Radiographic Testing: Compiled For ASNT by Bahman Zoofan The Ohio State University

Radiographic Testing
Compiled for ASNT by

Bahman Zoofan
The Ohio State University
Level I
Lesson 1
Introduction to
Radiography
1. In radiography, test objects are

exposed to X-rays, gamma rays
or neutrons, and an image is
produced.
Radiography
2. Radiography is used to test a

variety of products, such as
castings, forgings and weldments.
It is also used heavily in the
aerospace industry for the
detection of cracks in airframe
structures, detection of water in
honeycomb structures and
detection of foreign objects.
Advantages of Radiographic Testing
1. Radiography can be used on most

materials.
2. Radiography provides a permanent
record of the test object.
3. Radiography reveals discontinuities
within a material.
4. Radiography discloses fabrication
errors and often indicates the need
for corrective action.
Limitations of Radiographic Testing
1. The radiographer must have

access to both sides of the test
object.
2. Planar discontinuities that are
not parallel to the radiation beam
are difficult to detect.
Limitations of Radiographic Testing
3. Radiography is an expensive
testing method.
4. Film radiography is time
consuming.
5. Some surface discontinuities or
shallow discontinuities may be
difficult, if not impossible, to
detect.
Test Objective
The objective of radiographic

testing is to ensure product
reliability. Performing the actual
radiographic test is only part of the
procedure. The test results must
then be interpreted to acceptance
standards by qualified personnel,
and an evaluation of the results
must be made.
Safety Considerations
Radiation can cause damage to the

cells of living tissue, so it is
essential that personnel be aware
and protected. Compliance with
state and federal safety regulations
is mandatory.
Qualification
1. It is important that personnel

responsible for radiographic
testing have adequate training,
education and experience.
2. Guidelines are for the
qualification and certification of
nondestructive testing personnel.
Qualification
3. ASNT has published guidelines

for training and qualifying
nondestructive testing (NDT)
personnel. These guidelines are
known as Recommended
Practice No. SNT-TC-1A:
Personnel Qualification and
Certification in Nondestructive
Testing.
Qualification
4. Recommended Practice No.

SNT-TC-1A describes the
knowledge and capabilities of
NDT personnel in terms of
certification levels.
Qualification
5. Per SNT-TC-1A, there are three
basic levels of qualification applied
to NDT personnel:
a. Level I.
b. Level II.
c. Level III.
Certification
1. The formal certification of a person

in NDT to a Level I, Level II and
Level III is a written testimony that
the individual has been properly
qualified.
2. Certification is meant to document
the actual qualification of the
individual in a specific NDT
method.
Certification
3. Proper qualification and

certification are extremely
important in modern
manufacturing, fabrication and
inservice inspection due to the
impact on the health and safety
of the public.
Lesson 2
Radiographic Testing Principles

Penetration and
Differential Absorption
1. X-rays and gamma rays have
the ability to penetrate materials,
including materials that do not
transmit light.
Penetration and
2. Depending on the thickness and
density of the material, and the
intensity of the source being
used, the amount of radiation
that is transmitted through the
test object will vary.
3. The radiation transmitted through
the test object produces the
radiographic image.
Penetration and
4. The following figure illustrates
the partial absorption
characteristics of radiation.
Thicker portions of the test
object or dense inclusions will
appear lighter because of more
absorption of the radiation.
Penetration and
Geometric Exposure Principles
1. A radiograph is a shadow picture of

a test object placed between the
film/detector and the X-ray or
gamma radiation source.
2. If the film/detector is placed too far
from the test object, the image will
be enlarged.
3. If the test object is too close to

the source, the image will be
greatly enlarged, resulting in the
loss of resolution.
4. The degree of enlargement will
vary according to the relative
distances of the test object from
the film/detector.
5. As shown in the following figure,

the image enlargement Df /D0 is
equal to the ratio df /d0.
Film/Detector Image Sharpness
1. The sharpness of a radiographic
image is determined by:
a. The size of the radiation
source.
b. The ratio of the object-to-
film/detector distance.
c. The source-to-object
distance.
2. The unsharpness or fuzziness

around an image is called
geometric unsharpness
(penumbra), as shown in the
following figure.
3. To minimize the geometric

unsharpness (Ug) around the
image, the test object should be
placed as close to the
film/detector as possible.
4. Most radiographic codes
recommend the maximum
acceptable values for geometric
unsharpness.
5. Geometric unsharpness can be

calculated using the following
formula:
Ug = Fd/D
a. Ug represents the geometric

unsharpness (in millimeters or
inches).
b. F is the source size (the
maximum projected dimension
of the radiation source, or
effective focal spot size).
c. D is the distance from the

source of the radiation to the
object being radiographed.
d. d is the distance from the
source side of the test object
to the film/detector.
6. Optimum geometric unsharpness

of the image is obtained when:
a. The radiation source is small.
b. The distance from the source
to the test object is relatively
large.
c. The distance from the test
object to the film/detector
plane is small.
Image Distortion
Two possible causes of radiographic
image distortion are:
1. The test object and the
film/detector plane are not
parallel.
2. The radiation beam is not
directed perpendicular to the
film/detector plane.
X-Radiation and Gamma Radiation
1. X-rays and gamma rays are part

of the electromagnetic spectrum.
2. These rays have high energy
and short wavelengths.
X-Rays
The conditions required to generate
X-rays are:
1. A source of electrons.
2. A suitable target for electrons to
strike.
3. A means of speeding the
electrons in the desired direction.
X-Rays
Characteristic X-rays: When an

electron from a higher energy level
interacts with an electron in a lower
energy orbit of an atom, then
characteristic X-rays may be
generated.
X-Rays
Continuous radiation: The

generated X-rays have a
continuous energy spectrum and
are not entirely dependent on the
disturbed atom’s characteristics.
X-Rays
Bremsstrahlung radiation: This is

a German name for braking or
continuous radiation.
X-Rays
KeV (kilo-electron volts): This unit

corresponds to the amount of
kinetic energy that an electron
would gain when moving between
two points that differ in voltage by
1 kV.
X-Rays
MeV (1 000 000 electron volts):

This unit corresponds to the
amount of kinetic energy an
electron gains when moving
between two points that differ in
voltage by 1MV.
Electron Source
1. When a suitable material is heated,

some of its charged negative
particles (electrons) become
agitated and escape the material
as free electrons.
2. Cathode: In an X-ray tube, a coil of
wire or filament (known as the
cathode) serves as the electron
source.
Electron Target
For industrial radiography

applications, a solid material of high
atomic number, usually tungsten, is
used as the target in the tube
anode.
Electron Acceleration
1. By placing a positive charge on

the anode of an X-ray tube and a
negative charge on the cathode,
free electrons are accelerated
from the cathode to the anode.
2. The electron path should occur in
a vacuum.
Radiation Intensity
1. The number of X-rays created by

electrons striking the target is
one measure of the intensity of
the radiation.
2. Intensity depends on the number
of electrons available at the
cathode of the X-ray tube.
Radiation Intensity
3. Keeping the other factors constant,

an increase in the current through
the tube filament will increase the
cathode temperature, causing
emission of more electrons and
consequently increasing the
intensity of the X-ray beam.
Radiation Intensity
4. Similarly, though to a lesser

degree, an increase in the
applied tube voltage will
increase the beam intensity.
5. The output rating of an X-ray
tube is expressed in volts (kV or
MeV).
Inverse Square Law
1. The intensity of an X-ray beam

varies inversely with the square of
the distance from the radiation
source, as shown in the following
formula:
I1 / I2 = D22 / D12
2. This relationship is known as the
inverse square law, where I1 and I2
are the received radiation
intensities at distances D1 and D2.
X-Ray Quality Characteristics
1. The spectrum of continuous

X-rays covers a wide band of
wavelengths, as shown in the
following figure.
2. An increase in applied voltage in

an X-ray tube increases the
intensity (quality) of X-rays. This
produces higher energy rays with
greater penetrating power.
3. X-rays with higher energy
(shorter wavelengths) are called
hard X-rays.
4. X-rays with lower energy (longer

wavelengths) are called soft
X-rays.
5. Variation in tube current changes
the intensity of the beam, but the
spectrum of wavelengths
produced remains unchanged,
as seen in the following figure.
6. Effects of changes in kilovoltage

and tube current on the produced
X-rays are summarized in the
following table.
Effects of Kilovoltage and Amperage
Interaction With Matter
1. Any action that disrupts the

electrical balance of an atom and
produces ions is called
ionization.
2. X-rays passing through matter
cause ionization in their path.
Interaction With Matter
3. X-rays are photons (bundles of

energy) traveling at light speed.
4. In passing through matter,
X-rays lose energy to atoms by
ionization processes knows as:
a. Photoelectric absorption.
b. Compton effect.
c. Pair production.
Photoelectric Absorption
1. In photoelectric absorption, when

X-rays (photons) with relatively low
energy pass through matter, the
photon energy may be transferred
to an orbital electron. (See the
following figure.)
2. Part of the energy is expended in

ejecting the electron from its
orbit, and the remainder gives
velocity to the electron.
3. This phenomenon usually takes

place with low energy photons of
0.5 MeV or less.
4. This absorption effect is what
makes radiography possible.
Compton Effect
1. When higher energy photons (0.1 to

3 MeV) pass through matter, part of
the photon energy is expended in
ejecting an electron. The remaining
slower energy photons travel at
different angles compared to the
original photon path. (See the
following figure.)
Compton Effect
Compton Effect
2. This process is repeated,

progressively weakening the
photon, until the photoelectric
effect completely absorbs the last
photon.
Pair Production
Pair production occurs only with

higher energy photons of 1.02 MeV
or more. (See the following figure.)
Pair Production
Scatter Radiation
1. The major components of scatter

radiation are the low energy rays
represented by photons weakened
in the Compton process.
2. Scatter radiation is low-level energy
content of random direction.
Internal Scatter
1. Internal scatter is the scattering

that occurs in the object being
radiographed. (See the following
figure.)
Internal Scatter
Internal Scatter
2. Internal scatter affects image

definition by blurring the image
outline.
3. Buildup occurs when scatter in
the forward direction causes an
increase in radiation passing
through matter.
Sidescatter
1. Sidescatter is the scattering from

walls of objects in the vicinity of
the test object or from portions of
the test object that causes rays
to enter the sides of the test
object.
2. Sidescatter obscures the image
outline just as internal scatter
does.
Backscatter
1. Backscatter is the scattering of

rays from surfaces or from
objects beneath or behind the
test object. (See the following
figure.)
2. Backscatter also obscures the
test object image.
Backscatter
Gamma Rays
1. Gamma rays are produced by

the disintegration of the nuclei of
a radioactive isotope.
2. Isotopes are varieties of the
same chemical element having
different atomic weights.
Gamma Rays
3. The wavelength and intensity of

gamma waves are determined by
the source isotope characteristics
and cannot be controlled or
changed.
Natural Isotope Sources
1. Some heavy natural elements

disintegrate because of their
inherent instability.
2. Radium is the best known and
most used natural radioactive
source.
3. Natural radioactive sources

release energy in the form of:
a. Gamma rays.
b. Alpha particles: Positively
charged particles having
mass and charge equal in
magnitude of a helium nuclei.
c. Beta particles: Negatively
charged particles having the
same charge and mass of the
electron.
4. The penetrating power of alpha
and beta particles is relatively
negligible.
Artificial Sources
1. There are two ways of

manufacturing radioactive
isotopes, or so-called
radioisotopes:
a. By using the by-product of
nuclear fission in atomic
reactors, such as cesium-137
(Cs-137).
Artificial Sources
b. By bombarding certain
elements with neutrons to
make them unstable.
Examples include:
i. Cobalt-60 (Co-60).
ii. Thulium-170 (Tm-170).
iii. Selenium-75 (Se-75).
iv. Iridium-192 (Ir-192).
Artificial Sources
2. These artificial isotopes emit

gamma rays, as well as alpha
and beta particles.
Gamma Ray Intensity
1. The activity of a gamma ray

source determines the intensity
of its radiation.
2. The measure of activity is the
curie, which is 3.7 X 1010
becquerel (Bq) or disintegrations
per second.
Specific Activity
1. Specific activity is defined as the

degree of concentration of
radioactive material within a
gamma ray source.
2. Specific activity is expressed in
terms of curies per gram or
curies per cubic centimeter.
Specific Activity
3. Specific activity is an important

measure of radioisotopes
because the smaller the source,
the sharper the radiographic
image that can be produced (as
shown in the following figure).
Specific Activity
Half Life
1. The length of time required for

the activity of a radioisotope to
decay to one half of its initial
intensity is called its half life.
2. The half life of a radioisotope is a
basic characteristic and depends
on the particular isotope of a
given element.
Half Life
3. Dated decay curves (similar to

the one shown in the next slide)
are supplied by source suppliers
for each particular radioisotope
and should be used by
radiographers to determine the
exact source intensity.
Dated Decay Curve
Gamma Ray Quality Characteristics
1. Radiation from a gamma ray

source consists of rays whose
wavelengths and energy are
determined by the nature of the
source.
2. Each of the commonly used
radioisotopes has a specific
application because of the fixed
gamma energy characteristics.
3. The table on the next slide lists the

most common radioisotopes for
radiography and their equivalent
energy.
Common Radioisotopes
4. Gamma rays and X-rays have

identical propagation
characteristics, and both
conform to the inverse square
law.
5. The mechanism of interaction of
gamma rays with matter is
identical to those discussed for
X-rays.
Lesson 3
Equipment
X-Ray Equipment
There are three basic requirements
for the generation of X-rays:
1. A source of free electrons.
2. A means of rapidly accelerating
the beam of electrons.
3. A suitable target material to stop
the electrons.
Portable X-Ray Units
In field radiography (inspection of

pipelines, bridges, vessels and
ships), portable X-ray units are very
important. The characteristics of
these tubes are:
1. Lightweight.
2. Compact.
3. Usually air-cooled.
X-Ray Tube
1. The main components of X-ray
equipment are the following:
a. Tube: Enclosed in a high-
vacuum envelope of heat-
resistant glass or ceramic.
b. Cathode: To produce free
electrons.
c. Anode: Target which the
electrons strike.
X-Ray Tube
2. Associated with the tube are the

following parts:
a. Equipment that heats the
filament, accelerates and
controls the resultant free
electrons.
b. Equipment to remove the heat
generated by the X-rays.
c. Shielding of the equipment.
X-Ray Tube
3. There are many varieties in the

size and shape of X-ray tubes.
Tube Envelope
1. A tube envelope is constructed
of glass or ceramic that has:
a. A high melting point.
b. Sufficient strength.
2. For the following reasons, a
high-vacuum environment for
the tube element is necessary.
Tube Envelope
a. Prevents oxidation of the

electrode material.
b. Permits ready passage of the
electron beam without ionization
of gas within the tube.
c. Provides electrical insulation
between the electrodes.
Cathode
The cathode of an X-ray tube
consists of:
1. Focusing cup: Functions as an
electrostatic lens.
2. Filament: A coil of tungsten wire
that produces a cloud of electrons
by flowing an electrical current
through it.
Filament Heating
1. A small flow of current through

the filament is enough to heat it
to a temperature that causes
electron emission.
2. A change in the number of
emitted electrons varies with the
current flow through the filament.
3. The tube current, measured in
milliamperes (mA), controls the
intensity of X-rays.
Anode
1. The anode of an X-ray tube is

usually made of copper.
2. Copper and tungsten are the
most common anode materials.
Anode
3. A dense target material is

required to ensure a maximum
number of collisions.
4. Material with a high melting point
is necessary for a target to
withstand the excessive heat.
Focal Spot
1. The image sharpness is partly

determined by the size of the
focal spot.
2. The electron beam is focused so
that it bombards a rectangular
area of the target.
Focal Spot
3. The projected area of the

electron beam is the effective
focal spot (as seen in the
following slide).
4. The size to which the focal spot
can be reduced is limited by the
heat generated in target
bombardment.
Effective Focal Spot
Linear Accelerators
There are two types of linear

accelerators:
1. Standing wave linear accelerator
for energy up to 200 MeV.
2. Traveling wave linear accelerator
for energy up to 30 GeV (giga-
electron volts or billion electron
volts).
X-Ray Beam Configuration
1. Once the X-rays are created,

they cannot be focused or
otherwise directed.
2. The direction of useful
X-radiation is determined by the
positioning of the target and the
lead shielding.
Accelerating Potential
1. The applied potential between the

cathode and anode determines the
penetrating effect of the produced
X-ray.
2. The higher the voltage, the greater
the electron velocity along with
shorter wavelengths and more
penetrating power for the
generated X-rays.
Iron Core Transformers
1. The majority of X-ray equipment

for industrial radiography (up to
400 kV) use iron core
transformers.
2. Their basic limitations are their
size and weight.
Heat Dissipation
1. X-ray generation is a very

inefficient process as most of the
electron energy is expended in
producing heat.
2. Heat dissipation in the X-ray tube
is accomplished by a flow of oil,
gas or water.
Heat Dissipation
3. Efficiency of an X-ray tube

cooling system is the main factor
in determining the duty cycle of
the tube.
Equipment Shielding
1. To prevent unwanted radiation,
lead is used to shield the X-ray
tube.
2. Shielding design varies with
different X-ray tubes, but in all
cases, it serves to absorb that
portion of the radiation that is not
traveling in the desired direction.
Control Panel
1. The control panel of an X-ray

system is designed to permit a
radiographer to set the desired
exposure parameters.
2. The control panel also provides
critical indications for tube
performance, such as the flow of
oil or water in the cooling
system.
Gamma Ray Equipment
1. Handling and storage of gamma

ray sources are extremely
important since they cannot be
shut off.
2. The United States Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC)
and various state agencies
recommend safety standards for
proper transportation, storage
and handling of radioisotopes.
Gamma Ray Sources
1. There are two types of gamma
ray sources:
a. Natural isotopes.
b. Artificial isotopes.
2. Most isotopes used in industrial
radiography are round wafers
encapsulated in a stainless steel
cylinder.
Radium
1. Radium is a natural radioactive

substance having a half life of
about 1600 years.
2. Most radium sources consist of
radium sulfate packaged in either
spherical or cylindrical capsules.
Radium
3. Because of its low specific

activity and its long half life,
radium is rarely used in industrial
radiography.
Artificial Radioisotopes
1. The artificial radioisotopes used
in industrial radiography for
gaging purposes are:
a. Cobalt-60 (Co-60).
b. Iridium-192 (Ir-192).
c. Selenium-75 (Se-75).
d. Thulium-170 (Tm-170).
e. Cesium-137 (Cs-137).
Artificial Radioisotopes
2. The following table gives a

summary of the main
characteristics of the most used
isotopes.
Radioisotope Characteristics
Isotope Cameras
1. The equipment to accomplish

safe handling and storage of
radioisotopes is called a camera
or exposure device.
2. These cameras are self-
contained units, meaning no
external power supply is
required.
Isotope Cameras
3. The exposure devices contain

self-locking mechanisms
ensuring safety in accordance
with ANSI and ISO
requirements, in addition to NRC
and IAEA requirements.
Lesson 4
Radiographic Film
Introduction
1. Radiographic film consists of:
a. Base: A thin, transparent plastic
sheet.
b. Emulsion coat: A coat of an
emulsion of gelatin about
0.001 in. (0.003 cm) thick on
one or both sides. The emulsion
coat contains very fine grains of
silver bromide (AgBr).
Introduction
2. Latent (hidden) image:

Exposure of radiation on the film
that cannot be detected until
chemical processing occurs.
3. Visible image: Image on the film
after developed by chemical
processing.
Usefulness of Radiographs
1. Film density: Degree of

darkening on the developed film.
2. Radiographic contrast:
Difference between two film
areas. The darker area (higher
density) has received more
radiation compared to the area of
light density.
Usefulness of Radiographs
3. Definition: Sharpness of any

change in film density.
4. Contrast and definition are
important for a successful
interpretation of radiographs.
Radiographic Contrast
1. The film density D is a logarithmic

value defined as:
D = log10 (I0 / I)
where (I0) is the intensity of the
incident light to view the film, and I
is the intensity of the transmitted
light through the film. The higher
the number, the darker the film.
2. If the intensity of light is

1000 units and the film allows
only one unit of that intensity to
pass through, the film density
based on the previous equation
will be:
D = log10 (1000/1) = 3
3. Radiographic contrast (as shown

in the following figure) is defined
as the difference in the film
density between two selected
areas of the exposed and
developed film.
4. Higher contrast is better for film

interpretation.
5. Radiographic contrast is a
combination of:
a. Subject contrast.
b. Film contrast.
6. Radiographic contrast depends on:

a. Applied radiation energy
(penetrating quality).
b. Contrast characteristics of the
film.
c. Amount of exposure (the
product of radiation intensity and
exposure time).
d. Film screen.
e. Film processing.
f. Scattered radiation.
Subject Contrast
1. Subject contrast is the relative

radiation intensities passing
through any two selected
portions of material. Subject
contrast depends on the
following factors:
Subject Contrast
a. Type and shape of the test

object.
b. Energy of the applied energy
radiation (wavelength, type of
source).
c. Scattered radiation.
Subject Contrast
2. Subject contrast decreases as

the wavelength of the incident
radiation decreases.
Subject Contrast
3. Higher subject contrast can be
achieved by:
a. Larger thickness variation.
b. Use of different X-ray or
gamma ray energies.
c. Masks.
d. Diaphragms.
e. Filters or screens.
Film Contrast
1. Film contrast is the ability of film

to detect and record different
radiation exposures as
differences in film density.
Film Contrast
2. The relationship between the

amount of exposure and the
resulting film density is
expressed in the form of film
characteristic curves and is
determined by the following
factors:
Film Contrast
a. Film grain size.
b. Chemistry of the film
processing chemical.
c. Concentration of the
processing chemicals.
d. Development time.
e. Development temperature.
f. Agitation in the developer
solution.
Film Characteristic Curves
1. The figure following the next

slide shows a film characteristic
curve.
a. The vertical axis is the
resulting film density.
b. The horizontal axis is
expressed in a logarithm of
relative exposure.
c. The minimum point of the curve

on the vertical axis is called fog
density.
d. Based on this curve, as the
exposure increases, film contrast
increases.
2. A film characteristic curve has
two different sections:
a. A tail of lower densities.
b. A straighter portion (with a
higher slope on the curve).
3. High radiographic contrast is

achieved with densities along the
straight portion of a characteristic
curve. This is the reason that films
should always be exposed for a
density of at least 1.5.
4. Most radiographic codes,

standards and specifications
usually give upper and lower
density limits within a range of
1.8 to 4.0.
Film Speed
1. Film speed is an important

consideration in determining the
proper exposure time to obtain the
desired film density.
2. The next figure illustrates films
with high, medium and low
speeds.
Film Speed
Film Speed
3. Knowing film speed is important

when selecting film for each
particular radiographic testing
task.
Graininess
1. Graininess is the visible evidence of

the grouping into clumps of the
silver particles that form the image
on the radiographic film.
2. The following figure shows the
effect of grain variation on the
image definition.
Graininess
Graininess
3. The degree of graininess of an

exposed film depends on the
following factors:
a. Grain size.
b. The quality of the radiation.
c. Film processing conditions.
d. Type of film screens.
Film Selection Factors
1. When not otherwise specified by

the customer or governing
standards, the selection of film is
made by the radiographer. Most of
the time, the selection of film is
based on the following factors:
a. Need for certain contrast and
definition quality.
b. Thickness and density of the
test object.
c. The type of indication or
discontinuity normally
associated with the object.
d. Size of an acceptable
indication.
e. Accessibility, location and

configuration of the test object.
f. Customer requirements.
2. In film selection, remember that:
a. Film contrast, film speed and
graininess are interrelated.
b. Faster films need shorter
exposure time but usually
have larger grains and poor
resolution/sensitivity.
c. Slower films need longer

exposure time but have finer
grain and good
resolution/sensitivity.
d. Film manufacturers’
recommendations for film
selection are a useful tool in
selecting the proper film for a
given application.
Film Processing
1. Film processing makes the latent

image visible.
2. The following general
precautions must be observed
during film processing:
a. Follow manufacturer
recommendations for
chemical concentrations,
temperature and processing
time.
b. Use equipment, tanks, trays
and holders that can
withstand the chemical action.
c. Ensure tanks are clean.

d. Use recommended safelights,
and check them regularly.
e. Maintain cleanliness in the
darkroom to avoid any artifacts
on developed radiographs.
f. Avoid any contamination of
different solutions.
Tank Processing
The arrangement of a tank

processing (manual processing) unit
is shown in the next slide.
Tank Processing
Tank Processing
1. The tanks for processing

solutions and wash water should
be deep enough for the film to be
submerged.
2. The chemicals in the tanks must
be stirred and the temperature
must be checked with a
calibrated thermometer before
turning off the ambient light.
Tank Processing
3. All required equipment should be
arranged before turning off the
ambient light.
4. All unnecessary materials should
be kept away from the
processing area.
Tank Processing
5. Test the safelights and arrange

them for easy viewing. Follow
the standard recommendations
for regular checking.
6. Lock the door to the darkroom to
prevent accidental exposure to
ambient light.
Tank Processing
7. To load the film inside the

hangers, grasp it by its edges or
corner to avoid fingerprints,
bending, wrinkling or crimping
during handling.
8. Keep the loading area
completely dry.
9. Follow the tank processing
procedures.
Tank Processing Procedures
There are five separate steps in

tank processing:
1. Developing.
2. Stop bath.
3. Fixing.
4. Washing.
5. Drying.
Developing
Developing is the chemical process

of reducing silver bromide particles
in the exposed area of the film
emulsion to metallic silver.
Developing
1. Follow the manufacturers’

recommendations for developing
temperature and time.
2. Agitate the film during developing
to obtain a uniform development
and to avoid any air bubbles from
attaching to the film.
Developing
3. Use strips of exposed radiographs
to control the developer activity as
a method of regular quality control
checking.
4. Follow the manufacturers’
recommendations to replenish the
solution.
Stop Bath
The stop bath, a solution of acetic

acid and water, serves to remove
the residual developer solution from
the film.
1. Running uncontaminated water
for at least 2 min. can be used
as an alternative to the stop
bath.
Stop Bath
2. Manufacturers’ directions should
be used to make the stop bath
solution.
3. A fresh stop bath solution is
yellow in color and clear under
safelight.
Fixing
1. Fixer, an acidic solution, has two
functions on the film:
a. It dissolves and removes the
silver bromide from the
undeveloped portions of the film
without affecting the developed
portion.
b. It hardens the emulsion gelatin.
Fixing
2. The minimum time required for

fixing is twice the amount of time
necessary to clean the film.
3. Fixing time should not exceed
15 min.
4. Improper fixing shortens the
archival length of the film.
Fixing
5. Film should be agitated in fixing

solution at 2-min intervals.
6. The replacement of fixing
solution should be determined by
checking the acidity of the
solution.
Washing
After fixing, washing is necessary to

remove the fixer from the emulsion.
1. Each film is washed for a period of
time equal to twice the fixing.
2. Hypo clearing agent may be used
to speed up film washing.
Washing
3. Best results for washing are

obtained with a water temperature
between 65 and 70 °F (18.3 and
21.1 °C).
4. To avoid any watermarks, film is
immersed in a wetting agent that
also aids in reducing the drying
time.
Drying
The final stage of film processing is

drying.
Automatic Film Processing
Automatic film processing systems

are used whenever the volume of
work makes them economical.
1. The entire processing cycle is

completed in less than 15 min.
2. Automatic film processing units
consistently produce radiographs
of much higher quality than those
obtained using a manual process.
3. Loading the film inside the unit

should be done in a dark
environment.
4. Properly maintaining the system
is the key for high performance
of an automatic system.
Darkroom Facilities and Equipment
Some requirements that must be
satisfied in the design and
construction of a darkroom:
1. It must be lighted with suitable and
tested safelights.
2. It must be protected against
ambient light from outside sources.
3. The walls and ceiling must be
painted with lightly colored,
semigloss paint.
Darkroom Facilities and Equipment
4. Darkroom floors are usually

covered with chemical resistant,
waterproof and slip-proof
materials.
5. Cleanliness is of great
importance during the entire film
processing procedure.
Lesson 5
Safety
Introduction
1. Radiographers are cautioned to

be aware of the latest effective
safety regulations.
2. Radiation safety practices are
based on the effects of radiation
on the human body and
characteristics of radiation.
Introduction
3. Personnel protection is
dependent upon detection
devices, as well as the proper
use of time, distance and
shielding.
Introduction
4. Agreement States are states that

observe the regulations covering
use, handling and transportation of
radioactive materials approved by
the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC).
Introduction
5. All of the safety regulations are

designed to limit exposure to the
radiographer and to provide
protection to the general public.
Introduction
6. The radiographer, who is

employed by a licensee of NRC
or who is employed by a licensee
of an agreement state, must
have knowledge of, and comply
with, all applicable regulations.
Units of Radiation
Dose Measurement
1. The damaging effects of
radiation are dependent on both
the type and the level of energy
of the radiation.
2. For different types of radiation, a
relative biological effectiveness
is applied.
Units of Radiation
Dose Measurement
3. For radiation safety purposes,
the cumulative effect of radiation
on the human body is of primary
concern.
Roentgen (R)
1. The roentgen (R) or sievert (Sv) is

the physical unit of measure of the
ionization of air by X-radiation or
gamma radiation.
Roentgen (R)
2. Roentgen (R) is defined as the

quantity of radiation that will
produce one electrostatic unit
(esu) of charge in one cubic
centimeter of air at standard
temperature and pressure (STP).
Roentgen (R)
3. 1 R of radiation equals absorption

by ionization of about 83 erg (unit
of work or energy in physics) of
radiation energy per gram of air.
4. For practical purposes, mR is
often used, which is:
1 mR = 1/1000 R
Radiation Absorbed Dose (rad)
1. Radiation absorbed dose (rad) is

the unit of measurement of
radiation absorption by humans.
2. It represents an absorption of
100 erg of energy per gram of
irradiated tissue.
3. Whereas the roentgen applies

only to X-rays and gamma rays,
rad applies to any type of
radiation.
4. For X-ray and gamma radiation,
exposure to 1 R results in 1 rad.
5. The unit gray (Gy) has been

introduced as: 100 rad = 1 Gy.
Quality Factor
1. Quality factor takes into account

the biological effect of different
radiations on the human body.
Quality Factor
2. Quality factor values are

determined by the National
Committee on Radiation
Protection. They are
summarized in the following
table.
Quality Factor
Roentgen Equivalent Mammal (rem)
1. Roentgen equivalent mammal

(rem) represents the radiation
absorbed dose (rad) multiplied
by the quality factor of the type
of radiation.
2. Radiation safety levels are
established in terms of roentgen
equivalent mammal (rem).
Roentgen Equivalent Mammal (rem)
3. Since the quality factor of

X-radiation and gamma radiation
is 1, then:
1 rad = 1 rem
International System of Units
(SI) Measurements
1. The Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, state regulations
and radiographers in the U.S.
often still use imperial units:
curie, roentgen, rem and rad.
(SI) Measurements
2. Different organizations, such as
the following, support the
replacement of older units with SI
units:
a. The National Institute of
Standards & Technology (NIST).
b. The American National
Standards Institute (ANSI).
c. The American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM).
(SI) Measurements
d. The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
e. The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
f. The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT).
Becquerel Replaces Curie
1. Curie (Ci) is the original unit for

radioactivity, which is defined as:
3.7 X 1010 disintegrations per
second.
2. In SI, the unit for radioactivity is
the becquerel (Bq), which is
1 disintegration per second.
Becquerel Replaces Curie
3. 1 Ci = 37 GBq (gigabecquerel),
where giga = 109.
Coulomb per Kilogram
Replaces Roentgen
1. Coulomb (C) is the unit of
electrical charge, where:
1 C = 1 ampere × 1 s
2. 1 R = 258 microcoulombs per
kilogram of air (258 µC·kg–1 of
air).
Gray (Gy) Replaces Rad
In the SI system, the unit of

radiation dose is the gray (Gy), and
1 Gy = 100 rad.
Sievert (Sv) Replaces Rem
In the SI system, the unit of

radiation absorbed by the human
body is the sievert (Sv), and
1 Sv = 100 rem.
Maximum Permissible Dose
1. Permissible dose is defined by

NIST as the dose of radiation
that is not expected to cause
appreciable bodily injury to a
person.
2. The following restrictions for the

maximum annual permissible
dose limits for classified workers
should be observed:
a. Total effective dose equivalent
being equal to 5 rem (0.05 Sv).
Or
b. The sum of the deep dose and
the committed dose
equivalent to any individual
organ or tissue other than the
lens of the eye being equal to
50 rem (0.5 Sv).
c. The maximum dose absorbed

by the lens of the eye being
15 rem (0.15 Sv).
d. A shallow dose equivalent of
50 rem (0.5 Sv) to the skin of
the whole body or to the skin
of any extremity.
3. The maximum annual radiation

dose is limited to 5 rem (0.05 Sv).
4. The absorbed dose shouldn’t
exceed 0.5 rem (5 mSv) during an
entire pregnancy.
5. Dose limits to the general public

shall not exceed 0.002 rem or
2 mrem (0.02 mSv) per hour or
exceed 0.5 rem or 500 mrem
(5 mSv) annually.
Protection Against Radiation
Safe radiographic techniques and

radiographic installation design are
achievable by applying these
principles:
1. Time: Keep the time close to a
radiation source as low as
possible.
Protection Against Radiation
2. Distance: Keep the distance

from a radiation source as high
as possible.
3. Shielding: Keep adequate
shielding for the radiation source.
Allowable Working Time
1. The amount of absorbed radiation
by the human body is directly
proportional to the time that the
body is exposed to radiation.
Example: 2 rem (0.2 mSv) in
60 s = 10 mrem (1 mSv) in 5 min.
Allowable Working Time
2. Allowable working time for working

with gamma sources is calculated
by measuring radiation intensity
and substituting it in the following
equation:
allowable working time in hr/week
= permissible exposure in
Ci/wk / exposure rate in Ci/h
Working Distance
1. The greater the distance from a

radiation source, the lower the
radiation intensity.
Working Distance
2. The inverse square law is used

to calculate radiation intensities
at various distances from a
radiation source:
I1 / I2 = D22 / D12
where I1 and I2 are intensities at
distances D1 and D2,
respectively.
Working Distance
3. The same principles hold for

X-radiation. The intensity at a
known distance with
predetermined current and
voltage setting (usually given by
the X-ray tube’s manufacturer)
can be determined by applying
the inverse square law.
Working Distance
4. Radiation intensity at any point is

the sum of the primary radiation
and the secondary (scattered)
radiation at that point.
Shielding
1. Materials commonly used for

shielding to reduce personnel
exposures are lead, steel, water
and concrete.
Shielding
2. Shielding cannot stop all of the

energy of X-radiation or gamma
radiation; therefore, it is practical
to measure shielding efficiency in
terms of half value layers.
Shielding
3. Half value layer (HVL) is that

amount of shielding that will stop
half of the radiation of a given
intensity.
Shielding
4. Similarly, shielding efficiency is

often measured in tenth value
layers. A tenth value layer is that
amount of shielding that will stop
nine tenths of the radiation of a
given intensity. (See the
following tables.)
X-Ray Half Value Layers
Gamma Ray Half and

Tenth Value Layers
Exposure Area
1. The exposure area should

consist of a room with concrete
or block walls, lined with lead or
other suitable shielding
materials.
2. An exposure area can be an
enclosed shielding cabinet large
enough for the test objects and
with reliable safety features.
Exposure Area
3. Controls should be located

outside the exposure area.
4. In field radiography, a safe
distance in relation to exposure
must be secured by:
a. Guard rails or ropes.
b. Legible radiation warning signs.
c. Sufficient shielding.
Exposure Area
5. Only monitored radiographers are
permitted in the radiation area.
6. Keeping a safe distance from the
radiation source is the simplest and
most effective safety consideration
in field radiography.
Radiation Protective Construction
1. Lead and concrete are the most

common materials used to protect
against radiation.
2. Shielding measurements are
usually expressed in terms of
thickness.
3. Ensuring a leak-proof shielding is

very important.
4. Sheets of lead must be
overlapped, and nails and screws
in the walls must be covered with
adequate lead.
5. Pipes, conduits and air ducts

passing through the walls of the
shielding must be completely
shielded. (See the following
figure.)
6. The thickness of lead is dependent
on two factors:
a. Energy of the radiation source.
b. Occupancy of the surrounding
areas.
7. Other than lead, structural
materials such as concrete and
brick are often used as shielding
materials.
8. At voltages greater than 400 kV,
concrete is used as shielding
because:
a. Installing very thick lead can be
difficult.
b. Thick sheets of lead are cost-
prohibitive.
c. Concrete is the best

alternative material because of
its property of radiation
protection and its simplicity of
construction.
Gamma Ray Requirements
1. Special radiation protection is

required for gamma radiation
based on two factors:
a. Gamma radiation cannot be
shut off.
b. Gamma radiation has
considerable penetrating ability.
2. A combination of shielding and

distance is usually used during
gamma radiography.
3. Specially labeled storage
containers are necessary to
store gamma sources when not
in use.
4. After every use, readings with

survey meters are taken to ensure
the source is safely stored.
5. Special projectors (called pigs) or
isotope cameras containing heavy
shielding made of lead or depleted
uranium should be used for
handling radioisotope sources.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
1. The NRC regulates handling,

storage and use of radioisotopes.
2. The next two slides show NRC
Form-4 and NRC Form-5, used to
monitor the occupational dose
history.
Occupational Radiation
Exposure Limits
Limitations on individual dosage
greater than those listed in the table
after the next slide may be permitted
with the following conditions:
1. The dose for the whole body does
not exceed 5 rem (0.05 Sv) during
any calendar year.
Occupational Radiation
Exposure Limits
2. The individual’s accumulated
occupational dose has been
recorded on NRC Form-4 and
the individual has signed the
form.
Levels of Radiation in
Unrestricted Areas
The following table shows the
exposure limits in an unrestricted
area.
Exposure Limits in Unrestricted
Areas
Exposure time Exposure limit millirem
(millisievert)
1 hour 2 (0.02)
1 calendar year 100 (1)

Personnel Monitoring
There are different personnel

monitoring devices required for use
by radiographers and their assistants
during radiographic operations:
1. Film badges.
2. Thermoluminescent dosimeters
(TLDs).
3. Optically stimulated
luminescence badges (OSL).
4. Direct reading dosimeters.

5. Pocket dosimeters.
6. Electronic personal dosimeters.
The last two types should be

capable of measuring exposures
from 0 to 200 mR (0 to 2 mSv).
Caution Signs, Labels and Signals
1. The radiation symbol (as
illustrated on the next slide) should
be placed:
a. In exposure areas.
b. On containers for transporting
and storing radioactive
materials.
2. The words caution or danger also
must appear.
3. The words radioactive material
should be marked on containers of
radioactive materials and in the
areas housing such containers.
4. Exposure devices should be
labeled with a radiation symbol
and the phrase Danger
radioactive material – do not
handle. Company information
and a 24-h phone number must
be mentioned on the sign.
Exposure Devices and
Storage Containers
Based on the radiation regulations:
1. Exposure devices must have the
name of the company or
laboratory and the location of the
office placed in a noticeable site
on the device.
2. All of the labels, signs, etc., shall
be legible.
Radiation Survey
Instrumentation Requirements
1. Radiographers should have
operable and calibrated radiation
survey meters.
2. Each exposure device shall be
accompanied by a survey meter.
3. The meters shall have a range of
2 mR (0.02 mSv) per hour through
1 R (0.1 Sv) per hour.
Radiation Surveys
1. Operable and calibrated radiation

survey instrumentation should be
available at an exposure area.
Radiation Surveys
2. When working with radioisotopes,

a radioactive survey shall be made
around the camera to ensure the
source has been returned to its
shielded condition. This is known
as a 360° sweep.
Radiation Surveys
3. Before storing each sealed

source, a radiation survey shall
be made to ensure that the
source is in its shielded position.
4. All these readings shall be
recorded on a radiation report
survey.
Detection and
Measurement Instruments
There are different instruments that
measure radiation based on the
ionization produced in a gas. These
instruments fall into two categories:
1. Instruments that measure total
dose exposure.
2. Instruments that measure dose
rate (radiation intensity).
Instruments that Measure
Total Dose Exposure
a. Pocket dosimeters.
b. Personal electronic
dosimeters.
c. Film badges and
thermoluminescent dosimeters
(TLDs).
d. Optically stimulated
luminescence (OSL) badges.
Instruments that Measure
Dose Rate
Instruments that measure dose rate
are called survey meters. These
include:
1. Ionization chambers.
2. Geiger-mueller counters.
Pocket Dosimeters
The pocket dosimeter is a small

device, about the size of a fountain
pen. (See the following figure.)
Pocket Dosimeters
Pocket Dosimeters
1. The operation is based on two
main principles:
a. Radiation causes ionization in a
gas.
b. Similar electrical charges repel
each other.
2. The dosimeter should be properly
charged (the indicator on zero
scale) before using.
Pocket Dosimeters
3. Pocket dosimeters are designed

with a sensitivity that permits
them to be scaled in doses from
0 to 200 mR (0 to 2 mSv).
4. Pocket dosimeters must be
calibrated annually, per NRC
regulation, and the date should
be labeled on them.
Personal Electronic Dosimeters
1. Personal electronic dosimeters

(or electron dosimeters):
a. Are easy to use.
b. Are sensitive.
c. Have numerous functions that
can be enabled or disabled.
2. Electronic dosimeters provide

dose, dose rate and set point
checks, and usually operate with
an AA battery.
3. The set points can be preset to
definitive alarm points.
4. The pocket-sized monitors
provide three-digit digital display.
5. The energy response of the

pocket-sized monitor for gamma
rays and X-rays is 40 keV to
1.2 MeV.
6. They should be calibrated
annually.
Film Badges and
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
1. Film badges (shown on the next
slide) consist of a small film
holder equipped with thin lead or
cadmium filters.
2. Badges are designed to be worn
by individuals only when working
in a radiation area.
Film Badges and
Film Badges and
3. After a period of time, the film is
removed and developed by
standard techniques.
4. Both devices record total
radiation received and serve to
check each other.
5. Thermoluminescent dosimeters
(TLDs) contain a special crystal
of lithium fluoride that stores the
energy.
Film Badges and
6. The TLD is sent to a lab where
the crystals are processed to
extract the amount of absorbed
energy.
7. Compared to film badges, TLDs
are not as sensitive to heat,
moisture or rough handling, but
they are more expensive.
Optically Stimulated
Luminescence (OSL) Badges
1. OSL badges measure beta,
gamma, neutron and
X-radiation exposures.
2. The OSL is a thin strip of
specially formulated aluminum
oxide crystalline material.
Optically Stimulated
Luminescence (OSL) Badges
3. OSL badges detect energies
from 5 keV to 40 MeV for
photons, 150 keV to 10 MeV for
beta particles and 40 keV to
35 MeV for neutrons.
4. The dose measurements range
from 1 mrem to 1000 rem.
Ionization Chambers
1. Ionization chambers measure

the radiation intensity (dose rate)
in milliroentgen per hour or
millisievert per hour.
2. Ionization chambers typically
attain an accuracy of ±15%,
except in low-intensity radiation
areas.
Ionization Chambers
3. In areas of low-intensity
radiation, radiation intensity
measurements are usually made
with geiger-mueller counters.
4. Ionization chambers should be
calibrated annually.
Geiger-Mueller Counters
1. Geiger-mueller counters are

highly sensitive radiation
detection devices.
2. Geiger-mueller counters are
typically accurate to ±20% for
the quantity of radiation to which
they are calibrated.
3. They should be calibrated
annually.
Area Alarm Systems
1. These systems consist of one or

more sensing elements, usually
ionization chambers, whose
output is fed to a central alarm
meter.
Area Alarm Systems
2. The meter can be preset so that

an audible alarm is sounded and
a visual indication is displayed
when permissible radiation levels
are exceeded.
Electrical Safety
1. Because X-ray machines use

high-voltage circuits, the
radiographer must comply with
safe electrical procedures.
2. This is more serious specifically
for portable X-ray equipment,
which requires certain electrical
precautions.
Electrical Safety
3. During operation or service of

X-ray equipment, the following
precautions, applicable to both
permanent and portable
installations, should be observed
carefully.
Electrical Safety
a. Do not turn power on until

setup for exposure is
completed.
b. Ensure that grounding
instructions are complied with.
Electrical Safety
c. Regularly check power cables

for signs of wear, and replace
them when necessary.
d. Avoid handling power cables
when the power is on. The
machine’s operational key
should be removed when not in
use.
Electrical Safety
e. If power cables must be handled

with the power on, use safety
equipment such as rubber
gloves, rubber mats and
insulated high-voltage sticks.
f. Be sure that water and moisture
are not in close contact with
power cables.
Electrical Safety
g. Ensure that capacitors are

completely discharged before
checking an electronic circuit.

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Radiographic Testing

Compiled for ASNT by

1. In radiography, test objects are

2. Radiography is used to test a

1. Radiography can be used on most

1. The radiographer must have

The objective of radiographic

Radiation can cause damage to the

1. It is important that personnel

3. ASNT has published guidelines

4. Recommended Practice No.

1. The formal certification of a person

3. Proper qualification and

Radiographic Testing Principles

1. A radiograph is a shadow picture of

3. If the test object is too close to

5. As shown in the following figure,

2. The unsharpness or fuzziness

3. To minimize the geometric

5. Geometric unsharpness can be

a. Ug represents the geometric

c. D is the distance from the

6. Optimum geometric unsharpness

1. X-rays and gamma rays are part

Characteristic X-rays: When an

Continuous radiation: The

Bremsstrahlung radiation: This is

KeV (kilo-electron volts): This unit

MeV (1 000 000 electron volts):

1. When a suitable material is heated,

For industrial radiography

1. By placing a positive charge on

1. The number of X-rays created by

3. Keeping the other factors constant,

4. Similarly, though to a lesser

1. The intensity of an X-ray beam

1. The spectrum of continuous

2. An increase in applied voltage in

4. X-rays with lower energy (longer

6. Effects of changes in kilovoltage

1. Any action that disrupts the

3. X-rays are photons (bundles of

1. In photoelectric absorption, when

2. Part of the energy is expended in

3. This phenomenon usually takes

1. When higher energy photons (0.1 to

2. This process is repeated,

Pair production occurs only with

1. The major components of scatter

1. Internal scatter is the scattering

2. Internal scatter affects image

1. Sidescatter is the scattering from

1. Backscatter is the scattering of

1. Gamma rays are produced by

3. The wavelength and intensity of

1. Some heavy natural elements

3. Natural radioactive sources

1. There are two ways of