Data and Computer Communications

Chapter 5 Signal Encoding Techniques

Signal Encoding Techniques

Digital Data, Digital Signal

Digital

signal

discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses Each bit is a signal element binary data encoded into signal elements

Some Terms
Unipolar

- signal elements have the same

sign Polar - One logic state represented by positive voltage, other by negative duration or length of a bit modulation rate in signal elements per second mark and space

Interpreting Digital Signals

Receiver

needs to know

timing of bits - when they start and end signal levels

factors

affecting signal interpretation

signal to noise ratio data rate bandwidth encoding scheme affects performance

Comparison of Encoding Schemes

signal

spectrum clocking error detection signal interference and noise immunity cost and complexity

Encoding Schemes

Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)

two

different voltages for 0 and 1 bits voltage constant during bit interval

no transition i.e. no return to zero voltage such as absence of voltage for zero, constant positive voltage for one more often, negative voltage for one value and positive for the other

Nonreturn to Zero Inverted

Non-return to zero, inverted on ones constant voltage pulse for duration of bit data encoded as presence or absence of signal transition at beginning of bit time

transition (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1 no transition denotes binary 0 data is represented by changes rather than levels more reliable detection of transition rather than level easy to lose sense of polarity in twisted-pair line (for NRZ-L)

example of differential encoding since

NRZ Pros & Cons

Pros

easy to engineer make good use of bandwidth dc component lack of synchronization capability

Cons

used

for magnetic recording not often used for signal transmission

Multilevel Binary Bipolar-AMI

Use

more than two levels Bipolar-AMI

zero represented by no line signal one represented by positive or negative pulse One pulses alternately in polarity no loss of sync if a long string of ones long runs of zeros still a problem no net dc component lower bandwidth easy error detection

Multilevel Binary Pseudoternary

one

represented by absence of line signal zero represented by alternating positive and negative no advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI each used in some applications

Multilevel Binary Issues

synchronization with long runs of 0s or 1s

can insert additional bits, c.f. ISDN scramble data (discussed later)

not as efficient as NRZ

each signal element only represents one bit

receiver distinguishes between three levels: +A, -A, 0

a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits requires approx. 3dB more signal power for same probability of bit error

Manchester Encoding

has transition in the middle of each bit period transition serves as clock and data low to high represents one high to low represents zero used by IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet LAN)

Differential Manchester Encoding

Mid-bit transition is clocking only transition at start of bit period representing 0 no transition at start of bit period representing 1

this is a differential encoding scheme

used by IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring LAN)

Biphase Pros and Cons

Con

at least one transition per bit time and possibly two maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ requires more bandwidth synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking) has no dc component has error detection

Pros

Modulation Rate

Problems
Q1. Assume a stream of ten 1s. Encode the stream using the following schemes: NRZ-I, AMI, Manchester, Differential Manchester. How many transitions (vertical lines) are there for each scheme. Q2. For the Manchester encoded binary stream of the following page, extract the clock information and the data sequence.

Problems

Scrambling

use scrambling to replace sequences that would produce constant voltage these filling sequences must

produce enough transitions to sync be recognized by receiver & replaced with original data be same length as original, no rate penalty have no dc component have no long sequences of zero level line signal have no reduction in data rate give error detection capability

design goals

B8ZS and HDB3

B8ZS Substitution Rules: If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage pulse preceding this octet was positive, then the eight zeros of the octet are encoded as 000+0+. If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage pulse preceding this octet was negative, then the eight zeros of the octet are encoded as 000+0+. # If the AMI signal is inverted in the previous diagram, Draw the B8ZS and HDB3 signals.

- the fourth zero is replaced with a code violation. - successive violations are of alternate polarity

HDB3 Substitution Rules: Number of Bipolar Pulses (ones) since Last Substitution

Polarity of Preceding Pulse +

Odd 000000+

Even +00+ -00-

Problems

Q3. Consider a stream of binary data consisting of a long sequence of 1s, followed by a zero, followed by a long sequence of 1s. Preceding bit and level is indicated within parentheses. Draw the waveforms for NRZI (high), AMI (1 as negative voltage), and pseudo-ternary (0 as negative voltage). Q4. The AMI waveform representing a sequence 0100101011 is transmitted over a noisy channel. The received waveform with a single error is shown in the following page. Locate the error with justification.

Problems

Problems

Q5. For the received AMI bipolar sequence + - 0 + - 0 - + which has one violation, construct two possible transmitted pattern that might result in the same received pattern.

Analog Data, Analog Signals

modulate carrier frequency with analog data why modulate analog signals?

higher frequency can give more efficient transmission permits frequency division multiplexing (chapter 8) Amplitude Frequency Phase

types of modulation

Analog Modulation Techniques

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation

Digital Data, Analog Signal

main

use is public telephone system

has freq range of 300Hz to 3400Hz use modem (modulator-demodulator)

encoding

techniques

Amplitude shift keying (ASK) Frequency shift keying (FSK) Phase shift keying (PSK)

Modulation Techniques

Amplitude Shift Keying

encode

0/1 by different carrier amplitudes to sudden gain changes

usually have one amplitude zero

susceptible inefficient

used

for

up to 1200bps on voice grade lines very high speeds over optical fiber

Binary Frequency Shift Keying

most common is binary FSK (BFSK) two binary values represented by two different frequencies (near carrier) less susceptible to error than ASK used for

up to 1200bps on voice grade lines high frequency radio higher frequency on LANs using co-ax

Multiple FSK
each

signalling element represents more than one bit more than two frequencies used more bandwidth efficient more prone to error

MFSK

Phase Shift Keying

phase

of carrier signal is shifted to represent data binary PSK

two phases represent two binary digits

differential

PSK

phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some constant reference signal

DPSK

Quadrature PSK
get

more efficient use if each signal element represents more than one bit
e.g. shifts of /2 or (90o) each element represents two bits split input data stream in two & modulate onto carrier & phase shifted carrier

can

use 8 phase angles & more than one amplitude

9600bps modem uses 12 angles, four of which have two amplitudes

QPSK and OQPSK Modulators

QPSK

Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation Schemes

bandwidth

ASK/PSK bandwidth directly relates to bit rate multilevel PSK gives significant improvements

in

presence of noise:
bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB superior to ASK and FSK

Analog Data, Digital Signal

digitization

is conversion of analog data into digital data which can then:

be transmitted using NRZ-L be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L be converted to analog signal

analog

to digital conversion done using a

codec

pulse code modulation delta modulation

Digitizing Analog Data

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

sampling

theorem:

If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples contain all information in original signal e.g. 4000Hz voice data, requires 8000 sample per sec

Strictly:

these are analog samples

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

so

assign each a digital value

PCM Example

PCM Block Diagram

Non-Linear Coding

Companding

Delta Modulation
analog

input is approximated by a staircase function

can move up or down one level () at each sample interval

has

binary behavior

since function only moves up or down at each sample interval hence can encode each sample as single bit 1 for up or 0 for down

Delta Modulation Example

Delta Modulation Operation

PCM verses Delta Modulation

DM

has simplicity compared to PCM but has worse SNR issue of bandwidth used

e.g. for good voice reproduction with PCM

want 128 levels (7 bit) & voice bandwidth 4khz need 8000 x 7 = 56kbps

data

compression can improve on this still growing demand for digital signals
use of repeaters, TDM, efficient switching
PCM

preferred to DM for analog signals

Problem

Q6. The analog waveform shown in the following figure is to be delta modulated. The sampling period and the step size are indicated by the grid. The first DM output is also shown. Give the DM output for the complete signal.

Problem

Summary
looked

at signal encoding techniques

analog data, analog signal digital data, analog signal analog data, digital signal