TISSUES

DEFINITION
A group of cells similar in structure
that work together to perform a
particular function are called tissues.
The tissues are of different types depending
on the functions of the organism, they are
mainly of two categories PLANT TISSUES and
ANIMAL TISSUES.

PLANT TISSUES
Plants perform functions which are different from
animals and also their structure is different , hence
they have tissues which are different from animals.
They are further classified into many sub
categories which is shown in the table below:
Meristems
Simple (Ground) Tissue: frequently the site of storage, sometimes
support
Vascular Tissue: conduction of water and materials used in synthesis
Dermal Tissue: protection and interface with the environment
Secretory Tissue: protection against herbivores and pathogens and
attraction of pollinators

Primary and Secondary Growth
Your growth
infant child You, today
Plant Growth
1
st
year all primary growth

Primary growth plant growth that produces
an increase in length and new structures
Secondary growth plant growth that produces
an increase in diameter in existing plant parts in
the second and any subsequent growing seasons

2
nd
year only secondary growth, in blue, is
shown below


2
nd
year primary (in green) and secondary (in
blue) growth
3
rd
years growth, showing
both primary (black) and
secondary (red) growth
Woody dicot stem cross section showing
growth rings
Apparent increase in limb height on many trees
is due to loss of lower limbs
MERISTEMATIC TISSUE
Meristems: - Permanent regions of active cell division
- (undifferentiated plant tissue)

= plant stem cells
The main characteristic of this tissue is
that it is responsible for the growth of
plants.
The cells of this tissue continuously
divide and later differentiate ( i.e. get
converted ) into permanent tissue.

Characteristics of the cells/ tissue
The cells are made of thin & elastic cell wall
made of cellulose.
The cells may be round , oval, polygonal or
rectangular in shape.
They are compact, having no intercellular
space.
There is a large nucleus and abundant
cytoplasm.
The protoplasm contains very few or no
vacuoles at all.
Tissue occurs at specific regions of the plant body
This is so because in plant
body growth occurs only at
these regions.
Hence , on the basis of this
there are 3 types of
meristem :
1. APICAL MERISTEM
2. INTERCALARY MERISTEM
3. LATERAL MERISTEM

APICAL MERISTEM
As the name suggests
this tissue is present at
the apex of the main
& lateral shoots and
roots.
This tissue gives the
plant body a linear
growth.
Primary Meristems
Protoderm
Ground Meristem
Procambium

LATERAL MERISTEM
This tissue lies on the sides of
the plant body.
It lies under the bark of the
plant in form of cork
cambium.
Produce tissues that increase
the girth of roots and stems
(Involved in Secondary Growth)

INTERCALARY MERISTEM
This tissue is present at the base of the
nodes, internodes, leaves etc.
They are also present in between the
permanent tissue.
They give the plant growth in length.

Name Location Function
Apical
meristems
Growing tips
(Apex) of roots
and stems
Elongation
Lateral
meristems
(Cambium)
Beneath the
bark, in vascular
bundles of dicot
stems
Increase in
diameter
Intercalary
meristems
Base of the
leaves /
internode
Increase of
length
PERMANENT TISSUE
These tissues arise from the meristematic
tissue.
The cells of this tissue gradually loose their
power to divide and acquire a definite
shape, size and function.
These tissues may be living or dead.
There are 2 types of permanent tissues
1. Simple permanent tissue
2. Complex permanent tissue.
SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE
This tissue comprises of same type of cells
which perform the same function and all arise
from the same origin. There are three
categories of simple permanent tissues:
Parenchyma, Collenchyma, & Sclerenchyma.
THE THREE SIMPLE PERMANENT
TISSUES
PARENCHYMA
Characteristics:
a) The cells are living.
b) The cells are thin walled.
c) There may or may not be
intercellular spaces.
d) They are the most
unspecialized cells.
e) No depositions are seen,
the cell wall consists only of
cellulose.
f) There is a prominent
nucleus, cytoplasm &
vacuoles.
There are some special types of parenchyma
tissues :
Storage parenchyma : The cells enlarge to store
nutrients & water.
Aerenchyma : Air cavities are present in the
parenchyma tissue to provide buoyancy to the
aquatic plants.
Chlorenchyma : These parenchyma cells have
presence of chlorophyll & hence can perform the
function of photosynthesis.
Parenchyma tissue is found generally in all parts of
the plant body. It forms the Ground tissue in
leaves, stem, roots & fruits etc.
Functions of parenchyma :
a) To store materials such as starch, proteins,
hormones etc and waste products such as gum,
tannin, resin etc.
b) Parenchyma cells perform the metabolic
activities of the plant.
c) Forms the packaging tissue between the
specialized tissue.
d) By providing turgidity , they provide mechanical
strength.
e) Chlorenchyma helps in performing
photosynthesis.
COLLENCHYMA

Characteristics:
a) It has cells which are
somewhat elongated.
b) The cell walls are thin
except at the angular
region ( where the cells
join). The thickenings are
caused due to deposition
of cellulose or pectin.
c) There is no or less
intercellular space.
d) The cells are living, have
distinct nucleus & dense
protoplasm.
e) They often contain
chlorophyll.
Functions :
a) Providing mechanical
strength is the primary
function.
b) Provide flexibility.
c) Photosynthesis, as they
contain chlorophyll.

They are present below
the epidermis in dicot
stems and leaves. They
absent in dicot roots
and all parts of
monocot plants.
SCLERENCHYMA
Cells with thick, tough, secondary walls
Normally impregnated with lignin.
< Flexible & stronger than collenchyma

Fx = mechanical (support ) & food storage.

2 TYPES OF CELLS (based on cell-shape)
Sclerids - Stone Cells
Fibers - Contain Lumen
Scleroids
Found in
nut shells
the hard part of seeds
flexible floating leaf
blades of water plants.

Sclerenchyma fibres
Elongated & thick-
walled with flattened
ends.
E.g. Fibres from flax
and hemp are used to
make fabric and rope.
The fibres also store
food like starch for
the plant
Simple permanent tissue
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
Location Soft parts of
plat Cortex
of root,
ground
tissues in
stem,
mesophyll of
leaves
Below the
epidermis
of dicot
stem and
petiole
(Absent in
monocot)
In stem around
vascular bundle,
roots, veins of
leaves, hard
covering of seeds
and nuts
Nature Cells are isodiametric
i.e. equally expanded on
all sides
They may be oval,
round, polygonal or
elongated
Nucleus is present and
hence living
The cell walls are thin
and made of cellulose
Cytoplasm is dense with
a single large vacuole
Intercellular spaces may
be present
May contain
chlorophyll. Parenchyma
which contain
chlorophyll are called
chlorenchyma.
The cells are
elongated and are
circular, oval or
polygonal in
cross-section
Cell wall is
unevenly
thickened with
cellulose at the
corners against
the intercellular
spaces
Nucleus is
present and hence
the tissue is living
Vacuoles are
small
Intercellular
spaces are
generally absent
If they contain
chlorophyll they
are known as
chlorenchyma
The cells are long,
narrow, thick and
lignified, usually pointed
at both ends
The cell wall is evenly
thickened with lignin and
sometimes is so thick that
the cell cavity or lumen
is absent
Nucleus is absent and
hence the tissue is made
up of dead cells
They have simple, often
oblique pits in the walls
The middle lamella i.e.
the wall between
adjacent cells is
conspicuous
Function
Store and
assimilate food
Give mechanical
strength by
maintaining
turgidity
Prepare food if
chlorophyll is
present
Store waste
products like tanin,
gum, crystals and
resins

Provide mechanical
support to the stem
Allows easy bending
in various parts of the
plant without actually
breaking it

Gives mechanical
support to the
plant by giving
rigidity, flexibility
and elasticity to
the plant body.
Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue
Cells devide repeatedly Cells are derived from
meristematic tissue &
normally do not devide
Undifferentiated Fully differentiate
Small Variable in shape and
size
Intercellular spaces
generally absent
Intercellular spaces are
present
Vacuole absent Large vacuoles in mature
cells
Complex Tissue
Complex tissues since they include 2 or more
kinds of cells. cells.All these co-ordinate to
perform a common function. Complex tissues
transport water,mineral salts(nutrients) & food
material to various parts of plant body.

Xylem
Phloem
Xylem & phloem are both conducting tissues &
also known as vascular tissues; together both of
them constitute vascular bundles.
Xylem
similar to straws
dead at functional maturity
vessels composed of vessel elements (cells); uniform
tubes, open at both ends, relatively large diameter, may be
relatively short
tracheids tapered at both ends, numerous pits rather
than large openings between adjacent cells
conducts water and minerals upwards
Functions-
i. The main function of xylem is to carry water & minerals
salts upward from the root to different parts of shoots.
ii. Since walls of tracheids, vessels & sclerenchyma of
xylem are lignified, they give mechanical strength to the
plant body.

Xylem
Phloem
alive at functional maturity
consist of sieve tube members and companion cells
Sieve tube members cylindrical, conduct organic
molecules up and down through plant
Companion cells regulate activity of sieve tube
members
Functions-phloem transport photosynthetically prepared
food materials from the leaves to the storage organs &
later from storage organs to the growing regions of the
plant body.

Phloem
Xylem
Phloem
Dicot Stem

Epidermis
Cork (or phellem)
Epidermis
As plants grow older,the outer protective tissue undergoes
certain changes.A strip of secondary meristem,called phellogen
or cork cambium replaces epidermis of stem.
Cork cambium is a simple tissue having only one type of cells.The
cells of cork cambium are rectangular & their protoplasts are
vacuolated & contain tannins & chloroplasts.
Cork cambium gives off new cells on its both sides,thus,forming
cork on the outer side & the secondary cortex or phelloderm on
the inner side.
The layer of cells which is cut by cork cambium on the outer side
ultimately becomes several layered thick cork or the bark of
trees.
Cells of cork are dead & compactly arranged without
intercellular spaces.
The walls of cork cells are heavily thickened by
deposition of an organic substance, called suberin.
Suberin makes these cells impermeable to water &
gases. The cork cells do not contain protoplasm but are
filled with resin or tannins.
In case of onion bulb too, in the skin of onion the cell
walls become thick & water proof due to addition of
suberin.
Cork is protective in function.
Cork cells prevent desiccation,infection & mechanical
injury.
Dermal Tissue
Epidermis covers primary growth, single
layer of cells; often secretes cutin (lipid)
forming cuticle (reduces transpiration and
protection from pathogens)
Periderm covers secondary growth,
many cell layers; becomes impregnated
with lipids (suberin)
Epidermis (cont.)
Root hairs - single cell extensions from the
epidermis near root tips

greatly increase surface area in contact with
soil and thereby enhance water and mineral
absorption
Stomata
openings in epidermis

surrounded by Guard Cells that regulate
opening
Stomata from a epidermal peel of Commelina communis by Dr. J. Weyers
Stomate
Guard Cells
Lenticels
regions of loosely packed cells in the periderm

promote gas exchange with tissues below
Secretory Tissue
produce a variety of products
nectar in flowers
oils in citrus and mints
latex
resins
opium
mucilage e.g. for trapping insects
Reproductive shoot (flower)
Apical bud
Node
Internode
Apical
bud
Shoot
system
Vegetative
shoot

Leaf
Blade
Petiole
Axillary
bud
Stem
Taproot
Lateral
branch
roots
Root
system
Roots
Roots are multicellular organs with important
functions:
Anchoring the plant
Absorbing minerals and water
Storing organic nutrients
A taproot system consists of one main vertical root
that gives rise to lateral roots, or branch roots
Adventitious roots arise from stems or leaves
Seedless vascular plants and monocots have a
fibrous root system characterized by thin lateral
roots with no main root
In most plants, absorption of water and minerals
occurs near the root hairs, where vast numbers of
tiny root hairs increase the surface area



Many plants have modified roots

Stems
A stem is an organ consisting of
An alternating system of nodes, the points at which
leaves are attached
Internodes, the stem segments between nodes
An axillary bud is a structure that has the potential
to form a lateral shoot, or branch
An apical bud, or terminal bud, is located near the
shoot tip and causes elongation of a young shoot
Apical dominance helps to maintain dormancy in
most non-apical buds
Many plants have modified stems
Leaves
The leaf is the main photosynthetic organ of most
vascular plants
Leaves generally consist of a flattened blade and a
stalk called the petiole, which joins the leaf to a
node of the stem

Plant Tissue Systems
Cells of a plant organized into THREE tissue
systems:

a) Dermal Tissue System
(Epidermis)
a) Ground Tissue System
b) Vascular Tissue System
Dermal Tissue System
In nonwoody plants, the dermal tissue system consists of
the epidermis
Epidermis - Single layer of tightly packed cells (one or
more)
Covers and protects entire body ("skin" of the plant)
Secretes a waxy coating called cuticle to help retain water
(adaptation)
Specialized Epidermis - Example: epidermal hairs to trap
or poison insects
Ex: root hairs
In woody plants, protective tissues called periderm
replace the epidermis in older regions of stems and roots
Trichomes are outgrowths of the shoot epidermis and can
help with insect defense


Vascular Tissue System
Responsible for transporting water, mineral
nutrients, and organic molecules between
roots and shoots
Located in the centres of roots
In stems, arranged in strands called vascular
bundles
Monocots Dicots
- Long tissue strands called
vascular bundles scattered
through stems
-Long tissue strands called
vascular bundles arranged in
rings within stem, to form a
cylinder shape
Two types of vascular tissue:
1)Xylem transports water and dissolved
minerals UPWARD
2)Phloem transports food made in leaves
DOWNWARD to roots and to other parts of
shoot system

The vascular tissue of a stem or root is
collectively called the stele
In angiosperms the stele of the root is a solid
central vascular cylinder
The stele of stems and leaves is divided into
vascular bundles, strands of xylem and
phloem

Ground Tissue System
Filling spaces between the dermal and vascular tissues. Ground
tissue internal to the vascular tissue is pith; ground tissue
external to the vascular tissue is cortex
Ground tissue includes cells specialized for storage,
photosynthesis, and support (Responsible for metabolic
functions)
Consists of:
Parenchyma cells (majority) and Pith
Collenchyma cells
Sclerenchyma cells
Ground Tissue:
Parenchyma
Living ground tissue that makes up the bulk of the plant
body
Have thin and flexible primary walls
Lack secondary walls
Are the least specialized
Perform the most metabolic functions
Retain the ability to divide and differentiate

Parenchyma not only sounds cool to say, it does cool
things like:
- Photosynthesis
- Storage of nutrients, carbs and H
2
O
- heals wounds and regenerates plant parts
..and Pith
Pith is the tissue in the center of roots and
stems
Contains spongy parenchyma and also
functions to store nutrients and carbs and
water
Ground Tissue: Collenchyma
- is also made of living cells
- Strengthens the plant
- Supports the plants primary growth regions
They have thicker and uneven cell walls
They lack secondary walls
These cells provide flexible support without
restraining growth
Sclerenchyma
Have you ever eaten a pear and found that
parts of it were really gritty to chew?
You were chewing sclerenchyma!

What is it? Ground tissue whose mature cells
are dead, have thick walls composed of
celluloseeven when dead, they perform
their function! This is good for hardness of
nuts and cactus spines.

Sclerenchyma cells are rigid because of thick
secondary walls strengthened with lignin
They are dead at functional maturity
There are two types:
Sclereids are short and irregular in shape and have
thick lignified secondary walls
Fibers are long and slender and arranged in
threads

Perforation
plate
Vessel
element
Vessel elements, with
perforated end walls
Tracheids
Pits
Tracheids and vessels
(colorized SEM)
Vessel Tracheids
100 m
Water-Conducting Cells of the Xylem
The two types of water-conducting cells, tracheids
and vessel elements, are dead at maturity
Tracheids are found in the xylem of all vascular
plants
Vessel elements are common to most angiosperms
and a few gymnosperms
Vessel elements align end to end to form long
micropipes called vessels

Sieve-tube element (left)
and companion cell:
cross section (TEM)
3 m
Sieve-tube elements:
longitudinal view (LM)
Sieve plate
Companion
cells
Sieve-tube
elements
Plasmodesma
Sieve
plate
Nucleus of
companion
cells
Sieve-tube elements:
longitudinal view
Sieve plate with pores (SEM)
10 m
30 m
Sugar-Conducting Cells of the
Phloem
Sieve-tube elements are alive at functional
maturity, though they lack organelles
Sieve plates are the porous end walls that allow
fluid to flow between cells along the sieve tube
Each sieve-tube element has a companion cell
whose nucleus and ribosomes serve both cells
Plant Growth
Plant Growth
Plants can go through
two different types of
growth
Primary Growth-
elongates the axis of a
plant (growth in length)
Secondary Growth-
increases the girth of a
plant (growth in width)
Plant Growth
Plant growth occurs at specific tissues called meristems
Apical Meristem: are located at the tips of roots and shoots
and at the axillary buds of shoots. These extend the length
of the shoot or root
Lateral Meristems: These extend the girth of a stem or root,
a process called secondary growth



Intercalary Meristems
Why grass grows upward after it is mowed.
This is all we will say about intercalary meristems.
intercalary meristem
These are regions of growth situated between two regions
of mature (non-growing) tissue
Primary Tissues
result from primary growth
which are derived from apical meristems.
Primary Plant Growth and Development
In mature tissues, cells are arrested in interphase
Primary growth is a product of
Cell division
Cell elongation
Ending with cell/tissue differentiation-maturation
In primary growth, cell division isnt entirely restricted to the
apical meristem proper. Cell division continues in the derived
immature tissues behind the apical meristem. These tissues are
called the primary meristematic tissues.
Protoderm matures to form the epidermis
Ground Meristem matures to form the ground tissue
Procambium matures to form the vascular tissue
Protoderm Procambium
Ground Meristem
Epidermis
Ground Tissue Vascular Tissue
Undifferentiated Cells of Apical Meristem
Primary Growth- in Roots
In roots, primary growth
occurs in 3 different zones
Zone of Cell Division (contains
root apical meristem)
Zone of Elongation
Zone of Maturation
Simpler than in the shoot as there are no nodes or internodes
Always includes a root cap. The apical meristem of the root
encompasses some of the area of the root cap
Zone of Cell Division
Lots of mitosis
occurring in the cells
here
Contains the newest
cells (newly divided)
Zone of Elongation
Cells get longer to
push the root tip into
the soil
Cells start developing
their specialized
functions
Zone of Maturation
Cells become fully
specialized
Considered mature
cells
Primary Meristematic
Meristems in a Root Tip
Protoderm = outer layer of cells
Procambium = inner core of cells
Ground Meristem = everything else
Root Cap
Root cap protects
the root apical
meristem as root
pushes through
the soil
Like a helmet for
the root cells
Primary Growth- Stems
Is more complex because it
generates both leaf and stem tissue
along with the axillary buds at the
internodes.
Growth occurs at the shoot apical
meristems
Shoot apical meristems are located
at the tips of buds
Plants grow from the top, not the
bottom of the stem
Gross Morphology
Apical Meristem
of the Shoot
Apical meristems of the Shoot
are more complex than that of the
root.
Leaf Primordium
Three primary meristmatic tissues
Protoderm
Procambium
Ground Meristem
Gross Morphology
Vascular Strands
Gross Morphology
Leaf Traces
Gross Morphology
Leaf Gaps
Secondary Growth
Growth in width of stems and roots
Degree of secondary growth varies
some plants barely have any, others
have extensive secondary growth.
Results in the formation of wood
and bark
Results from activity in the lateral
meristems
Vascular Cambium
Cork Cambium
Shoot tip (shoot
apical meristem
and young leaves)
Lateral meristems:
Axillary bud
meristem
Vascular cambium
Cork cambium
Root apical
meristems
Primary growth in stems
Epidermis
Cortex
Primary phloem
Primary xylem
Pith
Secondary growth in stems
Periderm
Cork
cambium
Cortex
Primary
phloem
Secondary
phloem
Pith
Primary
xylem
Secondary
xylem
Vascular cambium
Primary and secondary growth
in a two-year-old stem
(a)
Epidermis
Cortex
Primary
phloem
Vascular
cambium
Primary
xylem
Pith
Periderm
(mainly cork
cambia
and cork)
Primary
phloem
Secondary
phloem
Vascular
cambium
Secondary
xylem
Primary
xylem
Pith
Pith
Primary xylem
Vascular cambium
Primary phloem
Epidermis
Cortex
Vascular
ray
Primary
xylem
Secondary xylem
Vascular cambium
Secondary phloem
Primary phloem
First cork cambium
Cork
Secondary
Xylem (two
years of
production)
Vascular cambium
Secondary phloem
Most recent
cork cambium Cork
Bark
Layers of
periderm
Secondary phloem
Vascular cambium
Secondary xylem
Bark
Cork
Late wood
Early wood
Cork
cambium
Periderm
Vascular ray Growth ring
Cross section of a three-year-
old Tilia (linden) stem (LM)
(b)
0.5 mm
0
.
5

m
m

Secondary xylem accumulates as wood, and
consists of tracheids, vessel elements (only in
angiosperms), and fibers
Early wood, formed in the spring, has thin cell walls
to maximize water delivery
Late wood, formed in late summer, has thick-walled
cells and contributes more to stem support
In temperate regions, the vascular cambium of
perennials is dormant through the winter
As a tree or woody shrub ages, the older layers of
secondary xylem, the heartwood, no longer
transport water and minerals
The outer layers, known as sapwood, still transport
materials through the xylem
Older secondary phloem sloughs off and does not
accumulate
Vascular Cambium
Divides into
Secondary Xylem
On the side closer to the center of the stem/root
Secondary Phloem
On the side closer to the outside of the stem/root
As the vascular cambium divides, it continues to push
older cells farther away.

Vascular cambium Growth
Secondary
xylem
After one year
of growth
After two years
of growth
Secondary
phloem
Vascular
cambium
X X
X X
X
X
P P
P
P
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Cork Cambium
As the secondary phloem
grows, it breaks the outer layer
of the stems and root
(epidermis)
Secondary phloem on the very
outside becomes cork
cambium
Cork cambium grows into cork
Cork cells contain suberin to
protect from water loss,
physical damage and harmful
substances.
Types of wood
Heartwood
Older secondary xylem
Cells get clogged
stop conducting water
Darker in color
Sapwood
Newer secondary xylem
Still actively conducting
water (and minerals)
Lighter in color
Growth
ring
Vascular
ray
Secondary
xylem
Heartwood
Sapwood
Bark
Vascular cambium
Secondary phloem
Layers of periderm
Annual Rings in Wood
The age of a tree can be
determined by looking at the
number of rings that it has.
Wood = secondary xylem
What forms the rings?
Spring: water most available, water
transport cells are large and have
thin walls
Summer: less water available,
water transport cells have thicker
walls and are darker
Ground
Dermal
Key
to labels
Vascular
Root hair
Epidermis
Cortex Vascular cylinder
Zone of
differentiation
Zone of
elongation
Zone of cell
division
Apical
meristem
Root cap
100 m
Epidermis
Cortex
Endodermis
Vascular
cylinder
Pericycle
Core of
parenchyma
cells
Xylem
Phloem
100 m
Root with xylem and phloem in the center
(typical of eudicots)
(a)
Root with parenchyma in the center (typical of
monocots)
(b)
100 m
Endodermis
Pericycle
Xylem
Phloem
50 m
Key
to labels
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
Cortex
Emerging
lateral
root
Vascular
cylinder
100 m
Epidermis
Lateral root
3 2 1
Lateral roots arise from within the pericycle, the
outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder
Shoot apical meristem Leaf primordia
Young
leaf
Developing
vascular
strand
Axillary bud
meristems
0.25 mm
Phloem Xylem
Sclerenchyma
(fiber cells)
Ground tissue
connecting
pith to cortex
Pith
Cortex
1 mm
Epidermis
Vascular
bundle
Cross section of stem with vascular bundles forming
a ring (typical of eudicots)
(a)
Key
to labels
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
Cross section of stem with scattered vascular bundles
(typical of monocots)
(b)
1 mm
Epidermis
Vascular
bundles
Ground
tissue
Tissue Organization of Leaves
The epidermis in leaves is interrupted by stomata,
which allow CO
2
exchange between the air and the
photosynthetic cells in a leaf
Each stomatal pore is flanked by two guard cells,
which regulate its opening and closing
The ground tissue in a leaf, called mesophyll, is
sandwiched between the upper and lower
epidermis

Key
to labels
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
Cuticle Sclerenchyma
fibers
Stoma
Bundle-
sheath
cell
Xylem
Phloem
(a) Cutaway drawing of leaf tissues
Guard
cells

Vein
Cuticle
Lower
epidermis

Spongy
mesophyll

Palisade
mesophyll

Upper
epidermis

Guard
cells

Stomatal
pore

Surface view of a spiderwort
(Tradescantia) leaf (LM)

Epidermal
cell

(b)
5
0

m

1
0
0

m

Vein Air spaces Guard cells
Cross section of a lilac
(Syringa)) leaf (LM)

(c)