Chapter 38. The End of Classical Physics

Chapter 38.
The End of Classical Physics

Studies of the light emitted
by gas discharge tubes
helped bring classical
physics to an end.
Chapter Goal: To
understand how scientists
discovered the properties of
atoms and how these
discoveries led to the need
for a new theory of light and
matter.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Chapter 38. The End of Classical Physics
Topics:
• Physics in the 1800s
• Faraday
• Cathode Rays
• J. J. Thomson and the Discovery of the
Electron
• Millikan and the Fundamental Unit of Charge
• Rutherford and the Discovery of the Nucleus
• Into the Nucleus
• The Emission and Absorption of Light
• Classical Physics at the Limit
Chapter 38. Reading Quizzes

What kind of drops did Millikan
use to measure the fundamental
unit of charge?
A. Rain drops
B. Oil drops
C. Eye drops
D. Methyl drops
E. Cough drops

What kind of drops did Millikan
use to measure the fundamental
unit of charge?
A. Rain drops
B. Oil drops
C. Eye drops
D. Methyl drops
E. Cough drops

The electron volt is a unit of
A. charge.
B. energy.
C. potential.
D. atomic power.
E. atomic size.

The electron volt is a unit of
A. charge.
B. energy.
C. potential.
D. atomic power.
E. atomic size.

The discoverer of the electron was
A. Edison.
B. Millikan.
C. Einstein.
D. Rutherford.
E. Thomson.

The discoverer of the electron was
A. Edison.
B. Millikan.
C. Einstein.
D. Rutherford.
E. Thomson.

Chapter 38. Basic Content and Examples

Physics in the 1800s
In 1800 Volta invented the

battery, and then
immediately discovered
that an electric current
through water
decomposes the water into
hydrogen and oxygen, a
process called
electrolysis.

Electrical Conduction in Gases
In the 1820s, Faraday showed that

1. Current flows through a low-pressure gas, creating an
electric discharge.
2. The color of the discharge depends on the type of gas in
the tube.
3. Regardless of the type of gas, there is a separate, constant
glow around the cathode.
Cathode Rays
In the 1850s it was found that a solid object sealed inside a

Faraday tube casts a shadow on the glass wall. This
discovery suggested that the cathode emits rays of some
form that travel in straight lines but are easily blocked by
solid objects. These rays were dubbed cathode rays. We
now know that cathode rays are high speed electrons.
Thomson’s Crossed-Field Experiment
• In 1895 Thomson measured the deflection of cathode-
ray particles by both a magnetic and electric field.
• Parallel-plate electrodes and the poles of a magnet
were placed so that the electric and magnetic fields
were perpendicular to each other, thus creating
what came to be known as a crossed-field
experiment.
• Thomson was the first to measure the charge-to-mass
ratio q/m of cathode rays (electrons).
• q/m = 1.76 × 1011 C/kg

Millikan and the Fundamental Unit of Charge
• Millikan observed oil droplets in an electric field.
• He found that some of his droplets were positively
charged and some negatively charged, but all had
charges that were integer multiples of a certain
minimum charge value.
• That value, the fundamental unit of charge that we now
call e, is measured to be
• We can then combine the measured e with the measured

charge-to-mass ratio to find that the mass of the
electron is
EXAMPLE 38.2 Suspending an oil drop
QUESTION:




Rutherford and the Discovery of the Nucleus
• In 1896 Rutherford’s
experiment was set up
to see if any alpha
particles were
deflected from gold
foil at large angles.
• Not only were alpha
particles deflected at
large angles, but a very
few were reflected
almost straight
backward toward the
source!
The Electron Volt
• Consider an electron
accelerating (in a vacuum)
from rest across a parallel
plate capacitor with a 1.0 V
potential difference.
• The electron’s kinetic energy
when it reaches the positive
plate is 1.60 × 10−19 J.
• Let us define a new unit of
energy, called the electron
volt, as 1 eV = 1.60 × 10−19 J.

EXAMPLE 38.5 Energy of an electron
QUESTION:




Into the Nucleus
• The atomic number Z of an element describes the
number of protons in the nucleus. Elements are listed in
the periodic table by their atomic number.
• There are a range of neutron numbers N that happily form
a nucleus with Z protons, creating a series of nuclei
having the same Z-value but different masses. Such a
series of nuclei are called isotopes.
• An atom’s mass number A is defined to be A = Z + N. It
is the total number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
• The notation used to label isotopes is AZ, where the mass
number A is given as a leading superscript. The proton
number Z is not specified by an actual number but,
equivalently, by the chemical symbol for that element.
The Emission and Absorption of Light
Hot, self-luminous objects, such as the sun or an

incandescent lightbulb, form a rainbow-like
continuous spectrum in which light is emitted at
every possible wavelength. The figure shows a
continuous spectrum.

The Emission and Absorption of Light
The light emitted by one of Faraday’s gas
discharge tubes contains only certain discrete,
individual wavelengths. Such a spectrum is called
a discrete spectrum. Each wavelength in a
discrete spectrum is called a spectral line because
of its appearance in photographs such as the one
shown.

Blackbody Radiation
The heat energy Q radiated in a time interval Δt by an
object with surface area A and absolute temperature T is
given by
where σ = 5.67 ×10−8 W/m2K4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann

constant. The parameter e is the emissivity of the surface, a
measure of how effectively it radiates. The value of e
ranges from 0 to 1. A perfectly absorbing—and thus
perfectly emitting—object with e = 1 is called a blackbody,
and the thermal radiation emitted by a blackbody is called
blackbody radiation.
Blackbody Radiation
The wavelength of the peak in the intensity graph is given by

Wien’s law (T must be in kelvin):

EXAMPLE 38.7 Finding peak wavelengths
QUESTIONS:




Discrete Spectra
• Not only does low-density gas emit discrete wavelengths,
but it also may absorb discrete wavelengths.
• Every wavelength absorbed by the gas is also emitted,
but not every emitted wavelength is absorbed.
• The wavelengths in the hydrogen spectrum can be
represented by the Balmer formula

Classical Physics at the Limit

Chapter 38. Summary Slides

Important Concepts/Experiments




Applications

Applications

Chapter 38. Clicker Questions

J. J. Thomson’s conclusion that cathode ray
particles are fundamental constituents of atoms
was based primarily on which observation?
A. They have a negative charge.

B. Their mass is much less than hydrogen.
C. They are the same from all cathode materials.
D. They penetrate very thin metal foils.

J. J. Thomson’s conclusion that cathode ray
particles are fundamental constituents of atoms
was based primarily on which observation?
A. They have a negative charge.

B. Their mass is much less than hydrogen.
C. They are the same from all cathode materials.
D. They penetrate very thin metal foils.

If the alpha particle has a positive charge,
which way will it be deflected in the magnetic
field?
A. Into the page

B. Out of the page
C. Up
D. Down

If the alpha particle has a positive charge,
which way will it be deflected in the magnetic
field?
A. Into the page

B. Out of the page
C. Up
D. Down

Carbon is the 6th element in the
periodic table. How many
electrons are there in a C++ ion?
A. 12
B. 2
C. 4
D. 6
E. 8

Carbon is the 6th element in the
periodic table. How many
electrons are there in a C++ ion?
A. 12
B. 2
C. 4
D. 6
E. 8

Carbon is the 6th element in the periodic
table. How many neutrons are there in a
nucleus of the isotope 14C?
A. 12
B. 2
C. 4
D. 6
E. 8

Carbon is the 6th element in the periodic
table. How many neutrons are there in a
nucleus of the isotope 14C?
A. 12
B. 2
C. 4
D. 6
E. 8

These spectra are
due to the same
element. Which one
is an emission
spectrum and which
is an absorption
spectrum?
A. (b) is emission, (a) is absorption.
B. (a) is emission, (b) is absorption.
C. there is not enough information to tell.

These spectra are
due to the same
element. Which one
is an emission
spectrum and which
is an absorption
spectrum?
A. (b) is emission, (a) is absorption.
B. (a) is emission, (b) is absorption.
C. there is not enough information to tell.

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Chapter 38.

The End of Classical Physics

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

In 1800 Volta invented the

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

In the 1820s, Faraday showed that

In the 1850s it was found that a solid object sealed inside a

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

• We can then combine the measured e with the measured

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Hot, self-luminous objects, such as the sun or an

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

where σ = 5.67 ×10−8 W/m2K4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann

The wavelength of the peak in the intensity graph is given by

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

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A. They have a negative charge.

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A. They have a negative charge.

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A. Into the page

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A. Into the page

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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley.