MECHANICAL

WAVES

Chapter 15 2nd semester, AY 2008-2009

• Types of waves
• Wave properties
• Superposition of waves
• Standing waves

• Properties of sound waves

Sound waves
• Doppler effect

Chapter 15 What’s in store for us? 2

Chapter 15 Something in common 3
 A wave is a traveling disturbance that transports energy
but not matter.

Examples:
• Sound waves
• Mexican wave or La Ola
• Water waves
• Light

Chapter 15 What is a wave? 4

Transverse
• the disturbance in a medium is perpendicular to the wave’s
propagation direction.

Examples:
• String waves
• Water waves
• Light

Chapter 15 Types of waves 5

Longitudinal
• The medium’s displacement is along the wave’s direction of
propagation.

Examples:
• Sound waves
• Slinky

Chapter 15 Types of waves 6

 Crest – the highest
point of the wave
above the origin

Trough – the lowest

point of the wave
beneath the origin

Wavelength (λ)– the

distance between two
Period (T) – time it takes to complete one cycle neighboring
crests/troughs
Frequency (f) – number of cycles in one sec

Chapter 15 Describing waves 7

● A wave varies in space and time.
time
● Say a transverse wave,

y ( x, t ) = A cos[( 2π / λ) x −ωt )]

Direction of
vibration or
oscillation Wavelength
(spatial) Direction of
Amplitude Frequency or
propagation
Period
(temporal)

Chapter 15 Describing waves mathematically 8

Spatial property
y ( x, t ) = A cos[( 2π / λ) x − ωt )]
Spatial part

● At time t =0: y ( x,0) = A cos[( 2π / λ ) x)]

y
λ
A

+x

Chapter 15 Describing waves mathematically 9

Temporal property
y ( x, t ) = A cos[( 2π / λ) x − ωt )]
temporal part
● At position x =0:
y (0, t ) = A cos( −ωt ) = A cos[ −( 2π / T ) t ]
y
1
T f =
A T
t

-A

Chapter 15 Describing waves mathematically 10

 y ( x, t ) = A cos[( 2π / λ) x − ωt )]

Wavenumber (k)
k = 2π / λ Unit: m-1

Wave speed (ν)

● The wave moves one wavelength λ in one period T so its speed is:

λ
ν= = λf Unit: m/s
T
Chapter 15 Describing waves mathematically 11
 Example:
The wave function for a harmonic wave on a string is given by:
−1 −1
y( x, t ) = 0.0 3m s in [(2.2m ) x − 3.5s t )]
(a)In what direction does this wave travel and with what speed?
v = 1.59m / s, righ t
(b)Find λ, f and T of this wave
2π ω
λ= = 2.86m f= = 0.557H z T = 1 / f = 1.80s
k 2π
(c)What is its maximum displacement?

A = 0.0 3m
Chapter 15 Describing waves mathematically 12
 Problem set 13.1:
By rocking a boat, a boy produces surface water waves on a
previously quiet lake. He observes that the boat performs 12
oscillations in 12 seconds, each oscillation producing a wave
crest 15 cm above the undisturbed surface of the lake. He further
observes that a given wave crest reaches shore, 12 m away in
6.0 s.
(a)Find the period, speed, wavelength and the amplitude of this
wave.

(b)Set-up the wave function.

Chapter 15 Describing waves mathematically 13

 v
● Other than “continuous waves”
waves

(described by your sin and

cos)
● There are also “pulses”
pulses v
caused by a brief disturbance
of the medium. (waves on a string)

v
● And “pulse trains”
trains which are
somewhere in between.
(standing waves)

Chapter 15 Other waveforms 14

 http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/string.htm

• Consider a pulse
propagating along a
string:

• What type of wave

is it?

• What determines
its speed?

Chapter 15 Waves on a string 15

We find that the speed of a transverse wave on a medium is:

F F = tension on string
v = μ = linear mass density
µ (mass/unit length)

Important:
● Increasing the tension (F) increases the speed.
● Increasing the string mass density (µ ) decreases the
speed.
● Moreover, the speed depends only on the nature of the
medium and not on amplitude and frequency of the pulse.
Chapter 15 Waves on a string 16
 Example:
One end of a nylon rope is tied to a stationary support at the top of a
vertical mine shaft 80.0 m-deep. The rope is stretched taut by a box of
mineral samples with mass 20.0 kg attached at the lower end. The
mass of the rope is 2.00 kg. The geologist at the bottom of the mine
signals to his colleague at the top by jerking the rope sideways.

(a)What is the speed of the transverse wave on the rope?

(b)If the generated wave has a frequency 2.00 Hz, how many cycles of
the wave are there in the rope’s length?

Chapter 15 Waves on a string 17

Problem set 13.2:
What is the fastest transverse wave that can be sent along a steel
wire? The maximum tensile stress to which steel wires should be
subject is 7.0 x 108 N/m2. The density of steel is 7800 kg/m3. Show
that your answer does not depend on the diameter of the wire.

Chapter 15 Waves on a string 18

Energy

• Think about grabbing the left side of the string and pulling
it up and down in the y direction.

• You are doing work since F.dr > 0 as your hand moves
up and down.

• A wave propagates because each part of the medium

transfers its motion to an adjacent region.
because work is done = energy transferred!

Chapter 15 Waves on a string 19

Energy
E = K +U
A

• For SHM (simple sine and cosine waves):

E = ½ k A2 with k = mω 2

• Within one wavelength:

E = ½ (∆ m) ω 2 A2 = ½ (λ µ ) ω 2A2

Chapter 15 Waves on a string 20

Power
dE
P=
dt
E = K +U
• In one period: Pavg = ∆ E/∆ T = ½ (λ µ ) ω 2A2 / T

where v = λ / T  Square dependence

on the amplitude and
frequency of the
• So: Pavg = ½ µ ω 2A2 v
wave

with v = (F/µ )½
Chapter 15 Waves on a string 21
Exercise:
A wave propagates on a string. If the amplitude and the
wavelength are doubled, by what factor will the average
power carried by the wave change ? (Pfinal / Pinit )

Recall Pavg = ½ µ ω 2A2 v

initial

final

Chapter 15 Waves on a string 22

Intensity ● Time average rate at which
energy is transported by the
wave per unit area
P
I=
4πr 2

● By COE,
2
I1 r
= 2
2
I2 r 1

INVERSE SQUARE
LAW FOR INTENSITY
Chapter 15 Waves in 3D 23
When a wave encounters matter, any of these can occur:

● Transmission
● Reflection
● Interference and superposition of waves

Chapter 15 Wave-matter interaction 24

Reflection (free end)
• With a free end, the string is free to move vertically
• The pulse is reflected, but with no phase change.

Chapter 15 Wave-matter interaction 25

Reflection (fixed end)
• When the pulse reaches a fixed support, the pulse moves
back (reflected) along the string in the opposite direction
• The reflected pulse is inverted.

Chapter 15 Wave-matter interaction 26

Transmission
µ 1= µ 2 = m2/L
m1/L (massive)
(lighter)
Part of the energy in the
incident pulse is
Reflected (inverted)
Transmitted (not inverted)

Chapter 15 Wave-matter interaction 27

Transmission
µ 1 = m1/L µ 2=
(massive) m2/L
(lighter)

Part of the pulse is reflected (not inverted) and part is

transmitted (not inverted)

Chapter 15 Wave-matter interaction 28

Interference
Consider two harmonic waves A and B (same ω and
amplitudes, differing only in phase φ ) traveling to the right.

A(x,t)=A cos(kx–ω t)

B(x,t)=B cos(kx–ω t+φ )

What does C(x,t) = A(x,t) + B(x,t) look like?

Chapter 15 Wave-matter interaction 29

 φ

φ /2

When the two waves meet, you can show:

C = 2A cos(φ /2) cos(kx– ω t+φ /2)
Amplitude Phase shift

Chapter 15 Superposition of waves 30

 C = 2A cos(φ /2) cos(kx–
ω t+φ /2)

φ = In phase
0
Constructive
interference

φ = Out-of-phase
π
Destructive
interference

Chapter 15 Superposition of waves 31

Chapter 15 Standing waves 32
 Now, consider two harmonic waves A (to the right) and B (to the
left) with same amplitudes and same ω .
A(x,t)=A cos(kx – ω t) B(x,t)=B cos(kx+ω t)

nodes
(string permanently at rest) antinodes

Chapter 15 Standing waves 33

 A(x,t)=A cos(kx – ω t) B(x,t)=B cos(kx+ω t)

C(x,t) = A(x,t) + B(x,t) = 2A sin(kx) cos (ω t)

● C(x, t) = 0 when kx = nπ , (n = 0,1,2,...)

nλ
x= , (n = 0,1,2,...) NODES
2
 1
● C(x, t) = maximum when kx =  n + π , ( n = 0,1,2,...)
 2
 1λ
x =  n +  , (n = 0,1,2,...) ANTINODES
 2 2

Chapter 15 Standing waves 34

 so when do standing waves occur?
2L
λn =
n n = 1,2,3,...

● Resonant frequencies

nv
fn =
2L

Chapter 15 Conditions for standing waves 35

 f1
n = 1, L = λ /2
fundamental freq.

f2 = 2f1 n = 2, L = 2λ /2 = λ
Second harmonic, 1st
overtone

f3 = 3f1 n = 3, L = 3λ /2
Third harmonic, 2nd
overtone

f4 = 4f1
n = 4, L = 4λ /2 = 2λ
Fourth harmonic, 3rd
overtone

Chapter 15 Harmonic series 36

 A combination wave composed of the 1st harmonic and the third
harmonic.

 What makes instruments unique is the combination of

harmonics produced by the different instruments.
 Flutes produce primarily the 1st harmonic
 They have a very pure tone
 Oboes produce a broad range of harmonics and sound very
different

Chapter 15 Combination of harmonics 37

Chapter 15 Combination of harmonics 38
Example: A string tied to a speaker
is stretched by a block of
mass m. The length of the
string in horizontal position
is 1.2m, the linear density
of the string is 1.6 g/m,
and the speaker is set to
have a frequency of 120
Hz. What mass allows
the speaker to set up the
fourth harmonic on the
m string?

Chapter 15 Standing waves 39

Problem set 13.3:
A string is stretched between fixed supports separated by
75.0 cm. It is observed to have resonant frequencies of 420
Hz and 315 Hz, and no other resonant frequencies between
these two.

(a)What is the lowest frequency for this string?

(b)What is the wave speed for this string?

Chapter 15 Standing waves 40

Applications
• Seismic waves to probe the
Earth’s crust for oil
• Ships carry sonar to detect
underwater obstacles
• Submarines detect other
submarines by listening to the
acoustic signature of
propellers
• Ultrasound images of fetus
• Allow us to communicate
through words and music

Chapter 15 Sound 41
 ● Sound is a longitudinal wave that can travel thru gas, liquid or
solid.
● Displacement of air molecules due to propagation of sound
waves:

s( x, t ) = sm a xc o s [2(π / λ ) x − ω t ) ]

Chapter 15 Sound waves 42

Speed of sound
• The speed of sound waves in a medium depends on the
compressibility and the density of the medium.

● In fluids (liquids or gases):

B Medium Speed (m/s)
v =
ρ Air 343
Helium 972
● In solid rod:
Water 1500
Y Steel (solid) 5600
v =
ρ
Chapter 15 Sound waves 43
Speed of sound
• The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of
the medium
• This is particularly important with gases
• For air, the relationship between the speed and
temperature is

Tc
v = (331 m/s) 1 +
273 C


The 331 m/s is the speed at 0o C

TC is the air temperature in Centigrade

Chapter 15 Sound waves 44

Intensity of sound
• The amplitude of pressure wave depends on
– Frequency ω of harmonic sound wave
– Speed of sound v and density of medium ρ of
medium
– Displacement amplitude smax of element of medium
∆Pmax = ωvρsmax
∆P 2
 Intensity of a sound wave is I= max

2ρ v
 Again, proportional to (amplitude)2

 Range of tolerable smax : 10-5 m to 10-11 m

Chapter 15 Sound waves 45

Sound level
• The range of intensities detectible by the human ear is
very large
• It is convenient to use a logarithmic scale to determine the
intensity level, β

I  unknown intensity
β = 10 log10  
Units: in decibels (dB)  I 0  reference intensity

 I0 = 10-12 W/m2 (lower limit of human range of hearing)

Chapter 15 Sound waves 46

Sound level
Sound level (dB)
Threshold hearing 0
Rustle of leaves 10
Whisper 20
Office, classroom 50
Normal conversation (at 1m) 60
Rock group 110
Threshold of pain 120
Jet engine (at 30m) 130

Chapter 15 Sound waves 47

Loudness and frequency

Chapter 15 Sound waves 48

Example:
In 1976, the Who set a record for the loudest concert: the
sound level 46 m in front of the speaker systems was β2 = 120
dB. What is the ratio of the intensity of the Who at that spot to
the intensity of another band performing at sound level β1 = 92
dB?
I2
= 630
I1

Chapter 15 Sound level 49

 A change in the observed frequency when the source (S) or
the detector (D) moves relative to the medium.

Both stationary:

vt / λ v
f observer = = = f source
t λ
S D

Chapter 15 Doppler effect 50

 A change in the observed frequency when the source (S) or
the detector (D) moves relative to the medium.

D moves towards the source:

(vt + vD t ) / λ (v + vD )
f observer = =
 v t± v  λ
f observer =   D
f source
D moves away fromv
S D  
source:

(vt − vD t ) / λ (v − vD )
f observer = =
t λ
S is stationary.

Chapter 15 Doppler effect 51

 A change in the observed frequency when the source (S) or
the detector (D) moves relative to the medium.

 v 
f observer =   f source
 v v s 
S D

D is stationary.

Chapter 15 Doppler effect 52

 A change in the observed frequency when the source (S) or
the detector (D) moves relative to the medium.

Both moving:

 v ± vD 
f observer =   f source
 v v s 
S D

Chapter 15 Doppler effect 53

Example:
An ambulance emitting a whine at 1600 Hz overtakes and
passes a cyclist pedaling a bike at 8.00 m/s. After being
passed, the cyclist hears a frequency of 1590 Hz. How fast is
the ambulance moving?

Chapter 15 Doppler effect 54

Example:
Suppose a horseshoe bat flies toward a moth at speed vb = 9.0
m/s, while the moth flies toward the bat with speed vm = 8.0
m/s. From its nostrils, the bat emits ultrasonic waves of
frequency fbe that reflect from the moth back to the bat with
frequency fbd . The bat adjusts the emitted frequency fbe until th
returned frequency fbd is 83 kHz, at which the bat’s hearing is
best.

(a) What is fm, the f heard and reflected by the moth?

(b) What is fbe , the f emitted by the bat?

Chapter 15 Doppler effect 55

Exercise:
A stationary motion detector sends sound waves of 0.150 MHz
toward a truck approaching at a speed of 45.0 m/s. What is the
frequency of the waves reflected back to the detector?

Chapter 15 Doppler effect 56

 -End of Physics 71-

ccatalan 2nd semester, AY 2008-2009