Clay Minerals and Soil Structure

Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Clay Minerals
Identification of Clay Minerals
Specific Surface (Ss)
Interaction of Water and Clay Minerals
Interaction of Clay Particles
Soil Structure and Fabric
Soil Fabric-Natural Soil
Soil Fabric-Clay Soils
Soil Fabrics-Granular Soils
Loess
Suggested Homework
References
2

1. Clay Minerals

1.1 Origin of Clay Minerals

The contact of rocks and water produces clays, either at or near the surface
of the earth (from Velde, 1995).
Rock +Water Clay
For example,
The CO2 gas can dissolve in water and form carbonic acid, which will
become hydrogen ions H+ and bicarbonate ions, and make water slightly
acidic.
CO2+H2O H2CO3 H+ +HCO3The acidic water will react with the rock surfaces and tend to dissolve the K
ion and silica from the feldspar. Finally, the feldspar is transformed into
kaolinite.
Feldspar + hydrogen ions+water clay (kaolinite) + cations, dissolved silica
2KAlSi3O8+2H+ +H2O Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K+ +4SiO2
Note that the hydrogen ion displaces the cations.
4

1.1 Origin of Clay Minerals (Cont.)

The alternation of feldspar into kaolinite is very

common in the decomposed granite.

The clay minerals are common in the filling materials of

joints and faults (fault gouge, seam) in the rock mass.
Weak plane!

1.2 Basic Unit-Silica Tetrahedra

1 Si
4O

(Si2O10)-4
Replace four
Oxygen with
hydroxyls or
combine with
positive union

Tetrahedron

Hexagonal
hole

Plural: Tetrahedra

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

1.2 Basic Unit-Octahedral Sheet

1 Cation
6 O or OH
Gibbsite sheet: Al3+
Al2(OH)6, 2/3 cationic spaces are filled
One OH is surrounded by 2 Al:
Dioctahedral sheet

Different
cations

Brucite sheet: Mg2+

Mg3(OH)6, all cationic spaces
are filled
One OH is surrounded by 3 Mg:
Trioctahedral sheet
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

1.2 Basic Unit-Summary

Mitchell, 1993

1.3 Synthesis

Mitchell, 1993

Noncrystall
ine clay
-allophane
9

1.4 1:1 Minerals-Kaolinite

Basal spacing is 7.2
layer

Si4Al4O10(OH)8. Platy shape

The bonding between layers are van der
Waals forces and hydrogen bonds (strong
bonding).
Trovey, 1971 ( from
Mitchell, 1993)

17 m

There is no interlayer swelling

Width: 0.1~ 4m, Thickness: 0.05~2 m
10

1.4 1:1 Minerals-Halloysite

Si4Al4O10(OH)84H2O
A single layer of water between unit
layers.
The basal spacing is 10.1 for hydrated
halloysite and 7.2 for dehydrated
halloysite.
If the temperature is over 50 C or the
relative humidity is lower than 50%, the
hydrated halloysite will lose its interlayer
water (Irfan, 1966). Note that this process is
irreversible and will affect the results of
soil classifications (GSD and Atterberg
limits) and compaction tests.
Trovey, 1971 ( from
Mitchell, 1993)

2 m

There is no interlayer swelling.

Tubular shape while it is hydrated.
11

1.5 2:1 Minerals-Montmorillonite

(Theoretical
Si8Al4O20(OH)4nH2O
unsubstituted). Film-like shape.
There is extensive isomorphous
substitution for silicon and aluminum
by other cations, which results in
charge deficiencies of clay particles.
nH2O and cations exist between unit
layers, and the basal spacing is from
9.6 to (after swelling).

nH2O+cations

The interlayer bonding is by van der

Waals forces and by cations which
balance charge deficiencies (weak
bonding).
There exists interlayer swelling,
which is very important to
engineering practice (expansive
clay).
5 m

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

Width: 1 or 2 m, Thickness: 10
~1/100 width

12

1.5 2:1 Minerals-Illite (mica-like minerals)

Si8(Al,Mg,
shape.

potassium

Fe)4~6O20(OH)4(K,H2O)2.

Flaky

The basic structure is very similar to the mica,

so it is sometimes referred to as hydrous mica.
Illite is the chief constituent in many shales.

Some of the Si4+ in the tetrahedral sheet are

replaced by the Al3+, and some of the Al3+ in
the octahedral sheet are substituted by the Mg 2+
or Fe3+. Those are the origins of charge
deficiencies.
The charge deficiency is balanced by
potassium ion between layers. Note that
potassium atom can exactly fit into
hexagonal hole in the tetrahedral sheet
form a strong interlayer bonding.

7.5 m

Trovey, 1971 ( from

Mitchell, 1993)

the
the
the
and

The basal spacing is fixed at 10 in the

presence of polar liquids (no interlayer
swelling).
Width: 0.1~ several m, Thickness: ~ 30

13

1.5 2:1 Minerals-Vermiculite (micalike minerals)

The octahedral sheet is brucite.
The basal spacing is from 10 to 14
.
It contains exchangeable cations
such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ and two
layers of water within interlayers.
It can be an excellent insulation
material after dehydrated.

Illite

Vermiculite

Mitchell, 1993

14

1.6 2:1:1 Minerals-Chlorite

The basal spacing is fixed at 14 .

Gibbsite or
brucite

15

1.7 Chain Structure Clay Minerals

Attapulgite

They have lathlike or threadlike

morphologies.
The particle diameters are from 50 to
100 and the length is up to 4 to 5
m.
Attapulgite is useful as a drilling
mud in saline environment due to its
high stability.

4.7 m
Trovey, 1971 ( from Mitchell, 1993)

16

1.8 Mixed Layer Clays

Different types of clay minerals have similar structures (tetrahedral

and octahedral sheets) so that interstratification of layers of different
clay minerals can be observed.

In general, the mixed layer clays are composed of interstratification of

expanded water-bearing layers and non-water-bearing layers.
Montmorillonite-illite is most common, and chlorite-vermiculite and
chlorite-montmorillonite are often found.
(Mitchell, 1993)

17

1.9 Noncrystalline Clay Materials

Allophane
Allophane is X-ray amorphous and has no definite
composition or shape. It is composed of hollow,
irregular spherical particles with diameters of 3.5 to
5.0 nm.

18

2. Identification of Clay Minerals

19

2.1 X-ray diffraction

Mitchell, 1993

The distance of atomic planes d can be determined based on the Braggs

equation.
BC+CD = n, n = 2dsin, d = n/2 sin
where n is an integer and is the wavelength.

Different clays minerals have various basal spacing (atomic planes). For
example, the basing spacing of kaolinite is 7.2 .
20

2.2 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

Differential
thermal
analysis
(DTA) consists of simultaneously
heating a test sample and a
thermally inert substance at
constant rate (usually about 10
C/min) to over 1000 C and
continuously measuring differences
in temperature and the inert
material T.
For example:
Quartz changes from the to form at 573 C
and an endothermic peak can be observed.
T

Endothermic (take up heat) or

exothermic (liberate heat) reactions
can take place at different heating
temperatures. The mineral types
can be characterized based on
those signatures shown in the left
figure.
(from Mitchell, 1993)

Temperature (100 C)
21

2.2 DTA (Cont.)

If the sample is thermally
inert,

If the phase transition of the

sample occurs,
T

Crystallize
Melt

Time t

Time t
Endothermic reactions take up
heat from surroundings and
therefore the temperature T
decreases.

Exothermic reactions liberate

heat to surroundings and

therefore the temperature T

increases.

T= the temperature of the sample the temperature of the thermally inert

substance.

22

2.3 Other Methods

1. Electron microscopy
2. Specific surface (Ss)
3. Cation exchange capacity (cec)
4. Plasticity chart

23

2.3 Other Methods (Cont.)

5. Potassium determination
Well-organized 10 illite layers contain 9% ~ 10 % K2O.

6. Thermogravimetric analysis
It is based on changes in weight caused by loss of water
or CO2 or gain in oxygen.
Sometimes, you cannot identify clay minerals only based
on one method.

24

3. Specific Surface (Ss)

25

3.1 Definition
Specific surface surface / volume
Specific surface surface / mass
Preferred
Surface related force
Surface related forces: van der
Waals forces, capillary forces, etc.
Gravational force

Example:

1 11 cm cube, 2.65g / cm 3
6 1cm 2
4
2
Ss

2
.
3

10

m
/g
3
3
1 cm 2.65 g / cm
1 11m cube, 2.65g / cm 3
6 1m 2
2
Ss

2
.
3

m
/g
3
3
1m 2.65 g / cm

Ss is inversely
proportional to
the particle size

26

3.2 Typical Values

Montmorillonite

50-120 m2/gm (external surface)

700-840 m2/gm (including the interlayer surface)
Interlayer surface

Illite

65-100 m2/gm

Kaolinite
10-20 m2/gm
27

4. Interaction of Water and Clay

Minerals

28

4.1 Origins of Charge Deficiencies

1. Imperfections in the crystal lattice
-Isomorphous substitution.
The cations in the octahedral or tetrahedral sheet can be replaced
by different kinds of cations without change in crystal structure
(similar physical size of cations).
For example,
Al3+ in place of Si4+ (Tetrahedral sheet)
Mg2+ instead of Al3+(Octahedral sheet)
unbalanced charges (charge deficiencies)
This is the main source of charge deficiencies for montmorillonite.
Only minor isomorphous substitution takes place in kaolinite.
29

4.2 Origins of Charge Deficiencies

(Cont.)
2. Imperfections in the crystal lattice
- The broken edge
The broken edge can be
positively or negatively
charged.

30

4.2 Origins of Charge Deficiencies

(Cont.)
3. Proton equilibria (pH-dependent charges)
M OH H M OH 2 (Pr otonation )
M OH OH M O H 2 O (Deprotonation )

H
M O +
H
M: metal

M O H
M O-

Kaolinite particles are positively

charged on their edges when in a
low pH environment, but negatively
charged in a high pH (basic)
environment.

31

4.2 Origins of Charge Deficiencies (Cont.)

4. Adsorbed ion charge (inner sphere complex
charge and outer sphere complex charge)

Ions of outer sphere complexes do not lose their hydration spheres.

The inner complexes have direct electrostatic bonding between the
central atoms.
32

4.3 Charged Clay Particles

- or +

External or interlayer surfaces are

negatively charged in general.
The edges can be positively or
negatively charged.
Different cations balance charge
deficiencies.

Cation

Kaolinite and negative gold sol

- or +
Dry condition

(van Olphen, 1991)

33

4.4 Polar Water Molecules

Structure

Polar molecule

O(-)

H(+)
Hydrogen bond

H(+)

Salts in aqueous solution

hydration
34

Question
Why can we use the microwave oven to
cook food?

35

4.5 Clay-Water Interaction

1. Hydrogen bond
Kaolinite

Oxygen

Hydroxyl

OH

Clay Surfaces

H
O

Adsorbed layers

Free water

3 monolayers

Bulk water

The water molecule locked in the adsorbed

layers has different properties compared to
that of the bulk water due to the strong
attraction from the surface.

H
H

36

4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)

2. Ion hydration

Na+ crystal radius: 0.095 nm

radius of hydrated ion: 0.358 nm

cation

Clay
layers

Dry condition
(Interlayer)

The water molecules

wedge into the interlayer
after adding water

The cations are fully hydrated,

which results in repulsive forces
and expanding clay layers
(hydration energy).

37

4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)

3. Osmotic pressure
A

From Oxtoby et al.,

1994

The concentration of cations is higher in the interlayers (A) compared with that
in the solution (B) due to negatively charged surfaces. Because of this
concentration difference, water molecules tend to diffuse toward the interlayer
in an attempt to equalize concentration.

38

4.5 Clay-Water Interaction (Cont.)

Relative sizes of adsorbed water layers on sodium montmorillonite and

sodium kaolinite
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

39

5. Interaction of Clay Particles

(or Layers)
Interlayer
Interparticle

Particle

Layer

40

5.1 Diffuse Double Layer

+

Cations

Clay particle with

negatively charged
surface

Concentration

Exponential decay

Distance x
Anions

41

5.2 Interaction Forces

Net force between clay particles (or interlayers)

DLVO
forces

= van der Waals attraction +

Double layer repulsion (overlapping of the double layer)+
Coulombian attraction (between the positive edge and negative
face)
42

5.3 Thickness of Double Layer

Thickness of
double layer K

repulsion force

n0

repulsion force

repulsion force

K repulsion force (?)

0 kT

K
2 2
2n 0 e

1/ 2

0 : Permittivity in vacuum
: Re lative permittivity
k : Boltzman cons tan t
T : Temperatur e
n 0 : Cation concentration
e : Electron ch arg e
: Valence
decreases with increasing
temperature
43

5.4 Interaction of Clay Particles

Dispersed fabric

Flocculated fabric
Edge-to-face (EF): positively
charged edges and negatively
charged surfaces (more common)

Edge-to-edge (EE)
The net interparticle force
between surfaces is repulsive

Aggregated fabric

Face-to-Face (FF)

Increasing
Electrolyte concentration n0
Ion valence v
Temperature T (?)

Decreasing
Permittivity
Size of hydration ion
pH
Anion adsorption

Shifted FF

Reduce the double

layer repulsion (only
applicable to some cases)

Flocculated
aggregated fabric

or
44

5.4 Interaction of Clay Particles (Cont.)

---

----+

(1) Decrease pH
+

(2) Decrease anion adsorption

(3)Size of hydration
Clay
Particle

The total required

number of cations
is 10

45

5.5 Atterberg Limit of Clay Minerals

Na-montmorillonite
Thicker double layer
LL=710
Ca-montmorillonite
Thinner double layer
LL=510
The thickness of double
layer
increases
with
decreasing cation valence.

Lambe and Whitman, 1979

46

5.6 Cation Replaceability

Different types and quantities of cations are adsorbed to balance charge
deficiencies in clay particles.
The types of adsorbed cations depend on the depositional environment.
For example, sodium and magnesium are dominant cations in marine clays
since they are common in sea water. In general, calcium and magnesium
are the predominant cations.
The adsorbed cations are exchangeable (replaceable). For example,
Na

Na

Na

Na

Ca

Ca

+4CaCl2
Na

Na

Na

Na

+8NaCl
Ca

Ca
(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

47

5.6 Cation Replaceability (Cont.)

The ease of cation replacement
depends on the
(1) Valence (primarily)

Cations

Non-hydrated
radius ()

Hydrated
radius ()

Li+

0.68

3.8

Na+

0.95

3.6

(2) Ion size

K+

1.33

3.3

Cations with larger non-hydrated

radii or smaller hydrated radii have
greater replacement power.
According to rules (1) and (2), the
general order of replacement is
Li+<Na+<K+<Rb+<Cs+<Mg2+<Ca2+<Ba2+<
Cu2+<Al3+<Fe3+<Th4+

Cs+

1.69

3.3

Be2+

0.31

4.6

Mg2+

0.65

4.3

Ca2+

0.99

4.1

Ba2+

1.35

(3) Relative amount

Al3+

0.5

Fe3+

0.6

Higher valence cations can replace

cations of lower valence.

High concentration of
Na+ can displace Al3+.

4.8

(Data compiled from

Israelachvili, 1991)

48

5.7 Cation Replaceability (Cont.)

Hard water softener
Hard water contains soluble calcium and magnesium salts such as
Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2. The hardness can be removed by exchanging
Ca2+ and Mg2+ with sodium ions Na+. For example,
Na2Z(s) (Zeolite) + Ca2+(aq) CaZ(s)+2 Na+(aq)
As the ion-exchange capacity of Zeolite is saturated, the capacity can be
regained by passing through a concentrated solution of NaCl.

49

5.7 Cation Exchange Capacity (cec)

The quantity of exchangeable cations is termed the cation
exchangeable capacity (cec) and is usually expressed as
milliequivalents (meq) per 100 gram of dry clay ( from Mitchell, 1993).
One equivalent = 6.021023 electron charges or 96500 Coulombs, which
is 1 Faraday.

50

5.8 Swelling Potential

Practically speaking, the three ingredients generally necessary for
potentially damaging swelling to occur are (1) presence of
montmorillonite in the soil, (2) the natural water content must be around
the PL, and (3) there must be a source of water for the potentially
swelling clay (Gromko, 1974, from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

51

5.9 Engineering Applications

Lime treatment for the swelling clay
The swelling clay such as Na-montmorillonite beneath the foundation is
potentially harmful to the light structure. Adding lime (CaO) into such soil
can effectively reduce the swelling potential due to Ca 2+ displacing Na+, and
can increase the strength by dehydration of soils and cementation.
Drilling mud
Soil particle

Bentonite or
Polymer

The swelling clays can

form a so-called filter
cake and enable soil
layers
to
become
relatively impermeable.
Earth
pressure+
ground water
pressure

Montmorillonite is the dominant clay mineral in bentonite

Pressure
profile of
slurry

Trench
Xanthakos, 1991

52

5.9 Engineering Applications (Cont.)

Xanthakos, 1991

53

5.9 Engineering Applications (Cont.)

Xanthakos, 1991

54

5.9 Engineering Applications

Dispersion agents (drilling mud; hydrometer analysis)
Sodium hexa-metaphosphate (NaPO3) and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) are used as
the dispersion agent in the hydrometer analysis. How does this dispersion agent
work?
Three hypotheses:

(1) Edge-charge reversal

The anions adsorption onto the edge of the clay particle may neutralize the positive edgecharge or further reverse the edge-charge from positive to negative. The edge-charge
reversal can form a negative double layer on the edge surfaces to break down flocculated
structure, and assist in forming a dispersed structure.

(2) Ion exchange

The sodium cations can replace the divalent cations existing in the clay particles such as
Ca2+ and Mg2+. The decrease of cation valence can increase the thickness of the double layer
and interparticle repulsion, which can assist in forming a dispersed structure.

(3) pH
The higher pH may make the edge-charge tend to be negative, which can break down the
flocculated structure and assist in forming a dispersed structure. The adding of dispersing
agent such as sodium carbonate may slightly increase the pH.
55

6. Soil Structure and Fabric

56

6. Soil Structure and Fabric

The structure of a soil is taken to mean both the geometric

arrangement of the particles or mineral grains as well as the
interparticle forces which may act between them.

Soil fabric refers only to the geometric arrangement of

particles (from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
*Fabric and structure are used interchangeably sometimes.

The interparticle forces (or surface forces) are relatively

important for fine-grained soils at low confinement (low state
of stress).
Although the behavior of a coarse-grained soil can often be
related to particle size distribution, the behavior of a finedgrained soil usually depends much more on geological history
and structure than on particle size (from Lambe and Whitman, 1979).
57

7. Soil Fabric-Natural Soil

(fine-grained soils)

58

7.1 Microfabric Features in Natural Soils

1.

2.

3.

Elementary particle arrangements, which consist of single forms of

particle interaction at the level of individual clay, silt, or sand
particles or interaction between small groups of clay platelets or
clothed silt and sand particles.
Particle assemblages, which are units of particle organization having
definable physical boundaries and a specific mechanical function.
Particle assemblages consist of one or more forms of elementary
particle arrangements or smaller particle assemblages.
Pore spaces within and between elementary particles arrangements
and particle assemblages.

Collins and McGown, 1974

(from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

59

7.1 Elementary Particles

Individual clay
platelet interaction

Individual silt or sand

particle interaction

Clay platelet group

interaction

Clothed silt or sand

particle interaction

Particle discernible
Collins and McGown, 1974
(from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

60

7.2 Particle Assemblages

Collins and McGown, 1974

(from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

61

7.3 Pore Space Types

Collins and McGown, 1974 (from Mitchell, 1993) 62

8. Soil Fabric-Clay Soils

63

8.1 Terminology
Face (F)
Edge (E)
Clay Particle
Dispersed: No face-to-face association of clay particles
Aggregated: Face-to-face association (FF) of several clay particles.

Flocculated: Edge-to-Edge (EE) or edge-to-face (EF) association

Deflocculated: No association between aggregates

van Olphen, 1991 (from Mitchell, 1993)

64

8.2 Particle Associations

Dispersed and deflocculated

Aggregated but deflocculated

Edge-to-face flocculated
but dispersed

Edge-to-face flocculated
and aggregated

Edge-to-edge flocculated but

dispersed
Edge-to-edge flocculated
and aggregated

Edge-to-face and edge to

edge flocculated and
aggregated

van Olphen, 1991

65

8.3 Summary
Flocculated fabric

Dispersed fabric

Edge-to-face (EF): positively

charged edges and negatively
charged surfaces (more common)

Edge-to-edge (EE)

Aggregated fabric

Face-to-Face (FF)

The net interparticle force

between surfaces is repulsive

Shifted
Face-to-Face (FF)

66

8.4 Fabric of Natural Clay Soils

The individual clay particles seem to always be aggregated or
flocculated together in submicroscopic fabric units called domains.
Domains then in turn group together to form clusters, which are large
enough to be seen with a visible light microscope. Clusters group together
to form peds and even groups of peds. Peds can be seen without a
microscope, and they and other macrostructural features such as joints
and fissures constitute the macrofabric system (from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).

Domain Cluster Ped

67

8.4 Fabric of Natural Clay Soils (Cont.)

Domains and
clusters with
micropores

1.Domain
2.Cluster
3.Ped
4.Silt grain
5.Micropore
6.Macropore

Yong and Sheeran (1973) (from Holtz

and Kovacs, 1981)

Enlargement
68

8.4 Fabric of Natural Clay Soils (cont.)

Macrostructure, including the stratigraphy of fine-grained soil deposits,
has an important influence on soil behavior in engineering practice.
Joints, fissures, silt and sand seams, root holes, varves, and other defects
often control the engineering behavior of the entire soils mass.
The microstructure reflects the depositional history and environment of
the deposit, its weathering history (both chemical and physical), and
stress history.
(From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
Clay
particl
e
Water

69

9. Soil Fabrics-Granular Soils

70

9.1 Packing
Loose packing

Dense packing

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Honeycombed fabric
Meta-stable structure
Loose fabric
Liquefaction
Sand boil

71

9.1 Packing (Cont.)-Sand Boil

Loose sand

Kramer, 1996

72

9.1 Packing (Cont.)

Contrary to popular belief, it is not possible to drown in
quicksand, unless you really work at it, because the density of
quicksand is much greater than that of water. Since you can
almost float in water, you should easily be able to float in
quicksand (from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
Help!

73

9.2 Load Transfer

Loading
The black particles carry most
of load. The remaining particles
prevent the buckling of the loadcarrying chains (From Santamarina et al., 2001).

74

9.3 The Relative Density (Dr)

The relative density Dr is used to characterize the
density of natural granular soil.
e max e
Dr
100%
e max e min
d max
d d min

100%
d
d max d min

The relative density of a natural soil deposit very strongly affects

its engineering behavior. Consequently, it is important to conduct
laboratory tests on samples of the sand at the same relative
density as in the field ( from Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
(compaction)

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

75

Derivation
Dr

e max e
100%
e max e min
d max
d min
d
100%
d
d max d min

76

9.3 The Relative Density (Dr) (Cont.)

The relative density (or void ratio)
alone is not sufficient to characterize
the engineering properties of granular
soils (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). Two soils with
the same relative density (or void
ratio) may contain very different pore
sizes. That is, the pore size
distribution probably is a better
parameter to correlate with the
engineering properties (Santamarina et al.,
2001).

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

77

10. Loess

78

Loess
Loess is a type of aeolian soils, and the particles are predominantly
silt-size. The soil structure is mainly stabilized by (1) the capillary
force and (2) light cementation arising from the salt and fines (e.g.
clay) precipitation around the contacts (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Santamarina, 2001).

Capillary force

Cementation

After loess is submerged, collapse of the soil structure occurs due to

loss of suction and cementation

Why?
Capillary force

cementation

The interaction
between water
and salts and
clay
79

11. Suggested Homework

1. Read Chapter 4
2. Problem 4-1, 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, 4-6, 4-8(interesting)

80

12. References
Main References:
Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering, Prentice Hall. (Chapter 4)
Mitchell, J.K. (1993). Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, 2nd edition, John Wiley &
Sons (Chapter 3).
Others:
Israelachvili, J. (1991). Intermolecular and Surface Forces, 2nd edition, Academic
Press.
Kramer, S.L. (1996). Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. (1979). Soil Mechanics, SI Version, John Wiley &
Sons.
Santamarina, J.C., Klein, K.A. and Fam, M.A. (2001). Soils and Waves, John
Wiley & Sons.
Van Olphen, H. (1991). An Introduction to Clay Colloid Chemistry. Reprint
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