Digital Transmission

Digital Transmission
is the transmittal of digital signals
between two or more points in a
communications system
With digital transmission systems, a
physical facility, such as a pair of
wires, coaxial cable, or an optical
fiber cable, is required to
interconnect the various points
within the system.

Line Coding
is the process of converting digital
data to digital signals

Signal Element versus Data Element

Data element
- is the smallest
entity that can
represent a
piece of
information
(bit)
- are being
carried

Signal element
-carries data
elements
-shortest unit
(timewise) of a
digital signal
-are the carriers

Signal Element versus Data Element

Data Rate versus Signal

Rate
Data Rate
- Defines the
number of data
elements (bits)
sent
- Unit is bits per
second (bps)
- Sometimes
called the bit
rate

Signal Rate
-is the number of
signal elements
sent
- unit is the baud
-Sometimes called
the pulse rate, the
modulation rate, or
the baud rate

Relationship between Data rate and

Signal rate

Where: S - number of
signal elements
c - case factor
N data rate (bps)
r previously defined
factor

Where:
n= # of data
element / # of
signal element
fb- bit rate
fB baud rate

Examples
1. A signal is carrying data in which one
data element is encoded as one signal
element (r=1). If the bit rate is 100
kbps, what is the average value of the
baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
2. A signal is carrying data in which 4 data
element is encoded as one signal
element. If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what
is the average value of the baud rate?

Line Coding Schemes

A. Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)

1. Non-Return to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
- The level of voltage determines the
value of the bit
1 = high level
0 = low level
2. Non-Return-to-Zero Mark (NRZ-M)
where M denotes inversion on mark
1 = transition at the beginning of
interval
0 = no transition

3. Non-Return-to-Zero Space (NRZS)

Where S denotes inversion on space
using negative logic
1 = No change
0 = transition at beginning of
interval
B. Return To Zero (RZ)
1 = transition from high to low in
middle of interval

C. Biphase
1. Biphase-Level (Manchester)
1 = transition from high to low in
middle of interval
0 = transition from low to high in
middle of interval
2. Biphase-Mark
Always a transition at beginning of
interval
1 = transition in middle of interval
0 = no transition in middle of interval

3. Biphase-Space
Always a transition at beginning of
interval
1 = no transition in middle of
interval
0 = transition in middle of interval
D. Differential Manchester
1 = no transition in middle of
interval
0 = transition at beginning of

E. Delay Modulation (Miller)

1 = transition in middle of interval
0 = no transition if followed by 1
Transition at end of interval if followed
by 0
F. Bipolar-AMI (Alternate Mark
Inversion)
1 = pulse in first half of bit level,
alternating polarity pulse to pulse
0 = no pulse

Pulse Modulation
Consists essentially of sampling
analog information signals and then
converting those samples into
discrete pulses and transporting the
pulses from a source to a destination
over a physical transmission medium
pulse
pulse
pulse
pulse

width modulation (PWM)

position modulation (PPM)
amplitude modulation (PAM)
code modulation (PCM)

Pulse Modulation
A. Pulse Width
Modulation
Pulse duration
modulation
Pulse length
modulation
as the width
(active portion
of the duty
cycle) of a
constant
amplitude
pulse is varied
proportional
to the
amplitude of
the analog
signal at the

Pulse Modulation
B. Pulse Position
Modulation
- the position of a
constant-width
pulse within a
prescribed time
slot is varied
according to the
amplitude of the
sample of the
analog signal

Pulse Modulation
C. Pulse
Amplitude
Modulation
- the amplitude of a
constant width,
constant-position
pulse is varied
according to the
amplitude of the
sample of the
analog signal

Pulse Modulation
D. Pulse Code
Modulation
- the analog signal is
sampled and then
converted to a serial
n-bit binary code for
transmission
- Each code has the
same number of bits
and requires the
same length of time
for transmission
- Alex H. Reeves in
1937

PCM Sampling
Techniques used to perform the
sampling function:
1. natural sampling
2. flat-top sampling

PCM Sampling
A. Natural sampling
- when tops of the
sample pulses
retain their natural
shape during the
sample interval,
making it difficult
for an ADC to
convert the sample
to a PCM code

PCM Sampling
B. Flat-top sampling
- accomplished in a
sample-and-hold
circuit
- the input voltage is
sampled with a
narrow pulse and
then held relatively
constant
until the next sample
is taken

Nyquist Sampling Theorem

establishes the minimum sampling rate(fs)
that can be used for a given PCM system

Where: fs minimum Nyquist sample rate

(Hz)
fa maximum analog input frequency (Hz)
NOTE:
If fs is less than two times fa, an impairment
called alias or foldover distortion occurs

Example
For a PCM system with a maximum
audio input frequency of 4 kHz,
determine the minimum sample rate
and the alias frequency produced if a
5-kHz audio signal were allowed to
enter the sample-and hold circuit.

Quantization
is the process of converting an
infinite number of possibilities to a
finite number of conditions
the process of rounding off the
amplitudes of flat-top samples to a
manageable number of levels

Quantization
With quantization, the total voltage
range is subdivided into a smaller
number of subranges

 Quantizing - assigning PCM codes to

absolute magnitudes
Resolution- The magnitude of a
quantum
- The resolution is equal to the
voltage of the minimum step size,
which is equal to the voltage of the
least significant bit(Vlsb) of the PCM
code.
is the minimum voltage other than
0 V that can be decoded by the
digital-to-analog converter in the

 Quantization error (Qe) any

round-off errors in the transmitted
signal are reproduced when the code
is converted back to analog in the
receiver
- equivalent to additive white noise as
it alters the signal amplitude
- Also called quantization noise (Qn)

Example
For the PCM coding scheme shown in
Figure 8, determine the quantized
voltage, quantization error(Qe), and
PCM code for the analog sample
voltage of +1.07 V.

Dynamic Range
is the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to
the smallest possible magnitude (other than 0 V)
that can be decoded by the digital-to-analog
converter in the receiver.

Where: DR- dynamic range (unitless ratio)

Vmin- the quantum value (resolution)
Vmax - the maximum voltage magnitude that can be
discerned by the DACs in the receiver

The number of bits used for a PCM code

depends on the dynamic range. The
relationship between dynamic range and
the number of bits in a PCM code is
and for a minimum number of bits

Where: n - number of bits in a PCM code,

excluding the sign bit
DR- absolute value of dynamic range

Example
For a PCM system with the following
parameters, determine (a) minimum sample
rate, (b) minimum number of bits used in the
PCM code, (c) resolution, and (d) quantization
error.
Maximum analog input frequency = 4 kHz
Maximum decoded voltage at the receiver =
2.55 V
Minimum dynamic range = 46 dB

Coding Efficiency
is a numerical indication of how
efficiently a PCM code is utilized
ratio of the minimum number of bits
required to achieve a certain
dynamic range to the actual number
of PCM bits used

Signal-to-Quantization Noise
Ratio

Coding Methods
1. Level-at-a-Time Coding
- This type of coding compares the PAM signal
to a ramp waveform while a binary counter is
being advanced at a uniform rate
- requires a very fast clock if the number of bits
in the PCM code is large
2. Digit-at-a-Time Coding
- determines each digit of the PCM code
sequentially
3. Word-at-a-Time Coding
- Word-at-a-time coders are flash encoders and are
more complex; however, they are more suitable
for high-speed applications

Companding
is the process of
compressing
and then
expanding
is a means of
improving the
dynamic range
of a
communications
system

Companding
A. Analog Companding

Companding
A.Analog Companding
1. -Law companding used in the
United States

Example
For a compressor with a = 255,
determine
a. The voltage gain for the following
relative values of Vin: Vmax, 0.75
Vmax, 0.5 Vmax, and 0.25 Vmax.
b. The compressed output voltage for
a maximum input voltage of 4 V.
c. Input and output dynamic ranges
and compression.

Companding
A. Analog Companding
2. A-Law companding used in the
Europe

Companding
B. Digital Companding
- involves compression in the
transmitter after the input sample
has been converted to a linear PCM
code and then expansion in the
receiver prior to PCM decoding.

Companding
B. Digital Companding

Example
Determine the 12-bit linear code, the
eight-bit compressed code, the
decoded 12-bit code, the
quantization error, and the
compression error for a resolution of
0.01 V and analog sample voltages
of (a) +0.053 V, (b) -0.318 V, and (c)
+10.234 V

Digital Compression Error

Example

Vocoders
Special voice encoders/decoders used
when digitizing speech signals only
are designed to reproduce only the shortterm power spectrum
typically produce unnatural sounding
speech and, therefore, are generally used
for recorded information, such as wrong
number messages, encrypted voice for
transmission over analog telephone
circuits, computer output signals, and
educational games

Vocoding techniques
1. Channel Vocoders
first channel vocoder was developed by Homer
Dudley in 1928
2. Formant Vocoders
simply determines the location of formants (3 or
4 peak frequencies) and encodes and transmits
only the information with the most significant
short-term components
3. Linear Predictive Coders
extracts the most significant portions of speech
information directly from the time waveform
rather than from the frequency spectrum as with
the channel and formant vocoders

PCM LINE SPEED

simply the data rate at which serial
PCM bits are clocked out of the PCM
encoder onto the transmission line

Example
For a single-channel PCM system
with a sample rate fs = 6000
samples per second and a seven-bit
compressed PCM code, determine
the line speed.

DELTA MODULATION PCM

uses a single-bit PCM code to achieve
digital transmission of analog signals
With delta modulation, rather than
transmit a coded representation of
the sample, only a single bit is
transmitted, which simply indicates
whether that sample is larger or
smaller than the previous sample.

Delta Modulation
Transmitter

Ideal operation of a delta modulation

encoder

Delta Modulation Receiver

Problems associated with delta

modulation
1. Slope overload
. The slope of the analog signal is
greater than the delta modulator
can maintain

Problems associated with delta

modulation
2. Granular noise
when the original analog input signal
has a relatively constant amplitude,
the reconstructed signal has
variations that were not present in
the original signal

ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION PCM

is a delta modulation system where
the step size of the DAC is
automatically varied, depending on
the amplitude characteristics of the
analog input signal

DIFFERENTIAL PCM
is designed specifically to take
advantage of the sample-to-sample
redundancies in typical speech
waveforms
With DPCM, the difference in the
amplitude of two successive samples
is transmitted rather than the actual
sample.

DPCM transmitter

DPCM receiver