Map Projection

4.1 What is a Map Projection

To produce a map of the world in a convenient way we make use of map projections. A map
projection is any transformation between the curved reference surface of the earth and the flat
plane of the map.

We can as well define a map projection as a set of equations which allows us to transform a set
of Ellipsoidal Geographic Coordinates ( representing positions on the reference surface of

the earth to a set of Cartesian Coordinates (x, y) representing positions on the two-dimensional

surface of the map (see figure above) .

For each map projection the following equations are available:

X,Y = f ( , ) Forward equation

,  = f ( X,Y ) Inverse equation

The forward equations are used to transform geographic coordinates - latitude () and longitude

() - into Cartesian coordinates (X,Y), while the inverse equations of a map projection are used

to transform Cartesian coordinates into geographic coordinates. These equations have a

significant role in projection change (see section on Coordinate transformations ).

Some examples of map projection equations are given below:

Map projection equations can be considerably more complicated than those introduced here, for

example, when an ellipsoid is introduced as reference surface. J. P. Snyder gives an overview of

map projection equations in his book entitled 'Map Projections used by the U.S. Geological

Survey'. A number of equations are given at World of Mathematics.

Map projection equations have a number of parameters such as

 o radius of the sphere (R) or equatorial (a) and polar radius (b) of the reference
ellipsoid;
o geodetic datum;
o origin of the coordinate system;
o false easting and northings;
o central meridian (o ), standard parallels (1, 2 ) or centre of projection
(1,o ) ;
o scale factor at the central meridian or standard parallels.

Information about the projection parameters is required to define a countries spatial reference

system.

Activity A point P is located on the Stereographic projection at 60o N and 130o E. The sphere is

taken as the reference surface of the earth. Use the equations given above to obtain the

Cartesian coordinates for point P. The origin of the coordinate system is located on the North
Pole (Radius (R) = 6371000 m, Central Meridian ( o) = 0o, equal to the Greenwich meridian).

4.2 Scale distortions on a Map

The transformation from the curved reference surface of the earth to the flat plane of the map is

never completely successful. Look at the diagram below. By flattening the curved surface of the

sphere onto the map the curved surface is stretched in a non-uniform manner.

It appears that it is impossible to project the Earth on a flat piece of paper without any locational

distortions, therefore without any scale distortions.

Projection plane tangent to the reference surface

The distortions increase as the distance from the central point of the projection increases. Placing

the map plane so that it intersects the reference surface will reduce and mean out the scale

errors.

Projection plane secant to the reference surface

Since no map projection maintains correct scale throughout the map, it may be important to know

the extent to which the scale varies on a map.

On a world map, the distortions are evident where landmasses are wrongly sized or out of shape

and the meridians and parallels do not intersect at right angles or are not spaced uniformly. Some

maps have a scale reduction diagram, which indicates the map scale at different locations,

helping the map-reader to become aware of the distortions.

On maps at larger scales, maps of countries or even city maps, the distortions are not evident to

the eye. However, the map user should be aware of the distortions if he or she computes

distances, areas or angles on the basis of measurements taken from these maps.

Scale distortions can be measured and shown on a map by ellipses of distortion. The ellipse of

distortion, which is also known as Tissot's Indicatrix, shows the shape of an infinitesimally small
circle with a fixed scale on the earth as it appears when plotted on the map. Every circle is plotted

as circle or an ellipse or, in extreme cases, as a straight line.

The size and shape of the ellipse shows how much the scale is changed and in what direction.

On map projections where all indicatrices remain circles, but the sizes change, the scale change

is the same in all directions at each location. These conformal projections represent angles

correctly and have no local shape distortion ( e.g. the Mercator projection ).

The indicatrices on the diagram below are circles along the equator. There are no scale

distortions along the equator. The indicatrices elsewhere are ellipses with varying degrees of

flattening. The projection represents areas correctly - all ellipses have the same area - but angles

and, consequently, shapes are not represented correctly.

Lambert Cylindrical equal-area projection with ellipses of distortion

Scale distortions can also be shown on a map by a scale factor. A scale factor smaller than 1

indicates that the scale is smaller than the nominal scale, the scale given on the map. A scale

factor larger than one indicates that the scale is larger than the nominal scale.

For example, on the UTM projection a scale factor of 0.99960 has been given to the central

meridian of a UTM zone. This means that 1000m measured on the ground becomes 999.6m on

the map surface along the central meridian. E.g. the actual map scale along the central meridian

will be 1:10,004 (10000 / 0.9996) at a nominal map scale of 1:10,000, so smaller than the nominal

scale.
Note Scale distortions can remain within certain limits by choosing the right map projection (see

section 4.5)

4.3 Properties of Map Projections

The following properties would be present on a map projection without any scale distortions:

 Areas are everywhere correctly represented

 All distances are correctly represented.
 All directions on the map are the same as on Earth
 All angles are correctly represented.
 The shape of any area is correctly represented

It is, unfortunately, impossible to have all these properties together in one map projection.

An equivalent map projection, also known as an equal-area map projection, correctly represents

areas sizes of the sphere on the map. When this type of projection is used for small-scale maps

showing large regions, the distortion of angles and shapes is considerable. The Lambert

cylindrical equal-area projection is an example of an equivalent map projection.

The Lambert cylindrical equal-area projection as an example of an equivalent, cylindrical projection

An equidistant map projection correctly represents distances. An equidistant map projection is

possible only in a limited sense. That is, distances can be shown at the nominal map scale -the

given map scale- only from one or two points to any other point on the map or in certain

directions. If the scale on a map is correct along all meridians, the map is equidistant along the
meridians (e.g. the Plate Carree projection). If the scale on a map is correct along all parallels,

the map is equidistant along the parallels.

The Plate Carree projection as an example of an equidistant, cylindrical projection

A conformal map projection represents angles and shapes correctly at infinitely small locations.

Shapes and angles are only slightly distorted, as the region becomes larger. At any point the

scale is the same in every direction. On a conformal map projection meridians and parallels

intersect at right angles (e.g. Mercator projection).

 The Mercator as an example of a conformal, cylindrical projection

Note A map projection may possess one of the three properties, but can never have all three

properties. It can be proved that conformality and equivalence are mutually exclusive of each

other and that a projection can only be equidistant (true to scale) in certain places or directions.

There are map projections with rather special properties:

On a minimum-error map projection the scale errors everywhere on the map as a whole are a

minimum value (e.g. the Airy projection ).

On the Mercator projection, all rumb lines, or lines of constant direction, are shown as straight

lines. A compass course or a compass bearing plotted on to a Mercator projection is a straight

line, even though the shortest distance between two points on a Mercator projection - the great

circle path - is not a straight line.

 all rumb lines, or lines of constant direction, are shown as straight lines.

On the Gnomonic projection, all great circle paths - the shortest routes between points on a

sphere - are shown as straight lines.

all great circles - the shortest routes between points on a sphere - are shown as straight lines

4.4 The classification of Map Projections

Next to their property (equivalence, equidistance, conformality), map projections can be

discribed in terms of their class (azimuthal, cylindrical, conical) and aspect (normal, transverse,

oblique).
The three classes of map projections are cylindrical, conical and azimuthal.The earth's surface

projected on a map wrapped around the globe as a cylinder produces the cylindrical map

projection. Projected on a map formed into a cone gives a conical map projection. When

projected on a planar map it produces an azimuthal or zenithal map projections.

The three classes of map projections

Projections can also be described in terms of their aspect: the direction of the projection plane's

orientation (whether cylinder, plane or cone) with respect to the globe. The three possible apects

of a map projection are normal, transverse and oblique. In a normal projection, the main

orientation of the projection surface is parallel to the earth's axis (as in the second figure below). A

transverse projection has its main orientation perpendicular to the earth's axis. Oblique

projections are all other, non-parallel and non-perpendicular, cases. The figure below provides

two examples.

A transverse cylindrical and an oblique conical map projection. Both are tangent to the reference surface
The terms polar, oblique and equatorial are also used. In a polar azimuthal projection the

projection surface is tangent or secant at the pole. In a equatorial azimuthal or equatorial

cylindrical projection, the projection surface is tangent or secant at the equator. In an oblique

projection the projection surface is tangent or secant anywhere else.

A map projection can be tangent to the globe, meaning that it is positioned so that the projection

surface just touches the globe. Alternatively, it can be secant to the globe, meaning that the

projection surface intersects the globe. The figure below provides illustrations.

Three normal secant projections: cylindrical, conical and azimuthal

A final descriptor may be the name of the inventor of the projection, such as Mercator, Lambert,

Robinson, Cassini etc., but these names are not very helpful because sometimes one person

invented several projections, or several people have invented the same projection. For example

J.H.Lambert described half a dozen projections. Any of these might be called 'Lambert's

projection', but each need additional description to be recognized.

It is now possible to describe a certain projection as, for example,

 Polar stereographic azimuthal projection with secant projection plane

 Lambert conformal conic projection with two standard parallels
 Lambert cylindrical equal-area projection with equidistant equator
 Transverse Mercator projection with secant projection plane.

The question may arise here 'Why are there so many map projections?'. The main reason is that

there is no one projection best overall (see section 4.5 selecting a suitable map projection )
Activity The diagram below shows the developable surface of the Lambert conformal conic

projection with two standard parallels.

Answer the following questions:

1. Which developable surface is used?

2. Is it a tangential or a secant projection?
3. What is the position of the developable surface?
4. Describe some of the scale distortion characteristics.
5. Are areas correctly represented?

4.5 Selecting a suitable Map Projection

Every map must begin, either consciously or unconsciously, with the choice of a map projection
and its parameters. The cartographer's task is to ensure that the right type of projection is used
for any particular map. A well choosen map projection takes care that scale distortions remain
within certain limits and that map properties match to the purpose of the map.

The selection of a map projection has to be made on the basis of:

 shape and size of the area

 position of the area
 purpose of the map
The choice of the class of a map projection should be made on the basis of the shape and size
of the geographical area to be mapped. Ideally, the general shape of a geographical area
should match with the distortion pattern of a specific projection. For example, if an area is small
and approximately circular it is possible to create a map that minimises distortion for that area on
the basis of an Azimuthal projection. The Cylindrical projection should be the basis for a large
rectangular area and a Conic projection for a triangular area.

The position of the geographical area determines the aspect of a projection. Optimal is when

the projection centre coincides with centre of the area, or when the projection plane is located

along the main axis of the area to be mapped (see example figure below).

Choice of position and orientation of the projection plane for a map of Alaska

Once the class and aspect of a map projection have been selected, the choice of the property of

a map projection has to be made on the basis of the purpose of the map.
In the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, during the time of great transoceanic voyaging, there was a

need for conformal navigation charts. Mercator's projection -conformal cylindrical- met a real

need, and is still in use today when a simple,straight course is needed for navigation.

Because conformal projections show angles correctly, they are suitable for sea, air, and

meteorological charts. This is useful for displaying the flow of oceanic or atmospheric currents, for

instance.

For topographic and large-scale maps, conformality and equidistance are important properties.

The equidistant property, possible only in a limited sense, however, can be improved by using

secant projection planes.

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection is a conformal cylindrical projection using a

secant cylinder so it meets conformality and reasonable equidistance for topographic mapping.

Other projections currently used for topographic and large-scale maps are the Transverse

Mercator ( the countries of . Argentina, Colombia, Australia, Ghana, S-Africa, Egypt use it ) and

the Lambert Conformal Conic (in use for France , Spain, Morocco, Algeria ). Also in use are the

stereographic (the Netherlands ) and even non-conformal projections such as Cassini or the

Polyconic (India).

Suitable equal-area projections for distribution maps include those developed by Lambert,

whether azimuthal, cylindrical, or conical. These do, however, have rather noticeable shape

distortions. A better projection is the Albers equal-area conic projection, which is nearly conformal.

In the polar aspect, they are excellent for mid-latitude distribution maps and do not contain the

noticeable distortions of the Lambert projections.

An equidistant map, in which the scale is correct along a certain direction, is seldom desired.

However, an equidistant map is a useful compromise between the conformal and equal-area

maps. Shape and area distortions are moderate.

The projection which best fits a given country is always the minimum-error projection of the

selected class. The use of minimum-error projections is however exceptional. Their mathematical

theory is difficult and the equidistant projections of the same class will provide a very similar map.
In conclusion, the ideal map projection for any country would either be an azimuthal, cylindrical,

or conic projection, depending on the shape of the area, with a secant projection plane located

along the main axis of the country or the area of interest.The selected property of the map

projection depends on the map purpose.

Nevertheless for each country to use its own projection would make international co-operation in

data exchange difficult. There are strong arguments in favour of using an international standard

projection for mapping.

Activity You have been asked to produce a small-scale thematic map of your country showing

the distribution of the population. Which projection class, aspect and property would you choose

considering the location, size and shape of the country and the purpose of the map? Justify your

answer!

4.6 Map Projections in common use

Several hundreds of map projections have been described, but only a smaller part is actually
used. Most commonly used map projections are:

 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM),

 Transverse Mercator (also known as Gauss-Kruger),
 Polyconic,
 Lambert Confomal Conic,
 Stereographic projection.

These projections and a few other well-known map projections are briefly described and

illustrated.

4.6.1 Cylindrical projections

Mercator projection The Mercator projection is a conformal cylindrical projection. Parallels and

meridians are straight lines intersecting at right angles, a requirement for conformality. Meridians

are equally spaced. The parallel spacing increases with distance from the Equator.

Mercator: conformal cylindrical projection

The ellipses of distortion appear as circles (indicating conformality) but increase in size away from

the equator (indicating area distortion). This exaggeration of area as latitude increases makes

Greenland appear to be as large as South America when, in fact, it is only a quarter of the size.

The Mercator projection is used for long distance navigation because of the straight rhumb-lines.

It is more convenient to steer a rumb-line course if the extra distance travelled is small. Often and

inappropriately used as a world map in atlases and for wall charts. It presents a misleading view

of the world because of excessive area distortion towards the poles.

Transverse Mercator projection The Transverse Mercator projection is a transverse cylindrical

conformal projection.
 The Transverse Mercator projection is based on a transverse cylinder

Versions of the Transverse Mercator Projection are used in many countries as national projection

on which the topographic mapping is based. The Transverse Mercator projection is also known as

the Gauss-Kruger or Gauss Conformal projection. The figure below shows the World map in

Transverse Mercator projection.

The world mapped in the Transverse Mercator projection (at a small scale)

The Transverse Mercator is the basis for the Universal Transverse Mercator projection, as well as

for the State Plane Coordinate System in some of the states of the U.S.A.
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) The UTM projection is a projection accepted worldwide-

accepted for topographic mapping purposes. It is a version of the Transverse Mercator projection,

but one with a transverse secant cylinder.

The UTM is a secant, cylindrical projection in a transverse position

The UTM projection is designed to cover the world, excluding the Arctic and Antarctic regions. To

keep scale distortions within acceptable limits, 60 narrow, longitudinal zones of six degrees

longitude in width are defined and numbered from 1 to 60. The figure below shows the UTM zone

numbering system. Shaded in the figure is UTM grid zone 3 N which covers the area 168o - 162o

W (zone number 3), and 0o - 8o N (letter N of the latitudinal belt).

 The UTM zone numbering system (click to enlarge)

Each zone has it's own central meridian. Along each central meridian, the scale is 0.9996. The

central meridian is always given an Easting value of 500,000 m; to avoid negative coordinates

sometimes large values are added to the origin coordinates, called false coorinates. For positions

north of the equator, the equator is given a Northing value of 0m. For positions south of the

equator, the equator is given a (false) Northing value of 10,000,000 m.

 2 adjacent UTM-zones of 6 degrees longitude

Other Cylindrical projections Pseudo-cylindrical projections are projections in which the

parallels are represented by parallel straight lines, and the meridians by curves. Examples are the

Sinusoidal, Eckert, Winkel, Mollweide, DeNoyer and the Robinson projection.

The Mollweide projection as an example of a pseudo-cylindrical projection

The Robinson projection is neither conformal nor equal-area and no point is free of distortion, but

the distortions are very low within about 45o of the center and along the Equator and therefore

recommended and frequently used for thematic world maps. The projection provides a more

realistic view of the world than rectangular maps such as the Mercator.

The Robinson projection as an example of a pseudo-cylindrical projection

4.6.2 Conic projections

Three well-known conical projections are the Lambert Conformal Conic projection, the Albers

equal-area projection and the Polyconic projection.

 The Lambert Conformal Conic projection in normal position is an example of a conic projection

Polyconic projection The Polyconic projection is neither conformal nor equal-area. The

polyconic projection is projected onto cones tangent to each parallel, so the meridians are curved,

not straight.

The polyconic projection is an example of a conic projection, equidistant along the parallels
The scale is true along the central meridian and along each parallel. The distortion increases

away from the central meridian in East or West direction.

The polyconic projection is used for early large-scale mapping of the United States until the

1950's, early coastal charts by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, early maps in the

International Map of the World (1:1,000,000 scale) series and for topographic mapping in some

countries.

4.6.3 Azimuthal projections

The five common azimuthal (also known as Zenithal) projections are the Stereographic

projection, the Orthographic projection, the Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection, the

Gnomonic projection and the azimuthal equidistant (also called Postel ) projection.

For the Gnomonic projection, the perspective point (like a source of light rays), is the centre of the

Earth. For the Stereographic this point is the opposite pole to the point of tangency, and for the

Orthographic the perspective point is an infinite point in space on the opposite side of the Earth.

The projection principle for the Gnomonic, Stereographic and Orthographic projection
Stereographic projection The Sterographic projection is a conformal azimuthal projection. All

meridians and parallels are shown as circular arcs or straight lines. Since the projection is

conformal, parallels and meridians intersect at right angles.

In the polar aspect the meridians are equally spaced straight lines, the parallels are unequally

spaced circles centered at the pole. Spacing gradually increases away from the pole.

The transverse (or equatorial) stereographic projection is an example of a conformal azimuthal projection

The scale is contant along any circle having its centre at the projection centre, but scale

increases moderately with distance from the centre. The areas increase with distance from the

projection center. The ellipses of distortion remain circles (indicating conformality).

The Stereographic projection is commonly used in the polar aspect for topographic maps of polar

regions. Recommended for conformal mapping of regions approximately circular in shape (e.g.

The Netherlands)
Gnomonic projection The Gnomonic (also known as central azimuthal) projection is neither

conformal nor equal-area. The scale increases rapidly with the distance from the center. Area,

shape, distance and direction distortions are extreme, but all great circles - the shortest routes

between points on a sphere - are shown as straight lines.

all great circles - the shortest routes between points on a sphere -

are shown as straight lines on the Gnomonic projection

In combination with the Mercator map where all lines of constant direction, are shown as straight

lines it assist navigators and aviators to determine appropriate courses. Since scale distortions

are extreme the projection should not be used for regular geographic maps or for distance

measurements.

4.6.4 Other map projections

The table below gives an overview of other commonly used map projections.
 More Map Projections (classification and properties)

Demonstration of different Map Projections

Picture Gallery of Map Projections

Understanding Map projections

References

Knippers, R.A. (1998). Coordinate systems and Map projections. Non-published notes,

Enschede, ITC.

Knippers, R.A. (1999). Geometric Aspects of Mapping. Non-published notes, Enschede, ITC.

Stefanovic, P. (1996) Georeferencing and Coordinate Transformations. Non-published notes.

Enschede, ITC.