SreeKavitha Engineering College

KAREPALLY

M.Heeralal
Asst Prof
Mechanical dept
 UNIT-IV
NUCLEAR POWER STATION
Ends of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
 The Reactor:
Core of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
The Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Uranium Mining and Milling
Conversion, Enrichment and
Fuel Fabrication

Final Product of Milling Step – 70 to 80 % uranium

 Natural Uranium

235U only fissile nuclide – only 1 atom of 235U in 140 atoms of 238U
 Enrichment
• A number of enrichment processes have been
demonstrated in the laboratory
• Only two, the gaseous diffusion process and the
centrifuge process, are operating on a commercial
scale
• In both of these, UF6 gas is used as the feed
material
• Molecules of UF6 with U-235 atoms are about one
percent lighter than the rest, and this difference in
mass is the basis of both processes
• Large commercial enrichment plants are in
operation in France, Germany, Netherlands, UK,
USA, and Russia, with smaller plants elsewhere
Enrichment: Centrifuge Process
• vacuum tubes, each containing a
rotor one to two metres long and
15-20 cm diameter.
• rotors are spun rapidly, at 50,000
to 70,000 rpm
• heavier molecules with U-238
increase in concentration towards
the cylinder's outer wall
• there is a corresponding increase
in concentration of U-235
molecules near the centre.
• enriched gas forms part of the
feed for the next stages, depleted
UF6 gas goes back to the previous
stage (cascade)
• very high speeds:, outer wall
spinning cylinder 400 and 500
metres per second= 1 million
times the acceleration of gravity
Enrichment: Centrifuge Process
 Enrichment: Gaseous Diffusion
Process
• involves forcing UF6 under pressure through a porous
membranes
• as 235U molecules are lighter than the 238U molecules
they move faster and have a slightly better chance of
passing through the pores in the membrane
• the UF6 which diffuses through the membrane is thus
slightly enriched, while the gas which did not pass
through is depleted in 235U
• this process is repeated many times in a series of
diffusion stages called a cascade
• enriched UF6 is withdrawn from one end of the
cascade and depleted UF6 is removed at the other end
• the gas must be processed through some 1400 stages
to obtain a product with a concentration of 3% to 4%
235U
Conversion, Enrichment and
Fuel Fabrication
 Conversion and
Nuclear Fuel Fabrication
• UF6, in solid form in containers, is heated to
gaseous form, and the UF6 gas is chemically
processed to form LEU uranium dioxide (UO2)
powder
• this powder is then pressed into pellets, sintered
into ceramic form (fuel pellets)
• pellets are then loaded into Zircaloy tubes that
are afterwards hermetically closed (fuel rods)
• rods are constructed into fuel assemblies
• fuel assemblies are made with different
dimensions and number of fuel rods, depending
on the type reactor
UO2, Pellets and Fuel Assembly
Fuel Rods
 Fuel
• Plutonium, made in power reactors and from dismantled nuclear
weapons, is a valuable energy source when integrated in the
nuclear fuel cycle
• Over one third of the energy produced in most nuclear power
plants comes from plutonium. It is created there as a by-product.
• 'MOX' is derived from 'mixed oxides', and refers to reactor fuel
made from a mixture of plutonium and uranium oxide
• For use in a light water reactor, the proportion of plutonium is
about 5%. This is a similar fissile content as low enriched
uranium fuel
• MOX is formed into ceramic fuel pellets, extremely stable and
durable, and which are sealed in metal (usually zirconium) tubes,
which in turn are assembled into fuel elements
• In most cases a part of the reactor core can be loaded with MOX
fuel elements without engineering or operational modifications to
the reactor
• Plutonium is radiologically hazardous, particularly if inhaled, so
must be handled with appropriate precautions
 Breeding in nuclear materials
• Breeding in nuclear reactors refers to the process in which significantly
amount of fertile materials are converted to fissile materials by nuclear
transmutation.
• This requires the fertile isotope to have large cross section for neutron
capture.
• Since the main purpose of a nuclear reactor is to produce
electricity, breeding is considered as an off-shoot of excess neutrons
produced during fission above the ones required for sustenance of chain
reaction.
• The probability of breeding is enhanced when the value of ‘η’
exceeds two by a large fraction. For example, the value of ‘η’ for U-235, Pu-
239 and U-233 when bombarded by thermal neutrons is 2.07, 2.11 and 2.30
respectively.
• Breeding with thermal neutrons using U-235 and Pu-239 fuels is
virtually impossible due to neutron absorption in structural materials and
moderator. However, with U-233 fuel, it is possible to achieve breeding
using thermal neutrons.
 Breeding Ratio
• The reactor with conversion ratio greater than 1 is called a
breeder reactor.
• This is the reactor that produces more fuel than that it
consumes.
• For breeder reactors, the term ‘breeding ratio (BR)’ is used.
The breeding ratio is maximum when the leakage of neutrons (l) is
zero.
• This is called maximum breeding ratio (BR max) and is also
called Breeding Potential of the fuel.
Breeding in nuclear materials
and working Condition
 NUCLEAR FISSION
 When a neutron strikes an atom of uranium, the uranium splits ingto two
lighter atoms and releases heat simultaneously.

 Fission of heavy elements is an exothermic reaction which can release

large amounts of energy both as electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic
energy of the fragments
 Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive nuclear energy. The

most common type of nuclear fuel is fissile elements that can be made to
undergo nuclear fission chain reactions in a nuclear reactor

 The most common nuclear fuels are 235U and 239Pu. Not all nuclear fuels are
used in fission chain reactions
 NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS

 A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released in fission

produce an additional fission in at least one further nucleus. This nucleus in
turn produces neutrons, and the process repeats. If the process is controlled
it is used for nuclear power or if uncontrolled it is used for nuclear
weapons
 NUCLEAR REACTOR
 A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear
chain reactions are initiated, controlled, and
sustained at a steady rate, as opposed to a
nuclear bomb, in which the chain reaction
occurs in a fraction of a second and is
uncontrolled causing an explosion.
 ADVANTAGES
 Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of
carbon dioxide (CO2). The emissions of green house gases and
therefore the contribution of nuclear power plants to global warming
is therefore relatively little.

 This technology is readily available, it does not have to be

developed first.

 It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one

single plant
 DISADVANTAGES
Nuclear power plants as well as nuclear waste could be preferred targets for
terrorist attacks..

 During the operation of nuclear power plants, radioactive waste is produced,

which in turn can be used for the production of nuclear weapons

 The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one.

 High risks: It is technically impossible to build a plant with 100% security.

 The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce

resource, its supply is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years
depending on the actual demand
 Different Types of Reactors
• On the basis of Neutron Energy
• (a) Fast Reactors
• (b) Thermal Reactors
• On the basis of Fuel Used
• (a) Natural Fuels
• (b) Enriched Uranium
• • On the basis of Moderator Used
• (a) Water moderator
• (b) Heavy water moderator
• (c) Graphite moderator
• (d) Beryllium Moderated
• • On the Basis of Coolant Used
• (a) Water cooled
• (b) Gas Cooled
• (c) Liquid metal cooled
• (d) Organic Liquid Cooled
 Pressurized Water Reactor(PWR)
and working condition
• Pressurized Water Reactor(PWR) •
• PWR is the most common type of nuclear reactor, representing about 60%
of all nuclear power reactors in the world.
• PWRs keep water under pressure so that it heats, but does not boil. • Water
from the reactor and the water in the steam generator that is turned into
steam never mix. In this way, most of the radioactivity stays in the reactor
area.
• Light Water Cooled
• Working Of PWR In a typical design concept of a commercial PWR the
following process occurs:
• 1. The core inside the reactor vessel creates heat.
• 2. Pressurized water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the
steam generator.
• .
3. Inside the steam generator, heat from the primary coolant loop
vaporizes the water in a secondary loop, producing steam.
4. The steam line directs the steam to the main turbine, causing it
to turn the turbine generator, which produces electricity
Fuel Used Enriched Uranium •
That is higher the amount of 92U235 in the Fuel.
5. The uranium oxides (UO2) is used instead of pure uranium. •
UO2 is highly resistant to irradiation damage and is well adopted
to the high burns
6. It is also highly resistant to corrosion to water.
Pressurized Water Reactor(PWR) fig
Boiling water reactors (BWRs)
 Boiling water reactors (BWRs)
• Boiling water reactors (BWRs) are nuclear power reactors utilizing light
water as the reactor coolant and moderator to generate electricity by directly
boiling the light water in a reactor core to make steam that is delivered to a
turbine generator.
• There are two operating BWR types, roughly speaking, i.e., BWRs and
ABWRs (advanced boiling water reactors)
• BWRs have been originally developed by GE. GE started its development in
1950s as light water reactor type nuclear power reactors, and the Dresden
Unit-1 (200,000 kWe) commissioned in July 1960 is the first BWR nuclear
power station. After that, the GE company has supplied many BWRs,
Siemens (KWU, Germany), ABB-Atom (Switzerland/Sweden) and Toshiba
and Hitachi (Japan) also supplied many BWRS. In the following, features
and types of BWRs, mainly of conventional BWRs, are explained and those
of ABWRs are addressed in the next.
 Salient characteristics of fast reactors
• Fast reactors generate energy from nuclear fuel through their irradiation
with fast neutrons.
• In a thermal reactor, neutrons produced as a result of neutron absorption in
fuel possess high kinetic energy of the order of MeV.
• These are slowed by elastic collision with moderator resulting in thermal
neutrons with energies as low as 0.025 eV.
• Since the fast reactor utilizes fast neutrons, moderation is not required.
• To be precise, moderation is undesirable in a fast reactor. Hence fast
reactors do not contain moderating materials like water, heavy water and
graphite in the core.
• The fission cross section of U-235 in fast spectrum is low, compared to that
of Pu- 239. Hence Pu-239 is used as the main fissile isotope, though
enriched U-235 is used at the start to initiate the chain reaction.
 Fast Breeder reactors
• Based on the coolant, fast (breeder) reactors are further
classified as follows: (i) sodium cooled fast reactor
• (ii) lead cooled fast reactor
• (iii) helium cooled fast reactor
Sodium Graphite reactors
 Sodium Graphite reactors with working condition
 It uses graphite as a moderator and liquid sodium as coolant which reach a
temperature of about 850 degree Celsius at a low pressure of only 7 bar.
 In the primary circuit, the heat is absorbed by liquid sodium in the reactor. The
sodium becomes radioactive while it passes through the core and reacts chemically
with water.
 Therefore, the heat absorbed by sodium is transferred to secondary coolant sodium
potassium (NaK) in the primary heat exchanger which in turn transfers the heat in
the secondary heat exchanger called Steam
 Water leaving the generator is converted into super-heated steam up to a
temperature of 540 degree Celsius. This steam is used for power generation in the
steam plant circuit in the usual manner. The reactor vessel, primary circuit and the
primary heat exchanger have to be shielded from radiations.
 The liquid metal is required to be handled under the cover of an inert gas like
helium to prevent the contact with air while charging or draining in the primary and
secondary heat exchangers.
 Sodium Graphite Reactor (SGR) :
• Advantages of Sodium Graphite Reactor (SGR) :
• 1.High temperature of the steam can be obtained due to the use of
liquid sodium as coolant.
• 2. Thermal efficiency is high.
• 3. System need not to be pressurized.
• 4. Cost of pressure vessel and piping system is reduced due to the
use of low pressure sodium in primary circuit.
• Disadvantages of Sodium Graphite Reactor :
• 1. Any leakage of sodium coolant is highly dangerous.
• 2. Sodium is highly violent with air and water.
• 3. Primary and secondary heat exchangers are needed to be
shielded with concrete blocks against radiations.
• 4. Intermediate heat exchanger is required to separate radioactive
sodium with water and steam.
Homogeneous Reaction
 Gas-Cooled Reactor
• A schematic diagram of a gas-cooled reactor is shown in Figure
• 1. This is a type of nuclear reactor that uses a gas as the coolant.
• Mostly CO2 is used. Graphite blocks are used as moderator, within which
channels are made for housing fuel rods. Control rods are inserted into the
graphite blocks.
• Channels are established between the graphite blocks for the flow of
coolant. Natural uranium is used as the fuel while cladding is made of a
magnesium alloy called magnox.This reactor derives its name from the
alloy used for cladding, ‘magnox’. The coolant gas (CO2
• Fig 1. Schematic diagram of gas-cooled reactor (Redrawn from Ref. [6]) )
is supplied by a gas circulator and enters the core from bottom. Gas flows
through the coolant channels between the graphite blocks.
• As the gas moves up through the core, it gets heated up and leaves the top
of the core at high temperature.
Gas-Cooled Reactor fig
 Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor (AGCR)
• High-temperature gas reactor uses Helium gas as the coolant, owing to its chemical inertness
and better thermodynamic properties.
• Fine particles of UO2 Fig 2. Schematic diagram of pebble bed reactor (Modified from Ref.
[4]) (~ 0.5 mm) are coated with layers of porous carbon, pyrolytic carbon, silicon carbide and
pyrolytic carbon again.
• Coating with silicon carbide provides protection against melt down up to 1600 °C. The
diameter of coated particles is about 0.92 mm. This type of fuel is called TRISO
(Tristructural-isotropic) fuel. If these coated particles are embedded in spherical graphite
matrices of 60 mm diameter to form pebbles, and used in the reactor with the voids created by
the packing of pebbles making the path for coolant (helium gas) flow, the reactor is called
Pebble Bed Reactor (PBR).
• The moderator (graphite) is integrated with the fuel such that the separation of moderator
from fuel never occurs.
• There are no control rods in these reactors for power control. Increase in temperature of the
core causes the fission rate to decrease by a phenomenon called ‘Doppler broadening’.
• This ensures that the heat generation does not exceed beyond design limits
 Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)
• This reactor is an Indian version of next generation Heavy Water Reactor. Boiling
water is the coolant while heavy water is the moderator.
• The proposed reactor design is of vertical, pressure tube type rated at 920 MWTh
and 300 MWe.
• This reactor is designed to utilize U-233 as the fissile isotope, the initial loading
obtained from breeding in fast breeder reactor by the nuclear transmutation of Th-
232 to U-233.
• At the centre of a typical fuel cluster is a displacer rod containing dysprosia in a
zirconia matrix along with a water tube for the injection of water from Emergency
Core Cooling System (ECCS) on to fuel pins directly. The details of a typical ECCS
will be discussed in the later modules with reference to BWR and PWR.
Surrounding the central rod are two rows of (Th-232 & U-233) oxide fuel pins (30 in
number, 11.2 mm diameter) and a row of (Th-232 and Pu- 239) oxide fuel pins (24
in number, 11.2 mm diameter).
• This configuration ensures a slightly negative reactivity coefficient similar to that of
BWR. The pressure tubes are 120 mm in diameter.
• The number of coolant channels is ~ 452. The pressure in the reactor is about 70
bar, with the calendria being 8000 mm in diameter and 5000 mm in length.
 Radiation protection

• Radiation protection. ... Exposure can be from

a radiation source external to the human body
or due to an intake of radioactive material into
the body. Ionizing radiation is widely used in
industry and medicine, and can present a
significant health hazard by causing
microscopic damage to living tissue.
 DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES
• Disposal as a final step in the management of radioactive waste involves
confinement or isolation of these wastes from biosphere in the repositories.
• Based on the longevity and concentration of the radionuclide present in the
waste, the repository could be either near-surface or in deep geological
formation.
• India has extensive & varied experience in the operation of near surface
disposal facilities (NSDFs) in widely different geohydrological and
climatologically conditions. Over the years, considerable expertise has
gone in refining and improving the design and construction of these
NSDFs.
• A system of multiple barriers employed in these NSDFs ensures isolation
and release of radio nuclides below permissible limits to the environment.
This is ensured by regular monitoring and periodic performance assessment
of these NSDFs.
 NEAR SURFACE DISPOSAL
• As a national policy, each nuclear facility in India has its own Near Surface
Disposal Facility (NSDF).
• There are seven NSDFs currently operational within the country. These
NSDFs in India have to address widely varied geological and
climatologically conditions.
• The performance of these NSDFs is continuously evaluated to enhance the
understanding of migration, if any and to adopt measures for upgrading the
predictability over a long period of time.
• A few promising areas lying in NW and Central India, occupied by good
quality granites were systematically investigated using satellite data,
geological and structural mapping on different scales, geophysical surveys
viz. electromagnetic, resistivity and magnetic to generate three dimensional
structural and litho logical models.
• These models were validated and refined with shallow and deep drilling
amounting to about 5000 m in 25 boreholes.
• THANK YOU