Projections Examples of Different Projections Coordinate Systems Datums

Projections and Coordinate
Systems
Overview
Projections
Examples of different projections
Coordinate systems
Datums
Projections
2
The earth is a spheroid
The best model of the earth is a globe
Drawbacks:
not easy to carry

not good for making
planimetric measurement
(distance, area, angle)
Maps are flat
easy to carry
good for measurement
scaleable
A map projection is a method for
mapping spatial patterns on a curved
surface (the Earths surface) to a flat
surface.
an imaginary light is projected onto a developable surface
a variety of different projection models exist
cone as developable surface
secant cone
tangent cone
cylinder as developable surface
tangent cylinders
plane as developable surface
Map projections always introduce error
and distortion
and distortion
and distortion
and distortion
Distortion may be minimized in one or

more of the following properties:
o Shape conformal
o Distance equidistant
o Direction true direction
o Area equal area
Exactly what are map projections?
Sets of mathematical equations that convert

coordinates from one system to another
f
(x, y) f (x, y)
input output
unprojected projected
angles (lat/long) Cartesian coordinates
How do projections work on a
programmatic level?
o each set of "coordinates" is transformed using a specific

projection equation from one system to another
o angular measurements can be converted to Cartesian
coordinates
o one set of Cartesian coordinates can be converted to a
different measurement framework
Projection, zone, datum (units) X Y

geographic, NAD27 (decimal -122.35 47.62
degrees)
UTM, Zone 10, NAD27 (meters) 548843.5049 5274052.0957
State Plane, WA-N, NAD83 (feet) 1266092.5471 229783.3093
How does ArcGIS handle map projections
in data frames?
o Project data frames to see or measure features

under different projection parameters
o Applying a projection on a data frame projects data
on the fly.
o ArcGISs data frame projection equations can
handle any input projection.
o However, sometimes on-the-fly projected data do
not properly overlap.
Applying a projection to a data frame is like
putting on a pair of glasses
You see the map differently, but the data

have not changed
How does ArcGIS handle map
projections for data?
Projecting data creates a new data set on the file

system
Data can be projected so that incompatibly

projected data sets can be made to match.
ArcGISs projection engine can go in and out of a

large number of different projections, coordinate
systems, and datums.
Geographic projection
Albers
(Conic)
Shape Shape along the standard parallels is accurate and minimally distorted in the region between the
standard parallels and those regions just beyond. The 90-degree angles between meridians and
parallels are preserved, but because the scale along the lines of longitude does not match the scale
along lines of latitude, the final projection is not conformal.
Area All areas are proportional to the same areas on the Earth.
Direction Locally true along the standard parallels.
Distance Distances are best in the middle latitudes. Along parallels, scale is reduced between the standard
parallels and increased beyond them. Along meridians, scale follows an opposite pattern.
Lambert
Azimuthal
Equal
Area
(Planar)
Shape Shape is true along the standard parallels of the normal aspect (Type 1), or the standard lines of the
transverse and oblique aspects (Types 2 and 3). Distortion is severe near the poles of the normal aspect
or 90 from the central line in the transverse and oblique aspects.
Area There is no area distortion on any of the projections.
Direction Local angles are correct along standard parallels or standard lines. Direction is distorted elsewhere.
Distance Scale is true along the Equator (Type 1), or the standard lines of the transverse and oblique aspects
(Types 2 and 3). Scale distortion is severe near the poles of the normal aspect or 90 from the central
line in the transverse and oblique aspects.
Mercator
(Cylindrical)
Shape Conformal. Small shapes are well represented because this projection maintains the local angular
relationships.
Area Increasingly distorted toward the polar regions. For example, in the Mercator projection, although
Greenland is only one-eighth the size of South America, Greenland appears to be larger.
Direction Any straight line drawn on this projection represents an actual compass bearing. These true direction
lines are rhumb lines, and generally do not describe the shortest distance between points.
Distance Scale is true along the Equator, or along the secant latitudes.
Miller
(Cylindrical)
Shape Minimally distorted between 45th parallels, increasingly toward the poles. Land masses are stretched
more east to west than they are north to south.
Area Distortion increases from the Equator toward the poles.
Direction Local angles are correct only along the Equator.
Distance Correct distance is measured along the Equator.
Mollweide
(Pseudo-
cylindrical)
Shape Shape is not distorted at the intersection of the central meridian and latitudes 40 44' N and S.
Distortion increases outward from these points and becomes severe at the edges of the projection.
Area Equal-area.
Direction Local angles are true only at the intersection of the central meridian and latitudes 40 44' N and S.
Direction is distorted elsewhere.
Distance Scale is true along latitudes 4044' N and S. Distortion increases with distance from these lines and
becomes severe at the edges of the projection.
Orthographic
Shape Minimal distortion near the center; maximal distortion near the edge.
Area The areal scale decreases with distance from the center. Areal scale is zero at the edge of the
hemisphere.
Direction True direction from the central point.
Distance The radial scale decreases with distance from the center and becomes zero on the edges. The scale
perpendicular to the radii, along the parallels of the polar aspect, is accurate.
Examples of different
projections
Robinson
(Pseudo-
cylindrical)
Shape Shape distortion is very low within 45 of the origin and along the Equator.
Area Distortion is very low within 45 of the origin and along the Equator.
Direction Generally distorted.
Distance Generally, scale is made true along latitudes 38 N and S. Scale is constant along any given latitude,
and for the latitude of opposite sign.
Coordinate Systems
Coordinates
Featureson spherical surfaces are not

easy to measure
Features
on planes are easy to
measure and calculate
distance
angle
area
Coordinate
systems provide a
measurement framework
Coordinates
Lat/long system measures angles on
spherical surfaces
60 east of PM
55 north of equator
Lat/long values are NOT Cartesian
(X, Y) coordinates
constant angular deviations do not have

constant distance deviations
1 of longitude at the equator 1 of

longitude near the poles
GIS software uses planar measurements
on Cartesian planes
Coordinate systems
Coordinate systems
Examples of different
coordinate/projection systems
State Plane
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

Coordinate systems
State Plane
Codified in 1930s
Use of numeric zones for shorthand
SPCS (State Plane Coordinate System)
FIPS (Federal Information Processing System)
Uses one or more of 3 different projections:

Lambert Conformal Conic (east-west orientation )
Transverse Mercator (north-south orientation)
Oblique Mercator (nw-se or ne-sw orientation)

Coordinate systems
Universal Transverse Mercator

(UTM)
Based
on the Transverse
Mercator projection
60 zones (each 6 wide)
false eastings
Y-0
set at south pole or
equator
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Washington state is in Zones 10 & 11

Coordinate systems
Every place on earth falls in a particular zone

Datums
Datums
A system that allows us to place a
coordinate system on the earths surface
Initial point
Secondary point
Model of the earth
Known geoidal separation
at the initial point
Datums
Commonly used datums in North America
North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27)

NAD83
World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84)

Projecting spatial data sets
Used for going between projections
Source data sources may not be compatible
UTM 36
UTM 34
Lake Victoria is not in central Africa

Projecting spatial data sets
Used for going between projections
Data sets are now compatible
both are
now UTM 34
Lake Victoria really is in east Africa

Projections Examples of Different Projections Coordinate Systems Datums

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Projections Examples of Different Projections Coordinate Systems Datums

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Projections and Coordinate

not easy to carry

Distortion may be minimized in one or

Sets of mathematical equations that convert

o each set of "coordinates" is transformed using a specific

Projection, zone, datum (units) X Y

o Project data frames to see or measure features

You see the map differently, but the data

Projecting data creates a new data set on the file

Data can be projected so that incompatibly

ArcGISs projection engine can go in and out of a

Featureson spherical surfaces are not

constant angular deviations do not have

1 of longitude at the equator 1 of

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

Uses one or more of 3 different projections:

Oblique Mercator (nw-se or ne-sw orientation)

Universal Transverse Mercator

Washington state is in Zones 10 & 11

Every place on earth falls in a particular zone

Commonly used datums in North America

North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27)

World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84)

Lake Victoria is not in central Africa

Lake Victoria really is in east Africa

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