• Due to the different periods of light in summer and winter seasons the
crops are different.

• The plants are classified into the following groups on the basis of light
duration;-

 Long Day plants;-required light more than 12hours/critical p.p.

 Short Day plants;- required light less than 12hours.

 Day Neutral plants;-required neither too short nor long photoperiod.

Light Quality;-

• Quality of light is important because along the visible light which reaches
the earth is utilize by man and other living organisms.

• Other types of light rays such as UV and IR rays are dangerous to living
organisms.

• The visible light is only used by plants which ranges from 390-760nm and it
consists of seven colours.

• In photosynthesis only red and blue light colours are used.

 38

Plant Responses;-

• Response means Reaction to change/an Event.

• All living organisms shows response to a stimulus including plants.

• Stimulus is any detectable change in the environment.

• Maybe external or internal.

• So the reaction of plants to stimuli, known as plant responses.

• Examples of plant stimuli are to,

Light(phototrophism),Temperature(thermotrophism) etc.

Phototrophism;-

• Photo means Light,

• Trophism means Growth/Turning movement.

• The growth/movement of plant towards/away from light, known as

Phototrophism.

• Plant phototrophism may be;-

• Positive phototrophism;- if the plant grows toward light ,

 39

• Negative phototrophism;- if plant grows away from light.

Why plant shows response/movement;-

• To find water and soil nutrition

• To seek and capture the food

• To determine support

• To protect themselves from damages

• To disperse seeds

• Sudden Temperature change etc .

By Adnan Ali
BS Botany 6 th
0301-8018712
 40

Ecological Factors;-

 Ecological Factor is any factor that influences living organisms, they are
divided into total three categories;-

 Abiotic Factors;- these are non living chemical and physical factors.

 Biotic Factors;-- these are living factors and effect each others.

 Anthropogenic factors;-the human effect on environment.

Temperature;-

 The degree of hotness and coolness of a body/an object, known as

Temperature.

 Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an object is compared to

another object.

 Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of

in an object.

Thermometer ;-

 The apparatus used for the measurement of temperature is called

Thermometer.
 41

Temperature is an Ecological Factor;-

 Temperature is one of the most abiotic ecological factor of an environment.

 It regulates/stimulates many physiological processes of plants.

 The metabolic processes/activities are low at a certain minimum

temperature.

 It increases at a particular temperature called’Optimum temperature’.

 The plant grows best at optimum temperature.

 Metabolic activities decreases at maximum temperature.

Both extremely low and high temperature have adeverse effect on plant growth.

Levels of Temperature;-

We will study temperature in three levels;-

 Minimum temperature;-the temperature at which the metabolic activities

begins and this is the temperature in which the metabolic processes are
very slow, ranging froM0-15’C.

 Optimum temperature;-the temperature at which the metabolic activities

occur at proper and regular way.this is suitable temperature for metabolic
activities,ranging from 25-35’C.

 Maximum temperature;-the temperature at which the metabolic processes

becomes slower,slower and finally stop, above from 40’C.

Ecological classes of plants based on Temperature;-

 Megatherms;-these plants live in high temperature throughout the year.

 These plants are found n equatorial and tropical forest.

 Mesotherms ;- these plants living at high temperature of

summer,alternating with low temperature of winter.
 42

 They are found in decidous forest of tropical and subtropical regions.

 Microtherms;- the plants which live extremely low temperature.

 It includes plants of Temperate and high altitude(upto 12,000 feet of

tropical and subtropical regions).

 These regions are dominated by mixed coniferous forest.

 Hekiskotherms;-it includes plants of arctic and alpine regions.

 Above 16,000 feet in tropics and 12,000 feet in temperate with very low
temperature.

Plant Response To Temperature;-

How do plants respond to changes in temperature in their environment.

 Thermotrophism;- thermo means Heat.

 A plant’ s response to temperature.

 The tendency of plants to bend toward or away from heat. It maybe;-

 Positive thermotrophism;- bend/grow towards the heat.

 Negative thermotrophism;- bend/grow away from heat.

 I,e the flower of tulip open by the increase of temperature and vice versa.

Temperature effects the physiological processes;-

 Photosynthesis

 Respiration

 Transpiration

 Proteins synthesis etc.

 The activities are maximum at optimum temperature, but it decreases

rapidly above optimal temperature.
 43

Variation in Temperature;-

There is variation in temperature due to the following factors;

Latitude Altittude
Topography proximity to water
Cloud cover vegetation influence

Latitude;- latitude is the angular distance from the equator.Due to light there
is decrease in temperature towards north and south poles of the world.

Altitude;-altittude is the position of the soil from sea level. At high altitude the
temperature is low due to cool and moist climate and sometimes snowfall
during winter.

Topography;- the topography is the external condition of soil and it greatly

affects temperature.the sloppy area has different temperature than plain area.

Proximity of water;-the depth of water plays an important role according to

temperature. The deep water place does not get more light so it has low
temperature than upper surface.

Cloud cover;-the cloud cover prevents light, so climate is not hot and warm,
weather is pleasant, but without cloud cover, the sunlight is bright which
increases the temperature.

Vegetation influence;-when there is more vegetation or plantation the

transpiration is fast,so climate is moist and due to shade temperature is slow.
In a bare area or with less plantation,the climate is hot and dry due to high
temperature.
 44

CO2 is a colourless,odourless gas vital to life on earth. This is naturally

occurring chemical compound is composed of a Carbon atom covalently
double bonded tp two oxygen atoms. O=C=O, CO2 also called as ‘Green House
Gas’. CO2 is mainly composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms.CO2 is
currently constitute about 0.03% by volume in the atmosphere.

General properties of CO2;-

 Colourless and Odourless

 0.03% by volume in the atmosphere
 Density is 1.5 times
 Non conductive
 Forms ice,snow and Dry
 Displaces O2 and cools.

Sources of CO2;-

There are two major sources of CO2;-

Natural sources;- it is a naturally occurring gas in the atmosphere. CO2 is

produced in essentially all human activities including the basic life process
respiration.

Industrial sources;- such as Fossils,Fueled,power plants, cement

manufacturing,refineries etc.
 45

Importance of CO2;-

 CO2 is one of the most abundant gas in the atmosphere.

 CO2 plays an important part in vital plants and animals processes
such as Photosynthesis and respiration.
 Green plants takes CO2 from the atmosphere and convert CO2 and
water into food compounds,such as Glucose and Oxygen. This
process is known as Photosynthesis.
 Respiration occurs when animals take in oxygen from air along with
simple sugar from their food, during cellular respiration animals
requires O2 while inhalation .when they exhale the waste product of
cellular respiration, they release CO2 into the atmosphere again.

The Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen Cycle;-

The CO2 and Oxygen cycle is interconnected and involves three major
processes;-

 Photosynthesis
 Respiration
 Combustion .A process of burning that occurring naturally
in the nature. I,e Volcanic eruptions are natural combustion
process where CO2 is released into the atmosphere and
again used by plants during photosynthesis.

Results of increased levels of CO2;-

 Increased atmospheric and sea surface temperature.

 Ice caps/glaciers melt.
 Flooding of coastal areas due to sea level rise.
 Economic losses
 Leads to pollution etc.
 46

Stomata;-(sing;stoma).

Stomata are very minute/small(microscopic) apertures/pores usually

present on the epidermis of leaves.each stoma is surrounded by two guard kidney
shaped cells called Guard cells. The guard cells are always living and contains
chloroplast. The epidermal cells surround the guard cells of the stoma are known
as subsidiary/accessory cells. The outer part of the guard cell is convex while the
inner is concave. The number of stomata may range from thousands to lacs per
square centimeter on the surface of the leaf.

The stomata may be present on;-

Hypostomatic leaf;-stomata present on the lower surface.

Episomatic leaf;- stomata present on the upper surface of leaf. In aquatic plants
stomata are present on the upper surface of leaf.

Amphistomatic leaf;- the stomata are present on both the surfaces of the leaf.
But the stomata numbers are greater on the lower surface of the leaf.

Main Functions of Stomata;- stomata have two main functions,Namely they allow
for gas exchange acting as an entryway for CO2 and releasing O2 that we breath.
The other main function is regulating water movement through transpiration.

Stomatal regulation/mechanism of stomatal opening and closing;-

Usually the stomata remains closed in the night (no light no

photosynthesis) and open in the day time or in the presence of light. The open
stomata have turgid cells while closed stomata have flaccid cells. The opening and
 47

closing of stomata depend upon the changes in the turgidity of their gaud cells.
Some theories have been proposed to explain the opening and closing of
stomata;-

 Starch sugar conversion theory;- this theory was proposed by Sayre

in 1926, According to him;
 Opening of stomata;- According to this theory the guard cells are
only photosynthetic cells of the leaf epidermis. During
photosynthesis CO2 is used (decrease) which lower the
concentration of H* ion in the guard cells during day time.As a
result the PH of the guard cells increased which activate the
enzyme called as Phosphorylase. Then the phosphorylase enzyme
converts the starch into sugar and phosphate. As the sugar level
rises in the guard cells ,they absorb water from the surrounding
cells and become turgid. Due to turgidity the guard cells get
separated from one another and the stomata opening remain
open.
 Closing of stomata;- During night time no photosynthesis occurs,
resulting in the increase of CO2 which increase the H* ion
concentration in the guard cells. As a result the PH of the guard
cells decreased which activate the enzyme to convert glucose into
soluble starch.As the osmotic potential of the guard cells is
lowered that result water diffuse out of the guard cells. The guard
cells become flaccid and remain closed during night.

During day time During night time

Photosynthesis No photosynthesis
CO2 is used(decreased their level) Increased their level
H*ion lowered Increased
PH rises Decreased
Phosphorylase convert starch into sugar Convert sugar into soluble starch
and phosphate
The guard cells become turgid Become flaccid
Open stomata Closed stomata
 48

CO2 Assimilation /Fixation;-

It is the conversion process of inorganic carbon (CO2) to organic

compounds by living organisms . the most prominent example is
photosynthesis,although chemosynthesis is another form of CO2 assimilation that
can take place in the absence of sunlight.

Generally there are three modes of CO2 assimilation;-

C3 Cycle/Calvin Benson Cycle/Reductive pentose phosphate cycle.

C4 Cycle/Dicarboxylic acid cycle/Hatch and slack cycle.
CAM Cycle/Crassulacean Acid Metabolism.

C3 Cycle;-

 The first product of photosynthesis is a three carbon molecule (PGA).

 Most plants are C3 usually on Dicot plants.
 C3 photosynthesis is a multistep process in which the carbon from CO2 is
fixed into stable organic products ,it occurs in virtually all leaf mesophyll
cells.
 Rubisco involves in photosynthesis, is also the enzyme involved in the
uptake of CO2.
 Photosynthesis takes place throughout the leaf.
 49

C4 Cycle;-

 First initial photosynthesis product is a four carbon compound (oxalo

acetate).
 Occurs in the more advanced plant taxa and especially common among
monocots, such as grasses and sedges.
 Represents a biochemical and morphological modification of C3
photosynthesis to reduce Rubisco oxygenase activity and thereby increase
photosynthetic rate in low CO2 environment.
 Photosynthesis takes place in inner cells.
 Two types of cells are involved;-
 Bundle sheath cells;tightly packed around the veins in the leaf.
 Mesophyll cells; loosely arranged around the bundle sheath cells.
 uses PEPco for the enzyme involved in the uptake of CO2 into the plant very
quickly and then deliver directly to rubisco for photosynthesis.
 50

CAM Cyvle;- crassulacean Acid Metabolism

 A type of metabolism in plants that shows Crassulacean Acid Metabolim

known as Crassulacean plants.
 Refers to acid metabolism in Crassulacea,Euphobiaceaand certain
succulent plants.
 CAM plants fix CO2 during night ,storing it as the four carbon acid
malate.
 The CO2 is released during the day,where it is concentrated around the
enzyme Rubisco ,increasing the efficiency of photosynthesis.
 The CAM pathway allows stomata to remain shut during the
day,reducing evapo transpiration.
 In contrast to C4 pathway CAM pathway happens in the cells of

mesophyll.
 51

Productive Response of Photosynthesis to Environmental Factors;-

We all know that Photosynthesis is a life sustainable process by which the life
existence on the earth depends. Photosynthesis is an anabolic process, in which
small molecules like H2O and CO2 combines together to form carbohydrates.

Environmental Factors such as Light ,Tempperature and CO2 concentration

affect the productivity response of photosynthesis.

But the whole process is affected by two types of factors;-

External Factors Internal Factors

Light Chlorophyll contents
Temperature Leaf Anatomy
CO2 concentration Accumulation of end products
Water Hormones
O2 concentration Rubisco performance
Minerals

The three main things affecting the productivity of pphotosynthesis. These

three factors are called ,Limiting Factors. Such as Light,Temperature and oxygen
concentration.

 Light;- light is very important abiotic factor of an environment, because it is

absorbed by chlorophyll and used in the formation of energy rich
compound, ATP. Solar radiations are the source of light for photosynthesis.
In the absence of light photosynthesis does not occur.
Light affects the rate of photosynthesis by three ways;-

 Light Intensity;- under low light intensity the rate of photosynthesis is low.
On normal day the light intensity is sufficient for photosynthesis. On a
cloudy or rainy day light intensity is low,it decreases the rate of
 52

photosynthesis. As the intensity of light increases the rate of

photosynthesis increases .At very high light intensity the rate of
photosynthesis decreases.
 Light Quality;- the visible light between wavelength 350-750nm is the
most effective for photosynthesis and this light is called
‘photosynthetically active Radiations (PAR).the maximum photosynthesis
is takes place in the presence of red or blue,while minimum
photosynthesis occurs in the green light.infra red light and ultra violet
light is not used in photosynthesis.
 Light Duration;- also called as Photoperiod. Required for the growth and
development of plants. Greater quantity of photosynthesis occurs in a
plant exposed to longer period of light.

 Temperature;- a suitable temperature is required for photosynthesis. The

optimum temperature for photosynthesis ranges from 15-30Ċ, above
35/40Ċ the rate usually decline. High temperature cause the inactivation of
enzymes and therefore affect the enzymatically controlledDark reactions of
photosynthesis.

 CO2 concentration;- the concentration of CO2 in our atmosphere varies

between 0.03-0.04%. CO2 is essential for photosynthesis because it directly
takes part in the formation of carbohydrates.CO2 is taken through stomata
from the atmosphere . increase in the amount of CO2 concentration
increases the rate of photosynthesis.Higher concentrations have inhibitory
effect on photosynthesis.

 Oxygen concentration;- oxygen is essential for photosynthesis

.photosynthesis does not take place in cells which lack oxygen. The energy
produced in oxygen respiration is necessary for photosynthesis. Oxygen is
evolved from the leaves to the outer atmosphere during
photosynthesis.oxygen is present in the atmosphere about 21% by
volume.when its concentration is increased in the atmosphere it decrease
 53

the rate of photosynthesis and promote photorespiration.oxygen required

for the production and maintenance of some substances.

 Water;- water is one of the raw material for photosynthesis process.

Directly involved in the preparation of carbohydrates.maintain the
turgidity of cell.the rate of photosynthesis decrease in the cells which have
lost their tugor, leads to closure of stomata,thus reduce the rate of
photosynthesis.its deficiency badly effect photosynthesis.

By Adnan Ali
BS Botany 6 th
0301-8018712
 54

Oxygen;-
As we all know the life on earth exist only because of oxygen. Oxygen is
the most important part of the atmosphere and it is necessary to sustain most
terrestrial life as it is used in respiration. One cannot perform a single activity
without oxygen. A living being can only survive for three minutes without oxygen.
Oxygen Discover by Joseph Priestly in 1774.
Properties of oxygen;-

 Oxygen is a non metal element that is gas at room temperature.

 Its molecules contains two oxygen atoms, O+O=O2
 Colourless,odourless and tasteless
 Denser than air
 Poor conductor of heat and electricity
 Highly reactive non metallic and very common element
 Component of air
 21% by volume in atmosphere
 Period No 2
 Atomic number 8
 Atomic weight 15.9994
 MP -219Ċ
 BP -183Ċ
 E.N 3.5
 Soluble in water
 Its most common form is O2
 O3 is another form of oxygen called as Ozone
 Approximately 70% of the human bodies mass is oxygen.
 Oxygen is completely essential for human survival.

Common ompounds that contain Oxygen;-

H2O,C6H12O6,C12H22O11, Oxygen is found in most compounds which form food.

 55

Oxygen Transport;-
Oxygen from atmosphere to lungs by inhalation
Diffusion across alveoli to blood in lungs
Diffusion from blood to tissues
Utilization of oxygen in tissues (Mitochondria).
The main Reservoirs of oxygen;-
The reservoirs are the locations in which oxygen is found;-

 Atmosphere (Air)
 Biosphere (living things)
 Lithosphere (earth crust)
 Hydrosphere (water).

Oxygen Cycle;-
Like Nitrogen, Carbon and water cycle, the oxygen cycle is a biogeochemical
cycle.
A biogeochemical cycle is the movement of matter through the biotic and the
abiotic spheres of the ecosystem.

 Plant release oxygen into the atmosphere as a by product of

photosynthesis.
 Animals take in oxygen through the process of respiration.animals than
breakdown sugar and food. Respiration is a process by which an organism
exchanges gases with its environment.
 Process;- oxygen is abstracted from air,transported to cells for oxidationof
organic molecules, while carbon dioxide and water ,the product of
oxidation , are turned to the environment.
 Then plants again take carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
 56

Oxygen Deficiency;-
Normal atmosphere contains between 20.8 – 21 % oxygen.

OSHA defines as Oxygen Deficiency ,any atmosphere that contains less

than 19.5% oxygen. 0xygen deficient atmosphere may be created when
oxygen is displaced by inerting gases, such as CO2 ,Nitrogen, Argon or the
ship’s inert gas system . oxygen can also be consumed by rusting
metal,ripening fruits,drying paints or coating, combustion or bacterial
activities.
Oxygen Enriched;- any atmosphere that contains more than 22% oxygen.
Oxygen enriched atmosphere may be produced by certain chemical
reactions, but in a shipyard they are typically caused by leaking hoses and
torches.

OSHA;- stands for Occupational Safety and Health Administration is an agency

of united states department.

Terminologies;-

Hypoxia;- A condition which is characterized by insufficient/partial oxygen

supply.

Anoxia;- A condition characterized by the completely absence of oxygen

supply.

Hypoxemia;- A partial(hypoxia) 0r complete(Anoxia) lack of oxygen.

 57

Ischemia;- the reduction or cessation of blood to an organ.

Oxygen Deficiency in Plants;-

It is brought about by water logging of the root system is a very common

event in nature. common soil consists of four components,soil
particles,water,air and organisms including plant roots. Under oxygen
deficiency ,glycolysis and fermentation can exceed the aerobic metabolic rate
and become the only pathway for energy production.

What Happens to a plant without oxygen?

All plant cells need oxygen to live , because without oxygen they
cannot perform aerobic respiration( in the presence of oxygen breakdown
food to get energy).

Do plants need oxygen?

Yes, it is, plants need oxygen to survive, and plant cells are constantly
using oxygen. Under certain circumstances plant cells need to take in more
oxygen from the air they generate themselves.

How do plants obtain oxygen?

As with photosynthesis plants get oxygen from air through the stomata.
Respiration takes place in mitochondria of the cells in the presence of oxygen
which I called Aerobic Respiration.

What is stress?
Stress is significant deviation from the conditions optima for life and eliciting
changes and responses at all functional level of organism.
The stress may be;- Temporary Stress and Permanently Stress.
How to Recognize stress?

 Alteration in membrane properties

 Increased or decreased respiration
 Lower Fertility
 58

 Inhibition of photosynthesis
 Decrease of availability of energy.

What is Oxygen Stress?

Oxygen deficiency in plants is a type of stress which leads to functional and

morphological disturbance.

The shift from mitochondrial respiration to fermentation is the hallmark of

anaerobic metabolism in most organisms.

The Metabolic Response of Plants to Oxygen Deficiency;-

Plants under natural or experimental conditions, can be subject to a range of
oxygen concentrations from normal (normoxia) through deficient (hypoxia) to
total absence (anoxia). Many metabolic processes are affected by oxygen
deficiency but the most studied events are those related to respiration and
metabolism of Nitrogen. In the absence of a terminal electron acceptor for the
electron transport chain, the TCA cycle function only partially and in both
directions. Acidification of cytosol occurs and pyruate , the product of glycolysis, is
transformed to lactate and ethanol , which represent the main fermentation
reactions in plants. Alanine is the third most important product of anaerobic
metabolism, resulting from high rates of amino acid interconversion in which
transminases such as Alanine aminotransferases palt an important role.the role of
alanine accumulation under anaerobiosisis is not clear and appears to be
independent of the source of Nitrogen whether NO3,NH4. How nitrate exert its
beneficial effect on tolerance of root hypoxia in waterlogged plants is still not
clearly understood.such aspects of Nitrogen metabolism pose interesting
challenges for future research on metabolic responses of plants to oxygen
deficiency.

By Adnan Ali
BS Botany 6 th
0301-8018712
 59

What is Wind?

The Air in motion , is called Wind.Wind is moving air and is caused by

difference in air pressure within our atmosphere.

• The horizontal flows of air; winds blow from an areas of high pressure to an
areas of low pressure (nature tries to equalise pressure).

• Wind is the movement of air from an area of high pressure to an area of low
pressure. It is an important factor on flat plains, along sea coasts, at high altitude
in mountains.It effect plants directly by increasing transpiration, by delivering
heat to relatively cool leaves, by causing various mechanical damage and by
scattering pollens and dispersal of seeds and fruits.

• Its movement results from a number of environmental factors such as

Temperture, atmospheric pressure and geographical features.
 60

Types of Wind;-

There are three types of wind;

• Local Wind;-the winds that we frequently encounter (meet) and blow in any
direction. • Produced on a local scale by processes of heating and cooling of lower
air.

• Prevailing wind;-winds that blow from the same direction and most often long
distances. Also known as Permanently or Planetary winds.

• Periodic wind;-it is also known as Seasonal 0r Monsoons winds.

• They blow from water bodies to land.

Effects on Vegetation;-

Wind has both Direct and indirect effect s on the vegetation of an area.
• The direct effect is mechanical and indirect effect is physiological.
• When the wind blows at high speed it is converted to a storm. It has a direct
mechanical effect. It breaks off twigs and branches of trees, sometimes plants are
uprooted, from the broken and damaged parts of plants loss of water also occurs.
• Indirect effect or physiological effect of wind is more significant. At high
altittude the wind velocity is increased, it promotes the rate of transpiration.

Common effects on plants/Vegetation;-

Wind has following effects on plants;

• Increasing the transpiration rate

• By delivering heat to relatively cool leaves.

• By dissipating the heat load of isolated leaves

• By causing various kinds of mechanical damages.

 breaks off twigs and branches

 Sometimes uprooted
 Soil Erosion etc
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• By scattering pollens and spores(Aemophily/wind pollination).

• Dispersal of seeds and fruits(Anemochory).

• Carbondioxide replenishment (replacement).

• Abrasion;-wind carrying particles of ice or soil is very potent abrasive force. Bark
and buds may be eroded away.

Anemometer ;-

Wind is measured by an Instrument called Anemometer.

• An anemometer is a device used for measuring wind speed, and is common
weather. • The term is derived from the Greek word Anemos means Wind and
meteros means To measure. • It consists of three or four arms, arms fixed to
vertical shaft operates gears motivating a dial. Average velocities can be
taken.This provide a much more useful index of velocities.

Wind Energy;-

Wind energy is converting of wind power to electrical power through the use
of windmills or turbines. Electricity produced is sent to transformers where
voltage is increased and sent to the power grid via transmission lines. The wind is
a free, clean and inexhaustible energy source. It is one of the most environment
 62

friendly and economically viable source of energy. In hilly and coastal areas, the
average wind speed is greater than in land. The wind speed increases with
increase in height, because as height increases. Today wind energy has been
utilized for pumping water in rural and remote areas. It was estimated that about
20.000mW electricity can be generated in india from wind.

Prepared by Adnan Ali

BS Botany 6th Semester

0301-8018712
 63

Water;-

Water is made up of tiny molecules of hydrogen and oxygen. Each one is so

small that you can’t see it even with the most powerful machine. Water is formed
when two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom.With a total atomic
weight of 18 daltons. The structure of the water molecule is tetrahedral,
resembling a pyramid. The angle between H-O-H bond is 105 degree.

A) Water is Polar: The water molecule has a positively charged (hydrogen) and
negatively charged side (oxygen). This occurs because:

1. The hydrogen atoms are arranged at an angle of about 105 degrees;

2. The covalent bond between O-H is polarized. This is caused by an unequal
sharing of electrons between these atoms which, in turn, results in a slight
 64

negative charge on the oxygen atom (electronegative) and slight positive

charge on the hydrogen;
3. Oxygen has an unshared pair of electrons (the molecule is tetrahedral-
shaped).

B) Hydrogen Bonds: Hydrogen bond is a weak bond that forms between a

hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to an electronegative atom (like oxygen)

and another electronegative atom. In other words, a positively charged hydrogen

atom is attracted to negatively charged oxygen.

Water as an environmental factor;-

• Water is one of the most important ecological factor of an ecosystem.

• Water is one of the marvelous gift to us.

• Water is essential for life.
• Life is impossible without water.
• Without water all the metabolic processes are stopped.
• Water directly or indirectly involves in the metabolic processes.
• About 70% of the human body is water.
• It is a part of cells and tissues.
• Plants absorb water mainly from soil.
• Water is the major component of cell protoplasm.
 65

Water is necessary for photosynthesis and respiration.

• Take part in the translocation process.
• Helps in seed germination.
• Determines the distribution of vegetation.
• Removal of heat from plants through transpiration.
• Water is considered a renewable resource because it can be used over and
again it has a rain cycle.
• The bodies of all plants and animals contain water.
• The water requirement is met by rainfall, snow, dew etc.

Water is made available to plants as;

• Surface water, soil moisture and ground water.

• Water is one of the abiotic factor of an ecosystem.
• Pure water has no colour, no taste and doesn’t smell of anything.
• Water exist in three forms on earth ; solid (ice,hail,snow,frost) , Liquid (in lakes,
in oceans, rain,dew,mist), Gas (steam/water vapour”invisible water in the air”).
• Water distinguishes earth from other planets.
• One can survive without food for a few weeks, but not without water.
• Water is always in the form of circulation.

Uses of water;-

• The uses of water include;

 Domestic uses;-Drinking, cooking, washing, bathing, flushing of toilets,

gardening etc.
Public purposes;-cleaning of streets, public fountains, ornamental
ponds, fire protect and public parks. ornamental ponds,
Industrial purposes;-processing and cooling.
Agriculture purposes;-irrigation
Power production;-from hydropower and steam power.
Carrying of wastes;-through drainage.
 66

Roles of Water in plants growth

• Water is essential for the germination of seeds and growth of plants.

• During the process of photosynthesis,plants synthesize carbohydrates
from carbon dioxide and water,
• Helps in the uptake of nutrients from soil.
• Provide essential nutrients.
• Major components of plant cell.
• Plays a role in cell elongation and growth.
• Solvent and medium for chemical reaction and processes.
• Maintains turgidity.
• Medium for transporting nutrients and food.
• Assist the movement of plants. Maintain the stable temperature within
plants. • Component of photosynthesis and transpirations.
• Water is a medium for the transfer of plant gametes(sperms swim to eggs
in water, some aquatic plants shed pollen underwater).
• Serves as thermal buffer.
• Aquatic life is possible in water only.
• Water shortage causes plant growth inhibition and wilting.

Water absorption by plants

• In higher plants water is absorbs through root hairs which are in contact with
soil water and from a root hair zone a little behind the root tips.
• Mechanism of water absorption is of two types;

 Active absorption of water; In this process the root cells play active role
in the absorption of water and metabolic energy released through
respiration is consumed. and metabolic energy released through
respiration is consumed.Occur due to the activity of root and root
hairs.Absorption occurs due to the osmotic pressure.Shows
symplast(cytoplasm of adjacent cells) pathway.
 Passive absorption of water;• It is mainly due to transpiration, the root
cells do not play active role and remain passive.Occur due to the activity
 67

of shoot and leaves. Absorption occur due to transpiration. Shows

apoplast (through cell wall)pathway.

Distribution of water

• On the earth surface 71% is covered by water and remaining 29% is occupied by
land. • Water is present in different places and in different forms;

 Salty water;-about 97% of water is salty/saline water( oceans and seas

water).In the salty water the fresh water organisms can survive rarely .
 Fresh water;-only about 3% of earth water is fresh water, which maybe;
Solid form;-25% of the earth water is in solid form, found in icecaps and
glaciers. It can’t be used by organisms.
Useable form;-only 1% of all the earth’s water in a form to be used by
humans and land animals. this fresh water is found in lakes, rivers, streams,
fonds and in the ground and a small amount of water is found as vapour in
the atmosphere.

Where we get water;

About 97% of the water on the earth surface is in the world oceans and seas.
• The remaining 3% of water you can find as a; Lakes ,Rivers,Polar ice caps, Rain
Streams ,Wells ,Fonds,Springs.

Water in plant cell

 68

Water is contained in every part of plant cells.An estimated concentration

of water contents in different cell parts is as follows;
Cell wall= 5%
Cell membrane= 1-5%
Cytoplasm= 5-10%
Vacuole= 80% above

Status of water in soil

• Water contained in soil is called soil moisture.The water is held within the
soil pores. Soil water is an important component of the soil which influence
soil organisms and plant growth. Soil water with dissolved salts is called soil
solution. • Soil solution supplies nutrients to grow
plants. • Water is essential for life
including soil organisms and plants. • Soil
water serves as a solvent and carrier of food nutrients for plant growth.
• Soil water is itself is a nutrients.
• Micro organisms require water for their metabolic activities.
• Soil water helps in chemical and biological activities of soil.
• Soil water regulates soil temperature.

Distribution of vegetation in relation to water (Ecological Groups)

• Classification of plants on the availability of water; Under natural conditions of

water availability there are different types of plantS.They differ in morphological
and physiological characters while grow in different environmental characters
while grow in different environmental conditions.
• These plants are classified into the following groups;

 Hydrophytes ( plants grow in wet, watery places)

 Mesophytes (grow in moist/moderate places)
 Xerophytes ( grow in dry/desert places)
 Halophytes ( grow in saline region/places).
 69

Plants adaptations

 • The term adaptation is derived from Latin word Adaptare that means
“To Fit”. Plant Adaptation is the adjustment or change in the behavior
and structure of plants to become more suit to the environment.
• Any feature of plants or its parts which enables it to exist under
conditions of its habitats. of its habitats.
• Plant adaptation helps the plants to live and grow in different areas.
• Adaptations for;
Withstand adverse conditions of an environment.
Utilize maximum benefits of environment . The adaptation may be;
Morphological ,Anatomaical ,physiological , reproductive.

Hydrophytes

• Meaning ‘Hydro’ means “Water” and ‘Phyton’ means “plants” .The plants which
grow in place where excess amount of water is present called Hydrophytes.
• Hydrophytes are the water loving plants. They live in or near water, partly or
entirely submerged.
• The hydrophytic plants are may be;-
Submerged hydrophytes ( plants grow below the water surface)
Floating hydrophytes(plants float on the surface of water)
Amphibious hydrophytes (plants adapted to both aquatic and terrestrial mode of
life).
 70

Morphological Adaptation of Hydrophytes

• Root ;

 The roots are poorly developed, reduced 0r absent.

 Roots are not required for absorption.
 Entire plant surface can absorb water and minerals.
 Root caps usually absent.
 Root pockets or root sheath may develop for protection.

• Stem;

 The stem of hydrophytes are very delicate and thin.

 Usually green in colour.
 Sometimes modified into rhizome or runner.

• Leaves;-

 In floating plants the leaves are long ,circular,green, thin and smooth.
 Upper surface sxposed to air, lower surface touch water.
 Submerged leaves are linear or ribbon like or highly dissected.
 Leaves of floating hydrophytes are with smooth waxy surface.

Anatomical Adaptations of Hydrophytes

• The anatomical adaptations in hydrophytes are mainly at;

 Reduction in protecting structures

 Increase in the aeration
 Reduction of supporting or mechanical tissues
 Reduction in vascular tissues
 Note ;Pollination and dispersal of fruits by the help of water.
 Vegetative reproduction is the common method of reproduction.

Reduction in protecting structures;

• Cuticle totally absent in submerged plants

• In aerial parts may present as thin layer
 71

• Epidermis is not the protecting layer

• Epidermal cells contains chloroplasts
• Epidermal cells can absorbs water and nutrients.

• Increase in aeration;

• stomata completely absent in submerged parts

• Sometimes vestigial stomata present
• Exchange of gases takes place through the cell wall
• In floating plants stomata confined to upper epidermis
• Aerenchyma well developed in submerged plants
• Air chambers filed with respiratory gasses and moisture.

Reduction of supporting or mechanical tissues;

• Mechanical tissues are absent or poorly developed

• Main functions of roots is to anchor in the soil
• Thick walled sclerenchymatous cells totally absent.
• In some star shaped lignified cells are present which will provide
• In some star shaped lignified cells are present which will provide mechanical
support.

• Reduction in vascular tissues;

• Vascular elements are poorly developed

• Absorption of water and minerals takes place through the cell surface
• little need of conduction tissues.
• Vascular bundles arranged towards the center
• Secondary growth absent .

Physiological adaptation of Hydrophytes

• Water is absorbed by entire plant surface

• Nutrients are absorbed by entire plant surface
• Gaseous exchange takes place through the entire plant surface
• Oxygen produced by photosynthesis is retained in the air cavities
 72

• Transpiration absent in submerged plants

• Floating plants have excessive transpiration

Xerophytes ;-

• Xerophytes / Xerophytic plants are plants growing in dry

habitats/xeric conditions where the availability of water is very less.

• Xeric habitat;-places where water is not present in adequate amount.

• Xerophytes are the characteristics plants of desert 0r semi desert areas.
• Xerophytes can also tolerate ; Extreme dry condition , Low humidity ,High
temperature , High wind flow.

Xerophytes Adaptations

 Morphological Adaptations (external adaptations)

 Anatomical Adaptations (internal adaptations)
 Physiological Adaptations.

Morphological Adaptations of Xerophytes

• Roots of Xerophytes;
• Root system is well developed in true xerophytes.
• They are adapted to reach the area of where water is available and to absorb
water as much as possible.
• Roots grow deep into the soil and they can reach a very high depth in the soil.
 73

• Roots will be profusely branched and more elaborate than their stem.
• Root surface is provided with dense root hairs for water and minerals
absorption.

• Stem of Xerophytes;

• The stem is woody and hard in some xerophytes .

• Stem usually green and photosynthetic.
• Stem is covered with thick cuticle, wax and silica. (Equisetum)
• In many plants the stem is covered with dense hairs.( calotropis)
• Stem modified into thorns in Ulex.
• Succulent and bulbous xerophytes can store water in their stem.(cactus and
some sppof Euphobia)

• Leaves of xerophytes;

• Leaves usually absent in xerophytes.

• If leaves are present , usually they are caducous(fall off leaves)
• Most of the cases the leaves are modified into spines or scales(casuarina).
• Leaf may modify into phyllode(expanded petiole) in some plants.(acacia)

Anatomical Adaptations of Xerophytes

• Roots;

• Root hairs are well developed.

• Roots with well developed root cap.
• In Asparagus the roots become fleshy and store plenty water.
• In calotropis root cells are with very rigid cell wall.

• Stem;

• Epidermis is well developed and with thick walled compactly packed cells.
• Cuticle is very thick and well developed over the epidermis.
• Stomata are present In succulent xerophytes the stem possesses water storing
 74

regions.
• on the stem for gaseous exchange and transpiration.
• Stomata are sunken type and usually situated in pits provided with hairs..

vascular tissues is well developed with prominent xylem and phloem components.

• Leaves ;

• Epidermis of the leaf is thick and may be multilayered.

• Thick cuticle present over the outer tangential wall of the epidermal cells.
• In some plants the epidermal cells can store water.
• In the leaves stomata are few , sunken and covered by hair.(Neriunm)

Mesophytes

• These are the plants which have moderate supply of water.

• They are in between the xerophytes and hydrophytes and possess intermediate
characteristics.
• Nearly all our crops, most woody ornamental and native plants are include in
this group.
• Mesophytesplants are adapted to neither a particularly dry nor particularly wet
environment.
• Mesophytes don’t have any specific morphological adaptations.
• They usually have broad, flat and green leaves, an extensive fibrous root
system to absorb water.
 75

Adaptations of Mesophytes

• Mesophytes have well developed root system, tap or fibrous roots with root
hairs and root cap.
• The stem is erect, solid and well branched.
• The leaves are large, have cuticle, thin epidermis with large number of stomata.
• Stomata open most of the time.
• Tissues have moderate intercellular spaces.
• Mechanical tissues is highly developed.
• Vascular tissues is extensively developed.
• Spines and prickles are poorly developed.

Prepared by Adnan Ali

BS Botany 6th Semester

0301-8018712
 76

What is Fire?

• A self sustaining rapid oxidation of a combustible material giving

off heat and light.

• Fire is a chemical chain reaction which takes place with the

evolution of heat and light.
• Fire is a chemical reaction in which the substance(fuel) combines with oxygen
and heat giving rise to fire.
• Fire is one of the abiotic factor of an environment.

What is Fire Triangle?

• A simple model for understanding the ingredients necessary for most fire .the
fire triangle can help you take all of the science knowledge you’ve just gained,and
use it to prevent fires and keep people safe.
• Fire needs three things to exists.
 77

 Fuel ,Oxygen and Heat

• Fuel is any combustible material ,solid,liquid or gases. Fuel is something
that can catch fire ,meaning it is flammable.
• Oxygen ;-oxygen is all around you .it is important part of our
atmosphere.the air we breath is about 21% oxygen, fire needs only 16%
oxygen. • Heat ;-the energy necessary to increase the
temperature of fuel to where sufficient vapors are giving off for ignition
(initiation of combustion)to occur.
 Put all of these together and you get that combustion reaction you learned
about earlier-Fire.

How to Remove the Fire?

• There are some effects to remove the fire;

• Starving Effect;-the removal of fuel from fire is known as starving effect.

• Blanket Effect;-the removal of oxygen is known as blanket effect.

• Cooling Effect;-cooling down from the optimum temperature .

• Optimum temperature is the temperature of which any flammable item catches

fir. • Without heat the fire can’t begin.
• Without fuel the fire will stop.
• Without oxygen the fire won’t begin 0r continue.
 78

Causes of Fire

• Approximately 90% of fires in the last decade have been human caused
(Anthropogenic caused) , either through Negligence , accident etc.
• The remaining 10% of fires are caused by lightning.

• common causes are;-

• Electric malfunctions
• Opens flames
• Careless throwing of burning cigarettes.
• Burning charcoal
• Misfiring of engine
• Children plays with fire etc.

Benefits of Fire

Following are the Benefits of Fire;

 Insect, pest control

 Removal of Exotic / Non native species that compete with native species for
nutrients and other needs.
 Addition of nutrients for trees and other vegetation provided by ashes(the
remains when something burned) that remain after a fire.
 Clear ground for agriculture
 To make travel easier by constructing road and airports.
 Encourage the growth of native species.
 Fire provides services to restoration nutrients from plant matter back to
soil, the heat from fire is important to the germination of some types of
seeds and the snags(dead trees).

Fire as an Ecological Factor

• Fire ecology is the branch of ecology that focuses on origin of wild land fire and
its relationship to environment that surround it both living and non living things.
• Fire as an interesting and abiotic ecological factor.
• It is a part of natural world just like wind, rain, water etc.
 79

• Forest fire as an ecological factor is a highly broad and complex one.

• Forest fire is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation occurring in a rural area.

• Fire ecology concerned with natural processes containing fire in an ecosystem

and ecological impacts, the relationship between fire and the abiotic and biotic
components of an ecosystem.
• All ecosystem change over time
• Fire is neither innately good nor bad; it is just an agent of change.
• Fire dynamics is the study of how fires star, spread and develop.

Prepared by Adnan Ali

BS Botany 6th Semester

0301-8018712