Geomechanics

Geotechnical Site Investigation

1
 Geotechnical Site Investigation
 Introduction: what is it?, why do it?, what are the
requirements?
 Phases of investigation
 Methods of investigation and sampling
 Role of in situ and laboratory testing
 Development of a geotechnical model
 Parameter estimation
 For reference, AS1726-1993 Geotechnical Site
Investigations, covers the minimum requirements for a site
investigation

2
 What is Geotechnical Site Investigation?
The process of evaluating the geotechnical character of a site
in the context of existing or proposed works or land usage.

It may include the following:

• evaluation of geology and hydrogeology
• excavating or boring in soil or rock to recover soil, rock or water samples for
examination, identification, recording, testing or display
• in situ assessment of geotechnical properties of materials
• in situ tests to determine engineering properties of the ground
• laboratory testing of samples to quantify properties relevant to the purpose of
the investigation

3
The wording in previous slide is very general because the nature of any
investigation will depend heavily on the type of project, its magnitude and
location. For instance, different types of information are required about sub-
surface conditions depending on whether you are examining say:
(a) proposed construction of a three storey office building,
(b) proposed development of a 200 m deep open pit mine, or
(c) movement of contaminated groundwater from an old industrial facility.

Depending on the project you may be interested in one or more of the following:
• near surface soil types and their properties
• the geology: rock types, sequences, weathering, jointing, faults, strength
• the hydrogeology: linking of geology with movement of groundwater
• groundwater quality

A variety of methods are available for gathering information about a site:

• examination of surface features and rock outcrops and soil types,
• drilling or excavating holes to examine what is below the surface,
• conducting insitu and laboratory testing on soil, rock and water,
• “non-invasive” testing methods - geophysics methods for example

We will examine these methods and the requirements in detail at a later stage. 4
 Why Investigate a Site?

- define stratigraphy/geology
Design
- define properties of layers or geological units
requirements
- aid material selection

- feasibility of proposed method

Construction
- define equipment and techniques needed
requirements
- select an appropriate site

-checking a site prior to sale/purchase

Auditing -is the site contaminated and if so, how badly?
- is the site or structure stable?
- assess movement and attenuation of groundwater contaminants
Monitoring - determine reasons for poor behaviour
- document performance for future reference

5
 Survey on Cause of Cost Overruns
Weighted contractor response
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Unforeseen ground conditions

Changes to original design

Statutory undertakers

Poor design

Engineer requirements

Bad weather

Inadequate planning

Subcontractors

Poor site management Source: UK National Audit Office

“You pay for a site investigation, whether you carry one out or not” (Anon.) 6
 Optimum Site Investigation Spending
Optimum site investigation cost

Total
Challenging site
Project
Cost $

Benign site

Site Investigation Cost $

If site investigation not adequate, good chance of higher overall

project cost.
Beyond a certain cost, the “law of diminishing returns” applies - not
much to be saved in the project by more site investigation spending. 7
8
9
Niigata Earthquake, Japan

10
Damage to Building, Loma Prieta Earthquake (US)

11
 Example of Design Requirements: High Rise
Some of the design issues:
• Structure must be supported
safely and without excessive
settlement.
• Basement walls must resist
lateral earth and water
pressures.
• Construction must not unduly
influence adjacent structures
(adjacent building should not
fall into your excavation!)

Some of the requirements:

• Choose and design
appropriate systems.
• Assess relative performance
and cost.

QV1 Building, St George’s Terrace, Perth 12

Example of Construction Requirements: Mine

Some of the construction issues: Some of the requirements:

• Excavation method and • Assess excavatability and blast design.
likely rate of progress. • Choose plant and estimate production rates.
• Effect of groundwater. • Assess need for groundwater control. 13
Example of SI Related to Auditing
Some of the issues:
• Presence of contaminants.
• Contaminant type, phase,
etc.
• Source of contamination.
• Location of buried tanks and
pipes.

Some of the requirements:

• Report type, phase, extent
and movement of
contaminant.
• Assess impact of
contamination.
• Determine appropriate
course of action.

14
 Site Auditing:
Electromagnetic survey to
locate buried objects

source: Justin Anning

15
Example of SI Related to Monitoring

Some of the issues:

• Safety now and in the future.
• Why is it leaning?
• Can/should the lean be
reduced or stopped?

Some of the requirements:

• Assess interaction of the
structure with the ground.
• Review historical data.
• Extrapolate into the future.
• Assess effectiveness and
danger of remedial measures.

16
Subsurface Conditions

17
Investigation for a High Rise Structure

18
 Local Geology Important

The appropriate foundation for

each structure depends on the
ground conditions.

Here is a multi-storey building in

Sydney. Most of Sydney is
underlain by Hawksbury
Sandstone, which you see in the
walls of the excavation. This
sandstone has a strength only
slightly smaller than concrete, so
this building can be founded
directly on the rock at the
ground surface.
 Investigation for a High Rise Structure
What type of foundation or retaining systems?

20
 Investigation for a High Rise Structure
Schematic construction process

Installation of basement walls Pile installation and/or pouring Incremental construction of lift
and excavation to founding level of the raft footing shaft, columns and floor slabs

21
Firstly, what are the geotechnical issues related to construction and
in-service performance?
• Safe support of structure without it falling over
• Settlement of structure should not be excessive
• Basement walls must resist lateral pressures
• Basement must be watertight
• Ground must be excavated safely, piles must be installed
• Adjacent structures must not be affected adversely

Secondly, what would we need to know to assess these?

• Statigraphy, soil types
• Groundwater level(s)
• Strength of the soil or rocks
• Compressibility of the soil or rocks
• Permeability
• Excavatability
22
Investigation for a Railway Through the Pilbara
Ground elevation

INDIAN OCEAN Formation level

Port
Karratha Hedland

Dampier

Schematic Long Section

Pannawonica

Paraburdoo Newman

Site Plan

200 km
Schematic Cross Section Through a Cutting
23
Firstly, what are the geotechnical issues related to construction and
in-service performance?
• How to excavate in cuts
• Is subgrade suitable in flat areas
• Sources of suitable borrow (embankment fill and ballast)
• Stability of cut and fill slopes (what angles?)
• Ground treatment and construction procedures required

Secondly, what would we need to know to assess these?

• Engineering geology in cuts
• Ground conditions in flat areas and below fills
• Excavatability
• Ballast: strength and durability

24
Investigation for a Tailings Storage Facility

Tailings discharge

Upstream construction of impoundment walls

25
Firstly, what are the geotechnical issues related to construction and in-service
performance?
• What to construct starter dam from
• Ground treatment and construction procedures required
• Can coarse material be separated from tails for upstream construction
• Seepage from base of dam
• Seepage through dam walls
• Stability of dam walls (angles, safe rates of filling, groundwater
control)

Secondly, what would we need to know to assess these?

• Foundation conditions: stratigraphy, permeability, groundwater
conditions
• Regional hydrogeology
• Rainfall and evaporation
• Suitable source of borrow
• Nature of tailings and process water
26
Phases of a Typical Site Investigation
Tender phase - i.e. win the job!

Client briefing

Desk Study

Site Reconnaissance

Ground Investigation

Laboratory Testing
May be staged
Synthesis of Information

Reporting

Monitoring During Construction 27

 1. Client Briefing
• Determine scope and scale of project
• Identify specific requirements or features
• Required timing of work
• Available budget
• Discuss levels of risk and reliability

Geotechnical
understanding
of a site
Problem

Design Construction In Service

Ground
Time = Money
Investigation 28
 Typical site investigation costs

Type of work % of total % of earthworks

capital cost & foundation cost
Earth dams 0.9 - 3.3 1.1 - 5.2
Embankments 0.1 - 0.2 0.2
Docks 0.2 - 0.5 0.4 - 1.7
Bridges 0.1 - 0.5 0.3 - 1.3
Buildings 0.05 - 0.2 0.5 - 2.0
Roads 0.2 - 1.6 1.6 - 5.7
Railways 0.6 - 2.0 3.5
Overall mean 0.7 1.5

29
“You pay for site investigation, whether you do it or not”

100

80

Total Increase 60
In
Construction
40
Cost above
Tender Cost
(%) 20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Adjusted SI Cost / Adjusted Construction Tender Cost (%)

30
 2. Desk Study
 Topographic maps
• terrain, water features, land use
 Geological maps
• general geological conditions
 Groundwater records
 Existing geotechnical information
• has your company done site investigation in adjacent sites?
• can you obtain similar information from another company?
• is there any published geotechnical information about the area?
 Site history: previous use or site modification
• shire council records
• air photographs
• maps
• talking to locals (“the old bloke in the pub who worked there 20 years ago”

31
Regional Geology Map

Map shows the

surface geology in
the Perth region

32
 Part of Geology Map of Perth

33
Perth Metropolitan Region: 1:50,000 Environmental Geology Series: Perth. (© WA Government)
34
 Borehole
Information on
Geology Map of
Perth

35
 Perth CBD area (Andrews, 1971)

Andrews, D.C. (1971): Soils of the Perth Area - The City Centre. Division of Applied Geomechanics Report No. 13. CSIRO.
36
 Perth
Part CBD
of Geology
area (Andrews,
Map of Perth
1971)

Location of sections 3&4 shown on following slide

37
 SECTION 3

SECTION 4 38
Reclamation
since 1838
39
Climate and Weathering Characteristics

SW of WA, east of Darling Fault 40

Typical Weathering in Granite

41
BPH-Billiton’s Port Hedland Iron Ore Terminal

42
 Port Hedland
1967 1977

43
 3. Site Reconnaissance
 Determine access (Is there access? Who has the key?)
 Inspect surface conditions:
• surficial soil/rock types
• location of springs or seepage
• surface depressions, instability, movement, etc.
• existence of fill
• obvious contamination
• vegetation changes (e.g. to locate dolerite dykes in granitic soils)
 Inspect nearby cuttings, drains etc.
• may reveal stratigraphy
 Examine existing and adjacent structures
• any sign of problems due to poor foundation conditions?
 Location of services
• Fines can be tens of thousands of dollars for digging up or drilling through a
gas main (if you are still alive!), or a fibre optic main phone line
44
 4. Ground Investigation
 Determine ground conditions:
• excavation of inspection pits: usually with a backhoe (maximum depth 2-3 m;
up to 5-6 m with longreach backhoe)
• drilling with sampling and testing: usually with a drill rig
• probing: probe pushed from the surface
• special in situ testing devices (pressuremeter, dilatometer…)
• geophysical tests: non-intrusive methods
 Determine groundwater conditions:
• install piezometers
• groundwater sampling
• permeability or pump testing

45
 5. Laboratory Testing
 Index tests for identification and classification
• liquid and plastic limits, particle size distributions, etc.
 Strength
• direct shear, triaxial, etc.
 Stiffness
• triaxial, “small strain” stiffness measurement
 Compressibility/Consolidation behaviour
• oedometer or Rowe Cell, triaxial
 Permeability
• laboratory tests not generally reliable
 Chemical content and water quality
• natural chemical content, eg. sulphates, TDS, salinity
• contaminants

46
 6. Synthesis of Information
 Combine information to develop a subsurface picture of the
site
 Summarise and simplify the range of information to
produce:
• idealised stratigraphy (a geological model of the site)
• design parameters for the foundations for the proposed structure(s)

47
Excavate a slope at this site – what are ground conditions?
48
“Perfect” coring gives perfect information about discrete locations 49
Correctly predict actual conditions from the borehole information?? 50
51
 Simplified Geology

Surficial deposits

Interbedded sandstone and shale

Shale

Faults
52
Cross Section for Analysis

53
 7. Reporting
 Factual report:
• borehole and inspection pit logs
• in situ test data
• laboratory test data
• summarise ground conditions
• possibly summarise geotechnical design parameters

 Interpretative report:
• design parameters and relevant stratigraphy
• construction or treatment requirements
• predict in-service performance

 Reports may be combined into one

54
 8. Monitoring During Construction
 Confirm expected ground conditions
• make sure that nothing of importance has been missed
 Confirm expected performance
• monitor retaining wall movements - are they as expected
• carry out pile load tests - is the load-settlement behaviour as expected
 Modify design or procedures as needed.

55
Conditions Interpreted From Site Investigation

56
Conditions Revealed During Construction

57
 Conditions Anticipated at Tender

Conditions Found During Construction 58

Wall of Sand Pit, California

•Shows typical alluvial deposit,

layered sands and gravels

•Simple drilling site investigation

would have given a good picture of
what’s there

59
 Weathering profile,
Boddington Gold Mine

• Understanding the geology helps

to understand the stratigraphy
• Here is example of typical
“laterite weathering profile”
• massive laterite “caprock”
• clayey zones underneath
• fresh (unweathered) granite

60
Weathering profile, Boddington Gold Mine

Close-up of top layers, showing clays under laterite cap, with

uneven clay-granite interface 61
 The Observational Method
Before commencing project:
• Sufficient but not overly detailed subsurface exploration.
• Assess most probable conditions and/or design properties.
• Select quantities to be observed as project proceeds.
• Predict these quantities on the basis of worst case and most
probable conditions.
• Select in advance a course of action for every foreseeable
deviation from the anticipated conditions.

During project:
• Measure quantities and evaluate conditions.
• Modify design or procedures to suit.
62
Basement Excavation in Chicago

63
 Basement Excavation in Chicago
 Optimistic design envelope for strut loads was used.
(39 struts required)
 Loads in every strut were measured.
 Extra struts kept on-hand if measurements indicated they
were needed. (only 3 extra were needed)
 Significant cost savings
(42 struts as opposed to about 60 from predicted envelope)

64
 Graham Farmer Freeway Tunnel
 Props to support side walls. Prop loads measured (using
inbuilt load cell) - to check if they were overstressed
 Prop loads were found to be minimal (i.e. ground stiffness
much greater than assumed by designers)
 Props dispensed with half-way through project - saving lots
of $$$$
Roof slab cast on ground

Props at ~ 1m spacing installed

after partial excavation
Remove props after floor slab cast

Excavation in two stages

- install props after first stage

Diaphragm walls (cast in place) 65

 Subsurface Investigation
 Purpose:
• investigate the stratigraphy and geological features present
• What soil and rock layers are present? How thick are the layer(s)? What are the
underlying geological features of the site
• determine the groundwater conditions
• Where is the groundwater table? (Are there "perched" water tables?). Is the
groundwater flowing? In what direction? Is the groundwater polluted in any way?
• estimate engineering parameters for these materials
• For the planned use of the site (building, dam, tunnel, mine…), what are the values of
the engineering parameters (strengths, stiffnesses, permeabilities, consolidation
characteristics…) that are required in the design of the works.
 General options available:
• Excavation
• Drilling and sampling
• In situ testing: physical methods
• In situ testing: geophysical methods

66
 Depth of Investigation - Foundations
Isolated footing Pile group

Stress contours Soil stressed to

greater depth due to
interaction between
piles and due to
Must explore to the depth to which the soil shaft friction
will be significantly stressed (perhaps to
10% of the applied stress). This is of the
order of twice the width of the loaded area.

67
Depth of Investigation - Dams and Reservoirs

B
Exploration depth of
½B about half the base width
for an earth dam

Critical issues are seepage, foundation failure and settlement

Prove low Exploration depth of

permeability 2H about twice the
stratum hydraulic head

68
 Classification Systems for Soil and Rock
 These provide:
• standard descriptive terminology and categories of material type
• grades of strength, density, weathering, etc

 Purpose:
• consistency within a project and from project to project
• avoid misunderstanding about material types (avoid claims by contractor!)
• enable simple identification procedures
• assist simplification of complex conditions
• enable generalisations about soil and rock types and their uses

Accurate classification of all materials essential - this is the

means of communicating the ground conditions to the
designer of the works.

69
 Soil Classification
fines content
Particle size Divisions
(mm) GW Well graded gravels, sandy gravels
<5%
GP Poorly graded gravels, sandy gravels
boulder
200 GM Silty gravel, gravel-sand-silt mixture
cobble > 12 %
63
GC Clayey gravel, gravel-sand-clay mixture
coarse
20
medium gravel SW Well graded sands, gravelly sands
6 <5%
SP Poorly graded sands, gravelly sands
fine
2.36 SM Silty sand, sand-silt mixture
coarse > 12 %
0.6 SC Clayey sand, sand-clay mixture
medium sand
0.2
fine
ML Low plasticity silt, sandy or clayey silt
0.075 CL Low plasticity clay, sandy or silty clay
silt and clay
OL Low plasticity organic silt, sandy or clayey silt
In Australia, common use made of
MH High plasticity silt, sandy or clayey silt
the Unified Soil Classification
CH High plasticity clay, sandy or silty clay
System (US), as well as the
OH High plasticity organic silt, sandy or clayey silt
Australian Standard system. See
Whitlow for British Standard
Pt Peat and other highly organic soils
system
70
Engineering Use Chart

71
 Field Classification of Strength
STRENGTH DEFINITION ESTIMATED SHEAR
DESCRIPTION STRENGTH (kPa)
VERY SOFT easily penetrated several centimetres by fist < 12.5
SOFT easily penetrated several centimetres by thumb 12.5 – 25
FIRM can be penetrated several centimetres by thumb with 25 – 50
SOIL

moderate effort
STIFF readily indented by thumb but penetrated only with great 50 – 100
effort
VERY STIFF readily indented by thumb nail 100 – 200
HARD > 200

ESTIMATED UNIAXIAL
COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH (MPa)
EXTREMELY LOW easily remoulded by hand to a material with soil properties < 0.45
VERY LOW may be broken in hand with difficulty 0.45 – 1.25
LOW cuts easily with a knife 1.25 – 5
ROCK

MEDIUM difficult to cut with knife, pick indents deeply 5 – 12.5

HIGH cannot be cut with knife, pick indents to 5 mm 12.5 – 50
VERY HIGH requires one hammer blow to break 50 – 100
EXTREMELY HIGH requires multiple hammer blows to break >100
72
 Some Other Classifications and Standards
 Soil particle shape and angularity
 Relative density of non-cohesive soils
 Mineralogy for clay minerals: determine mineralogy by X-
ray diffraction directly, and not just measure Atterberg
Limits (plasticity)
 Mineralogy for sand-sized material: many sands are silica
(quartz), but some onshore, and many offshore, are
calcareous
 Rock type and mineral composition
 Rock substance weathering:
• alteration and decomposition of the original rock
 Rock defects:
• type, shape, roughness, spacing, length, etc.

73
 Excavation: Hand Auger
Enables quick assessment of the
soils present in the top few metres
of the profile.

Limited by depth of water table in

sandy soils and the presence of
strong layers.

74
 Excavation: Test Pits
 Typically using a backhoe or excavator
 Generally to depths of about 3 m (can
go deeper with long-reach backhoe)
 Enables:
• visual inspection and identification, logging of
soil in test-pit wall
• collection of bulk samples
• some in situ testing to determine engineering
properties
 SAFETY:
• deep test pit can collapse - endanger anyone in
the pit
• care in heavily polluted areas - gasses may
collect in pit

Test pit at UWA's Shenton Park Site 75

 Drilling and Sampling
 Hole advanced using a drilling rig
 Cuttings from hole inspected
 Samples recovered for inspection, identification and testing
• Samples may be “disturbed” or “undisturbed”
 In situ testing may be undertaken in the boreholes (SPT;
shear vane; pressuremeter; pumping to determine
permeability)
 Determine groundwater conditions
• Measure groundwater table in hole (after some time)
• Recover samples of groundwater for chemical analysis
 A variety of drilling techniques may be used, depending on:
• type of soil or rock expected
• depth of investigation required
• quality of samples required
• availability of equipment (for small projects in remote areas, may have to rely
on non-ideal equipment)
76
Auger Drilling  Solid Augers
- disturbed cuttings recovered at
surface
- not clear what depth they are from
 Hollow Augers:
- inner bit can be removed, allowing
sampling (pushed thin-walled tube) and
testing (SPT, vane) at particular depths
Truck mounted
drilling rig Hollow stem augers

77
Drilling Rigs: Old and New

78
Drilling in Bangladesh

79
 Rotary Mud Flush Drilling
Rotary union

Rotary head

Drill rods

Casing
Pump

Sump or tank to
recirculate drilling fluid
and settle out cuttings

Drill bit

Wash boring is a similar concept that relies on relatively little drilling action and can form a hole
primarily by jetting. This can be undertaken with light equipment without the need for a drilling rig. 80
Rotary Coring

81
Logging Diamond Drill Core

82
 Sampling in Soil
Drilling operations in soil
generally do not directly
recover samples, although the
cuttings and spoil can be
inspected to get an idea of the
material being penetrated.

Samples will generally be

taken at about 1.5 m depth
intervals.

In general, thin-walled tube

samplers are used in cohesive
soils to obtain "undisturbed"
samples, and the Standard
Penetration Test is used in
non-cohesive soils to obtain a
disturbed sample (and yield a
test result).

There is wide variety of other

sampling methods.

Thin-walled push tube sampler SPT “split spoon” sampler

83
Piezometers: Installed in Completed Boreholes
Standpipe piezometer shown
here for monitoring static
water levels.
Standpipe
The borehole is sealed to Sandy soil
prevent passage of water
Backfill
from the top sand layer to the
bottom sand layer.

If drilling fluid is used when Clayey soil Bentonite seal

the hole is advanced, this
may affect performance.
Filter material
Other types of piezometers
are preferred for pore Sandy soil Porous tip or
pressure monitoring in fine
slotted section
grained soils.
84
Piezometer

Piezometer assembled prior to

installation

85
 Laboratory testing
Some applicable tests
sv
F
Direct shear test
F
F Interface slip

Simple shear test sh

sh
F

s1 Shear distortion
and failure
Triaxial
compression test
s3
s3

Compression,
One-dimensional sv distortion and
compression shear failure
(consolidation) test eh = 0

Note: High-quality laboratory testing requires high quality samples 86

Assessment of Sample Quality: X-ray

87
X-Ray Tubes for Sample Selection

88
 In Situ Testing
 There is a wide variety of different tests that can be used for
evaluating the properties of the ground
 It is often preferable to do an in situ test in an attempt to
measure a particular parameter, rather than obtain a sample
and do a laboratory test
• sampling results in disturbance (reduces strength and stiffness)
• sometimes only best (strongest) material recovered - not representative of
overall in situ material
 Typical parameters that may be obtained either directly, or
indirectly from in situ tests:
• strength
• stiffness
• permeability
• relative density
• horizontal stress (??)

89
 In Situ Testing
 Some of the most common types:
• Penetration tests
• dynamic (hammered in using drop weight) - e.g. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
• static (pushed in smoothly using hydraulics) - e.g Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
• Vane shear test (for strength of soft clays)
• Dilatometer test (DMT)
• Pressuremeter test (PMT) or self-boring pressuremeter test (SBP)
• Plate bearing test
• Screw plate test
 Types used depend on geographical location (and on predominant soil
types)
• in USA - mainly Standard Penetration Test (SPT) - very crude test
• in Australia - mainly cone penetration test (CPT), with some sampling, but SPT still
used widely
• in SE Asia and Japan - mainly SPT
• offshore engineering - mainly CPT with sampling
• Europe - CPT (except France - Ménard pressuremeter test)
 Geophysics (various non-intrusive tests)
90
Some In Situ Tests

91
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
SPT hammer

63.5 kg mass

Count number of blows to

drive sampler from
760 mm
penetration of 150 to 450
mm

Corrections are normally applied to

the SPT blow count to account for
differences in:
• energy imparted during the test
• the stress level at the test depth
92
SPT test with very basic equipment, UK

93
SPT Interpretation - A Wish List?
SPT N-value
has been
correlated
with almost
EVERY
known soil
parameter by
someone or
other.

Is this
realistic????

94
 SPT Interpretation

Some advantages of test: Some disadvantages of test:

• Simple equipment and procedure • Sensitivity to operator technique,

• Soil sample obtained (disturbed) boring practice, equipment details, etc.
• Many correlations exist (some • Equipment not standardised
sensible, some not) internationally
• May be problems below water table

95
 SPT Worldwide
 The SPT is the main in situ site investigation method in the
USA and many other parts of the world (including Japan)
 The SPT is not much used in Europe (except UK)
 In Australia, the SPT and the Cone Penetration Test are
used, but gradually the SPT is being phased out in favour of
the CPT
 The CPT is a far superior test
• but no sample is retrieved for material identification
• not suitable for ground with coarse gravel or cobbles (eg “boulder clay”
resulting from glaciation (northern Europe, UK)

96
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

35.7 mm diameter = 1000 mm2 area

pushed in at 20 mm/s
97
CPT Setup

Friction ratio:
(fs/qc)

98
Enclosed CPT Truck (Perth: Woodside Building)
20 tonne truck: reaction from truck weight

Stabilising jacks (lifts truck off springs)

99
 Open 6 tonne CPT Truck
(Georgia Tech Geomechanics Group, Atlanta)
reaction from ground anchors

Screw-type ground anchors)

100
CPT used with Drill Rig

101
 Cone Details

Load cells for

measuring qc and fs
102
 CPT Results
Friction ratio:
fs qc (fs/ qc)
0

5
Depth (m)

10

15

20

25

30 103
 Piezocone Test (CPTU)

Positive Du in clays (but

negative in heavily
overconsolidated clays

Du = 0 - ie u = uo
(hydrostatic) in clean sand
(may be some Du in silty
sand) 104
CPT/CPTU Interpretation - Soil Type

Robertson & Campanella charts 105

 Typical CPT-U results - 1

Soft clay
} or very
loose sand

http://www.ce.gatech.edu/~geosys/Faculty/Mayne/Research/index.html 106
Typical CPT-U results - 2

107
 Soil Stiffness
t Gmax or Go
Typical shear stress-strain behaviour
tmax
of soil - very non-linear, and NOT
elastic
0.5tmax
Gmax: Initial tangent shear modulus (also
called Go - stiffness at zero strain) G50

G50: Secant stiffness over stress range 0 to g

50% of strength
3000
Soil "stiffness" not a single Retaining Typical strain ranges
parameter - must use the 2000
walls

secant value appropriate for Eu/s Foundations

u
particular problem 1000

Note: E = 2(1+n)G
0
For 0.2 < n < 0.5, 2.4G < E < 3G 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
(n is Poisson’s ratio) Axial strain (%) 108
 Go (Gmax) and Prediction of “Working” Strain
 Go can be readily
measured (see later)
Shear stress t

 Go normally can’t be used

Go
directly
Applied
shear stress
• predicted strains (settlements)
too large
 Must “soften” Go
• what is ratio G /Go to give
correct displacements?
Gsec = G
 This is an extreme form of
extrapolation
• not likely to be reliable
Shear strain g
Actual strain due to applied stress
Strain predicted using Go

109
 Stiffness (Go) Measurement:
Seismic Cone Penetration Test
Measure travel time, and hence shear wave velocity Vs

Oscilloscope
Trigger
Static Load Go = r.(Vs)2
Sledge hammer

Shear 1m
Geophones
waves

"1-point" "2-point"
cone cone 110
 Beam and Hammer Shear Wave Source

Seismic CPT testing at Woodside Building

site in Perth

111
Shear Wave Recordings at 1m depth intervals

Line through first peak

Gradient gives velocity

112
 Seismic Piezocone Test

Gives Four Independent

Measurements with Depth: Vs
 Cone Tip Stress, qt (=qc corrected)

 Sleeve Friction, fs fs
 Penetration Porewater Pressure, u
u2
Arrival Time of Downhole Shear
Wave, ts u1 60o
qc
 Other Forms of Seismic Test to Give Go
 Seismic CPT is just a convenient form of “downhole test”
 Can also perform “crosshole test” in which shear waves are
sent from one borehole to an adjacent one
 In both cases, measure the travel time over a set distance
 In downhole tests (as in Seismic CPT), conventionally carry
out tests at 1 m intervals
• Difference in arrival time from one test to the next gives travel time over that
test interval
• Travel time interpreted to give shear wave velocity (Vs), which in turn
interpreted to give Go over that interval
 Also use Surface Wave (Rayleigh Wave) test to determine Go
and its variation with depth

114
 Oscilloscope
Downhole Testing
Pump
Horizontal Plank
with normal load

x
Dt Hammer
z1
z2 packer

Horizontal
Test
Depth
Velocity
Interval Transducers
(Geophone
Receivers)

Shear Wave Velocity: R12 = z12 + x2

R22 = z22 + x2
Vs = DR/Dt Cased
Borehole
115
 Oscilloscope
Crosshole Testing
ASTM D 4428

Pump

Dt
Shear Wave Velocity:
Vs = Dx/Dt
Downhole
Hammer
(Source) Velocity
Test Transducer
Depth (Geophone
Receiver)
packer
Dx
Slope Slope
Note: Verticality of casing
Inclinometer Inclinometer
must be established by
slope inclinometers to correct
PVC-cased PVC-cased
distances Dx with depth. 116
Borehole Borehole
 Sounding - Shelby County, TN
qt (MPa) Friction Ratio (%) u2 (kPa) Vs (m/sec)
0 5 10 15 20 25 0123 45678 -500 500 1500 2500 0 250 500
0 0 0 0
SM
SiltSilt
Clayey

5 5 5 5 Dense Sand

Dense Sand
Depth BGS (m)

10 10 10 10

15 15 15 15
Stiff Clay

20 20 20 20

25 25 25 25
 Stiffness of London Clay

 Eo (Go) too high to use

Small strain stiffness directly for predicting
(Eo) from seismic settlements (see later
testing section on SBP)
 Laboratory tests in
this case show result of
Back analysis disturbance and poor
from
laboratory technique
measured
movement of  Can now do much
buildings better with laboratory
measurements - high
quality internal strain
Oedometer measurements (see
earlier handout for
picture of internal
strain instrumentation
used at UWA)
Triaxial
118
 CPT Interpretation - Strength
Cohesive soils Non-cohesive soils

Cone resistance, qc (MPa)

q c  N cs u  s v 0 10 20 30 40 50
0

Vertical effective stress, s'v (kPa)

50 f = 48°
qc = measured cone resistance
Nc = a bearing factor, typically 100
46°
between 9 and 15
150
Corrections are needed for pore 200 44°
pressure acting on shoulder of cone
250

300
42°
350
30° 36° 38° 40°
400
Lunne et al. (1997) 119
 Stiffness of Sands from CPT qc value?
Baldi et al. (1989) “working” stiffness at 0.1% strain
Example:

s'vo = 100 kPa

qc (MPa) qc/(s'vo)0.5 E's/qc

4 400 4 to 24
10 1000 3 to 12
20 2000 2 to 6

• No direct link between qc and

stiffness
• E/qc ratio depends on sand type,
age etc
• E/qc ratio depends on qc - for a
given depth (s´vo), the higher the
qc value the lower the E/qc ratio
120
 Cones equipped with Other Sensors
 Standard CPT measures forces (qs, fs) and pore pressure (Du)
 Seismic CPT includes geophone(s) to measure Vs
 “Resistivity cone” includes module for determining soil
electrical resistivity (conductivity)
• really measuring the conductivity of the pore fluid - can detect presence of
ionic pollutants (high conductivity) or hydrocarbons (very low conductivity)
 Many other sensors
• miniature video camera looking through window (to “see” presence of
pollutants)
• Laser Induced Fluorescence Cone (various pollutants have a signature
flourescence)
• many new types - lots of current research

121
Cones: Pore Pressure and Resistivity Measurement
Pore pressure transducer
on face of cone

Various types of cones

with pore pressure
transducers

Resistivity module

Various types of cones with

pore pressure transducers
and additional resistivity
module 122
Laser Induced
Fluorescence
Cone

Many different
modules are now
attached to cones to
pick up various
pollutants
(resistivity module
is most basic -
picks up water
soluble pollutants)

123
 “Video-Cone”

Video Cone Module

Miniature video
camera protected by
sapphire window

Video of penetration in sand with coal tar contamination 124

 Pressuremeter Test
Basic principle

“Self-boring”
pressuremeter for soil

Cylindrical probe,
inflated in borehole,
measure pressure
versus expansion

Gives:
- Stiffness
- Strength
- Coefficient of consolidation
- Horizontal stress? 125
 Pressuremeter Test
 Types:
• Inserted into pre-drilled borehole (Ménard type); for rock or very hard
ground
• “Self-boring” pressuremeter (SBP) – drills itself into the ground – for sand or
soft to stiff clays
 Principle:
• membrane inflated – measure inflation pressure and membrane expansion
• plot pressure (p) against “cavity strain” e = Dr/ro
• obtain shear strength (su) from pressure-strain curve
• obtain stiffness (shear modulus Gur) from unload-reload loop
• for SBP, “liftoff” pressure should be equal to in situ horizontal stress sho
• often affected by disturbance (but still best method of measuring sho)
• where pore pressure transducer built into membrane, can deduce coefficient
of consolidation cv from “holding test” (hold pressure constant and measure
rate of dissipation of excess pore pressure)
 In WA:
• UWA has SBP
• some consultants have versions of non-self boring pressuremeters (high-
pressure pressuremeters for testing in rock)
126
UWA Self-Boring Pressuremeter (SBP)

UWA's SBP during

the 2003
investigation for the
Perth Rail Tunnel

127
 UWA SBP Test in sand in Perth
1800 “Creep” at
constant pressure
Go = 229 MPa
1600
(seismic CPT)
1400
Cavity pressure - uo (kPa)

1200

1000

800

600 Gur = ½ slope of

unload-reload loop
400

200

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Cavity strain (%)
128
 Stiffness from SBP Unload-Reload Loops (Gur)
Shear Modulus Gur (MPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0
Site B
5 Site M
Site N
10 Site W
Depth below surface (m)

AMP
15 CBA

CBA
NBA
NBA

William Street
AMP
20 St. George's Terrace

Shearwood Ct.
25

30
The Esplanade

35
0 Scale (m) 300
40

SBP Gur values appear to be of the right order, compared to values back-analysed from
settlement of structures (plot compares values measured at various sites in Perth with
measured performance of 3 buildings) 129
SBP Gur values and Seismic CPT Go values
Shear Modulus G (MPa)
0 100 200 300 400 500
0
Gur: Site B
Go: Site B
Gur: Site W
5
Go: Site W, P1
Depth below surface (m)

Go: Site W, P2

10

15

20

25

30

Data shown for 2 sites in the Perth CBD 130

 Rock Strength from Pressuremeter
Kings Park Formation (siltstone) - Shelley Bridge, Leach Highway
(insertion-type pressuremeter, 20 MPa capacity)
Shear Strength (MPa)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 In situ strengths may be
significantly different from that
16 measured on core samples in the
laboratory.
18
20 Field strength may be lower due to
Depth (m)

scale effects and influence of

22 discontinuities.

24 Field strength may be higher due

26 to drying, disturbance and stress
relief on core samples in weak
28 rock.
30
Pressuremeter test
Unconfined compression test
data from Jewell and Fahey (1984) 131
 Marchetti Dilatometer Test (DMT)

http://www.marchetti-dmt.it/docfiles/tc16_dmt2001.doc 132
 Marchetti Dilatometer (DMT)

Signal wire &

pneumatic
tubing

1 mm gap

PA
PB

60 mm

Flexible steel
membrane

95 mm
Records “liftoff” pressure (PA) and
pressure at displacement of 1 mm (PB).
These points indicated by audible signal
(“beep”) from control box
133
 Marchetti Dilatometer

Flexible stainless steel membrane:

expand with gas - measure pressure for “liftoff” (PA) and for movement of 1 mm (P
134B)
Operation of the DMT

135
 Marchetti Dilatometer Test (DMT)
 Measures “liftoff” pressure
po (A)and pressure at 1mm
expansion p1 (B)
 “Dilatometer” modulus:
ED  (p1 - po) (akin to a
load-deflection curve)
 Use M for settlement
analysis
 (Test is like a very simple
pressuremeter test ?)

136
 DMT Interpretation: Basic Correlations
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION BASIC DMT REDUCTION FORMULAE
p0 Corrected First Reading p0 = 1.05 (A - ZM + DA) - 0.05 (B - ZM - DB) ZM = Gage reading when vented to
p1 = B - ZM - DB atm.
p1 Corrected Second Reading
If DA & DB are measured with the
same gage used for current readings
A & B, set ZM = 0 (ZM is compensated)
ID Material Index ID = (p1 - p0) / (p0 - u0) u0 = pre-insertion pore pressure
KD Horizontal Stress Index KD = (p0 - u0) / s'v0 s'v0 = pre-insertion overburden stress
ED Dilatometer Modulus ED = 34.7 (p1 - p0) ED is NOT a Young's modulus E. ED
should be used only AFTER
combining it with KD (Stress History).
First obtain MDMT = RM ED, then e.g. E 
0.8 MDMT
K0 Coeff. Earth Pressure in K0,DMT = (KD / 1.5)0.47 - 0.6 for ID < 1.2
Situ
OCR Overconsolidation Ratio OCRDMT = (0.5 KD)1.56 for ID < 1.2
cu Undrained Shear Strength cu,DMT = 0.22 s'v0 (0.5 KD) 1.25
for ID < 1.2
 safe,DMT = 28° + 14.6° log KD - 2.1° log KD 2
Friction Angle for ID > 1.8
Coefficient of Consolidation ch,DMTA  7 cm / tflex
2
ch tflex from A-log t DMT-A decay curve
kh Coefficient of Permeability kh = ch gw / Mh (Mh  K0 MDMT)
g Unit Weight and Description (see chart in Fig. 16)
M Vertical Drained MDMT = RM ED
Constrained Modulus if ID  0.6 RM = 0.14 + 2.36 log KD
if ID  3 RM = 0.5 + 2 log KD
if 0.6 < ID < 3 RM = RM,0 + (2.5 - RM,0) log KD
with RM,0 = 0.14 + 0.15 (ID - 0.6)
if KD > 10 RM = 0.32 + 2.18 log KD
if RM < 0.85 set RM = 0.85
u0 Equilibrium Pore Pressure u0 = p2 = C - ZM + DA In free-draining soils
137
DMT and CPT Profiles, “Bishop’s See” Site, Perth
Note: ID is not the relative density index (it's a "material index"- see previous table
IDID K
KD
D EDED(MPa)
(MPa) M (MPa)
M (MPa) qqc (MPa)
(MPa) GGo (MPa)
(MPa)
0.1 1 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 100 200 300 400 500
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 50 100 150 0 20 40 60
0 0 0 0
0 0

5 5 5 5 5 5

10 10 10 10 10 10
Depth (m)

15 15 15 15 15 15

1200

20 20 20 20 20 20

25 25 25 25 25
25

Dilatometer (tests with UWA dilatometer) Seismic CPT 138

Plate Load Test

139
 Plate Load Test

Plate typically
0.3 to 0.5 m diameter

Typical foundation

Plate load test only useful

for small foundations (where
stress “bulb” is similar
between plate and
foundation)
140
 Screw Plate Test
(plate load test at different
depths)

• “Plate” is in fact a single flight of an

auger
• Plate inserted by screwing into the
ground causing no disturbance (?)
• Problems with:
•disturbance
•displacement measurement
•only suitable for soft ground (in
which plate can be screwed)

141
Vane Shear Test: Direct Measure of su of clays

Half-turn slip
coupling
(allows rod
friction to be
measured before
engaging vane)

Torque wrench
large vane for soft clays; small vane for stiff clays; 142
Vane Test: Recording Torque versus Rotation

Rod friction Peak vane resistance 143

 In Situ Testing
Perceived applicability of selected test methods in soil, Wroth (1984)
Parameter
Test ID f su OCR E, G Liquefaction
resistance
SPT B C C - - A
CPT B C B C B B
Seismic cone B C B C A B
Piezocone A B B A B A
Self boring pressuremeter A A A A A A
Insertion pressuremeter C B B C B C
Dilatometer B C B B B B
Field vane - - A B - -
Screw plate B C B B A B
R

ID: relative density

A = high applicability, B = moderate applicability, C = limited applicability 144
Strengths from Different Tests

. Comparison between cu
determined by DMT and by other
tests at the National Research Site
of Bothkennar, UK (Nash et al.
1992)
(cu and su are different terms for
undrained shear strength)

145
 Pump Testing
Pumping from Observation wells
production well

Original water table S1 S2

Groundwater surface
while pumping

r1
r2
146
Borehole Permeability Tests

147
 Geophysical Methods
 Non-intrusive method of “seeing” into the ground
 Seismic: based on fact that compression waves or shear
waves travel at different speeds in the ground, and that
waves reflect off interfaces between materials of different
density or stiffness (Seismic CPT, Surface Wave methods, are
examples)
 Magnetic
 Gravitational
 Electrical conductivity
 Radar (“ground penetrating radar”, GPR)

148
 Seismic Reflection
Reflections of sound waves (compression waves) from the subsurface arrive at the
geophones some measurable time after the source pulse. If we know the speed of
sound in the earth and the geometry of the wave path, we can convert that seismic
travel time to depth. By measuring the arrival time at successive surface locations
we can produce a profile, or cross-section, of seismic travel times. A simple
concept.

In practice, the speed of sound in the earth varies enormously. Dry, sand might
carry sound waves at 250 m/s or less. At the other extreme, unfractured granite
might have a velocity in excess of 6,000 m/s.

The more layers between the surface and the layer of interest, the more
complicated the velocity picture. Various methods are used to estimate subsurface
velocities including refraction analysis, borehole geophysical measurements,
estimates from known lithologic properties, and analysis of reflection times at
increasing offsets. Generally, a combination of velocity estimation methods will
give the best results.

149
 Seismic Reflection

Source: www.geosphereinc.com 150

 Seismic Refraction
When a sound wave crosses an interface between layers of two different
velocities, the wave is refracted. That is, the angle of the wave leaving the
interface will be altered from the incident angle, depending on the relative
velocities. Going from a low-velocity layer to a high-velocity layer, a wave at a
particular incident angle (the "critical angle") will be refracted along the upper
surface of the lower layer. As it travels, the refracted wave spawns upgoing
waves in the upper layer, which impinge on the surface geophones.

Sound moves faster in the lower layer than the upper, so at some point, the wave
refracted along that surface will overtake the direct wave. This refracted wave is
then the first arrival at all subsequent geophones, at least until it is in turn
overtaken by a deeper, faster refraction. The difference in travel time of this
wave arrival between geophones depends on the velocity of the lower layer. If
that layer is plane and level, the refraction arrivals form a straight line whose
slope corresponds directly to that velocity. The point at which the refraction
overtakes the direct arrival is known as the "critical distance", and can be used to
estimate the depth to the refracting surface.

151
Seismic Refraction

152
 oscilloscope
Seismic Refraction

ASTM D 5777

Note: Vp1 < Vp2

Determine depth t1
to rock layer, zR t2
Vertical Geophones
t3
Source
(Plate) t4

x1
x2
x3
Soil: Vp1
zR x4

Rock: Vp2153
 oscilloscope
Seismic Refraction

“Shortest path not

necessarily the fastest
one”

Vertical Geophones
Source
(Plate)

Fastest path is the shortest one

Soil: Vp1

Rock: Vp2154
Fastest path is NOT the shortest one
 Seismic Refraction

Horizontal Soil Layer over Rock

T ra v e l T im e ( s e c o n d s )
0.020
xc Vp2  Vp1
zc 
2 Vp2  Vp1
0.015 1
Vp2 = 4880
0.010 m/s

xc = 15.0 m
0.005
1 Depth to Rock:
Vp1 = 1350 zc = 5.65 m
m/s
t values

0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance From Source (meters)
x values
155
Applications of Seismic Reflection & Refraction

Seismic reflection and refraction have numerous potential

applications to a variety of environmental and geotechnical
problems, including:
 Depth and characterisation of bedrock surface
 Buried channel definition
 Depth of water table
 Depth and continuity of stratigraphic interfaces
 Rippability determination
 Mapping of faults and other structural features
 Location of karst features

156
 Surface Wave Tests
Non invasive method based on the geometric dispersion of Rayleigh waves,
which are waves that travel along the ground surface resulting from a vertical
impact or continuous vibration source (like waves in the sea).
The relationship between velocity of propagation of Rayleigh waves and
frequency can be determined experimentally analysing the particle motion
induced on the ground surface by the propagation.
Seismic waves are generated using either impact sources or vibrators and are
detected using vertical velocity transducers (Geophones). The recorded
ground motion is then analysed in the frequency domain to estimate the
experimental dispersion curve (the relationship between frequency and
velocity).
The experimental dispersion curve is finally used in an inversion process to
estimate the variation with depth of the velocity of propagation of shear wave,
which is linked to the small strain stiffness of the soil.

G o  r  Vs2
The inversion process is based on the numerical propagation of Rayleigh wave
propagation in layered linear elastic media. 157
 Geometric Dispersion
Vertical particle motion Phase velocity VR

?
VR
VS1

Wavelength 
VR    f
VS2> VS1

VS3> VS2
Z Z Frequency f

Short Long Dispersion Curve

Stiffness wavelength wavelength
profile Experimental
High Low
frequency frequency

INVERSE PROBLEM

Effectively, velocity of each wavelength depends on a different

depth of the ground. Can re-construct ground stiffness profile from
"dispersion curve" 158
Experimental tests at the
Convention Centre site

Sledgehammer source Heavy weight source

159
 Automated Inversion:
Shear wave velocity profile
Damped Weighted Least
Squares Algorithm Vs [m/s]
0 200 400 600 800
0

Dispersion curve fitting 5

800
10
700
phase velocity [m/s]

600 15

depth [m]
experimental
500
numerical 20
400
300 25
200
100 30
0
35
0 20 40 60 80 100
frequency [Hz] 40

G o  r  Vs
2
160
Comparison with other experimental data

The test location is in the vicinity of borehole

CB5 and of the seismic cone SC2 (S-CPT)
The log of borehole CB5 reports a siltstone
bedrock at a depth of 35m, in very good
agreement with the obtained stiffness profile.
SASW The comparison with the SCPT shows that
the stiffer superficial layer is successfully
detected and that the the average velocities
are slightly overestimated.
The surface wave test was not able to detect
the softer layer above the bedrock. This was
somewhat expected because the inherent
resolution of the method decreases with depth

161
 Electrical Methods
Electrical properties are among the most useful geophysical parameters in
characterizing earth materials. Variations in electrical conductivity (or its inverse,
resistivity) typically correlate with variations in water saturation, fluid
conductivity, porosity, permeability, and the presence of metal. Depending on the
particular site, these variations may be used to locate contaminant plumes, salt
water intrusion, stratigraphic units, sinkholes, fractures, buried drums and
tanks, and any other feature whose electrical properties contrast with the
surrounding earth.
Ground conductivity can be measured either directly, using the galvanic
resistivity method, or inductively, using electromagnetic induction (EM). Because
EM requires no direct contact with the ground surface, data can be acquired more
quickly than with resistivity. Resistivity, however, can provide better vertical
resolution and is generally less sensitive to sources of "noise" such as fences,
buildings and overhead powerlines.

162
 ElectroMagnetic Induction

Combined 3-D Plot/Contour Map of EM Induction Data 163

 Applications of Electrical Methods
EM and Resistivity can be applied to a wide variety of
problems encountered in environmental, groundwater, geotechnical,
and archaeological work, including:
 Location of buried drums, tanks, trenches, and utilities
 Location of landfills and bulk buried materials
 Delineation of contaminant plumes
 Depth of water table and aquifer identification and mapping
 Continuity of stratigraphic interfaces such as clay layers
 Mapping of faults and fractures
 Location of karst features

164
 Geo-Environmental Site Investigation
 “Geo-environmental” site investigation refers mainly to
investigation of ground and groundwater pollution, and
determining how the pollutant will migrate and behave
generally in the ground
 Involves sampling of soil and groundwater - very similar to
normal site investigation (hence often done by same
consultants)
• BUT requires very high standards of cleanliness (such that sample reflects the
true situation in the ground)
• AND requires (often) attention to potential health impact on the people doing
the work
 A lot of use made of geophysics methods, and of special
probes (as discussed earlier)

165
 Offshore Site Investigation
 Site investigation for offshore foundations similar to on-shore
practice, except for the cost and difficulty of the work
 Seismic data sometimes available, indicating approximate
layering in offshore deposits, but not usually
• seismic methods used to determine reservoir characteristics, but this is
targeted at greater depths than are usually relevant to foundations
• for site investigation purposes, require higher resolution seismic methods
than used for reservoir characterisation
 Current practice is to try to obtain “undisturbed” tube
samples for laboratory testing, coupled with in situ cone
penetrometer testing (CPT) to give continuous profile
• getting more difficult, with increasing water depths of sites of interest (> 1000
m being common)
 Work is carried out by specialised contractors using site
investigation drilling ships built specifically for the task
166
 Investigation platforms

 Largest part of SI cost

 Mobile vessels equipped with dynamic positioning (DP) and heave compensation systems.

Drilling vessel Jack-up Semi-sub

A$100K/day Up to A$150K/day A$275K/day
167
Bathymetry Sub-seabed continuous
mapping seismic profiling

Sea floor mapping

168
Seismic profiling can be used to make an assessment of the stratigraphy: Can identify the interface at the rock
head (line with semi-circular markers), and different soil types: Clayey sand, Boulder clay etc … 169