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WAVES & SOUNDS
 MARKS 3

W AV E S
A wave is a disturbance which propagates energy (and momentum) from one place to the other
without the transport of matter. It is well spread over a region of space without clear cut boundaries.
It cannot be said to be localised here or there. It is hard to think of any mass being associated
with a wave. Moreover, quantities like amplitude, wavelength, frequency and phase are used to
characterise a wave which have no meaning for a particle.

The Important characteistics of a wave are :

(1) The particles of the medium traversed by a wave execute relatively small vibrations about
their mean positions but the particles are not permanently displaced in the direction of
propagation of the wave.
(2) Each successive particle of the medium executes the motion quite similar to its predecessors
along/perpendicular to the line of travel of the wave.
(3) During wave-motion only transfer of energy takes place but not a portion of the medium.
Waves can be one, two or three dimensional according to the number of dimensions in which
they propagate energy. Waves moving along strings are one-dimensional. Surfaces waves
or ripples on water are two dimensional, while sound or light waves travelling radially out
from a point source are 3-D.

Mec ha
hani
ni
nica
ca
call and Non
on--me cha
hani
ni
nicc al Wa ves

A wave may or may not require a medium for its propagation. The waves which don’t require
medium for their propagation are called non-mechanical, e.g., light, heat (infrared) and radio
waves are non-mechanical as they can propagate through vacuum. In fact all electromagnetic
waves (EMW) such as -rays, X-rays or microwaves are non-mechanical. On the other hand the
waves which require medium for their propagation are called mechanical waves. In the propagation
of mechanical waves elasticity and density of the medium play an important role. This is why
mechanical waves sometimes are also referred to as elastic waves on string and springs, seismic
waves or sound waves are familiar examples of mechanical waves.
Note : Apart from mechanical (elastic) and non-mechanical (electromagnetic) waves there is also
another kind of waves called Âmatter wavesÊ. These represent wavelike properties of particles and
are governed by the laws of quantum physics.

Tra ns
nsve
ve
verrse and Longit udi
dinna l Wa ve
vess

Mechanical waves are further divided into two types :

(i) Transverse waves : If the particles of the medium vibrate at right angle to the direction
of wave motion or energy propagation the wave is called transverse wave. These are

WAVES & SOUNDS

 4 MARKS
propagated as crests and troughs. Waves on strings are always transverse.

Vibration C C C C

Wate motion T T T

(A) (B)

(ii) Longitudinal waves : If the particles of a medium vibrate in the direction of wave motion,
the wave is called longitudinal. These are propagated as compressions and rarefactions and
also known as pressure or compressional waves. Waves on springs or sound waves in air are
examples of longitudinal waves.

R R R R
Vibration

Wave motion
C C C C
(A) (B)

Note :
(1) All non-mechanical waves are transverse
(2) In gases and liquids mechanical waves are always longitudinal e.g. sound waves in air and
water.
(3) In solids, mechanical waves can be either transverse or longitudinal depending on the mode
of excitation. The speeds of the two waves in the same solid are also different.

Exa mpl
plee 1

Explain why (a) transverse mechanical waves cannot be propagated in liquids and gases
while (b) waves on strings are always transverse.
Solution :
(a) To transmit a transverse mechanical wave the medium must be elastic so as to provide a
restoring force when acted on by shearing stress. But liquids and gases flow when acted
on by shearing stress, i.e. they cannot sustain shear stress to provide restoring force and so
cannot transmit transverse mechanical waves.
(b) Longitudinal waves are pressure waves, i.e., they are transmitted as compression and
rarefaction in a medium. Now as the string is non-stretchable so it can neither be compressed
nor stretched, i.e., in it compression and rarefaction cannot be produced. This in turn implies
that longitudinal waves cannot be propagated along a string [So the waves in a string are

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 5

always transverse, that too when the string is under tension. If tension in the string is zero,

transverse, mechanical waves will also not propagate as then v   T / m  0 ]

So
Somme Ba
Bassic Te rms :

(a) Wave frequency : If the particles of the medium make n (also written as v) vibrations for
second, n (or ) is called the frequency of the wave. The time taken for one vibration is the

1 1
wave period T and T = or   ; unit ă hertz (Hz).
 T

(b) Wavelength : It is defined as the distance travelled by the wave in one period T unit-metre.

Crest

Trough


It can also be defined as the distance between two successive crests or between two successive
troughs.
(c) Wave velocity : It is the distance travelled by the wave in one second symbol v or c; unit
- metre/second.
If the frequency of the wave is „f‰ and wavelength is „‰ metres, then wave velocity v is
v = f m/s ...(1)
wave velocity = Frequency ï Wavelength

Eq
Equuation of Wave Mo
Mottion

Some physical quantity (say y) is made to oscillate at one place and these oscillations of y
propagate to other places. The y may be,
(i) displacement of particles from their mean position in case of transverse wave in a rope or
longitudinal sound wave in a gas.
(ii) pressure difference (dP) or density difference (d) in case of sound wave or
(iii) electric and magnetic fields in case of electromagnetic waves.

WAVES & SOUNDS

 6 MARKS
The oscillations of y may or may not be simple harmonic in nature. Now let us consider a one
dimensional wave travelling along x-axis. In this case y is a function of position (x) and time (t).
The reason is that one may be interested in knowing the value of y at a general point x at any
time t. Thus, we can say that,
y = y (x, t)
But only those functions of x and t, represent a wave motion which satisfy the differential
equation.

2y 2 y
k
t2 x2

Here k is a constant, which is equal to square of the wave speed, or

k = 2
Thus, the above equation can be written as,

2 y 2 y
 2 ...(i)
t 2 x 2

The general solution of this equation is of the form y (x, t) = f (ax  bt) ...(ii)
Thus, any function of x and t which satisfies Eq. (i) or which can be written as Eq. (ii) represents
a wave. The only condition is that it should be finite everywhere and at all times. Further, if these
conditions are satisfied, then speed of wave () is given by,

coefficient of t b
 
coefficient of x a

The plus (+) sign between ax and bt implies that the wave is travelling along ă ve x-direction and
minus (ă) sign shows that it is travelling along +ve x-direction.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 2

Which of the following functions represent a wave

1
ă  t)2
(a) (x ă t)2 (b) ln (x +  t) (c) eă(x (d)
x  t

Solution :
Although all the four functions are written in the form f (ax  bt), only (c) among the four
functions is finite everywhere at all times. Hence only (c) represents a wave.

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 7

Exa mpl
plee 3

0.8
 (x , t )  represents a moving pulse where x and y are in metre and t in
[(4 x  5t )2  5]

second. Then choose the correct alternative(s) : [JEE 1999]

(a) pulse is moving in positive x-direction
(b) in 2 s it will travel a distance of 2.5 m
(c) its maximum displacement is 0.16 m
(d) it is a symmetric pulse
Solution :
(b), (c) and (d) are correct options.
The shape of pulse at x = 0 and t = 0 would be as shown in Fig.

0.8
y 0, 0    0.16 m
5

From the figure it is clear that ymax = 0.16 m

Pulse will be symmetric (symmetry is checked about ymax) if
At t = 0 y(x) = y(ă x)
From the given equation
Y

0.8  0.16m
y x  2 
16 x  5 

0.8 
and 
y  x  
16 x2  5 
X
ăx O x
or y(x) = y(ă x) t=0
Therefore, pulse is symmetric.
Speed of pulse : At t = 1 s and x = 1.25 m

Y Y

0.16m 0.16m

ăX X
x=ă1.25m x=0
t=1s t=0

WAVES & SOUNDS

 8 MARKS
value of y is again 0.16 m, i.e., pulse has travelled a distance of 1.25 m in 1 second in negative
x-direction or we can say that the speed of pulse is 1.25 m/s and it is travelling in negative
x-direction. Therefore, it will travel a distance of 2.5 m in 2 seconds. The above statement can be
better understood from Fig.

Alternate method :
If equation of a wave pulse is y = (ax  bt)

b
the speed of wave is in negative x-direction for y = f (ax + bt) and positive x-direction for
a
5
y = f (ax ă bt). Comparing this from given equation we can find that speed of wave is  1.25 m/s
4
and it is travelling in negative x-direction.

PLANE PR OGR ESS

ESSIIVE HA
HARR MO
MONNIC WAVE

If a travelling wave is a sin or cos function of (at ă bx) or (at + bx), the wave is said to be harmonic
or plane progressive wave. Here we shall limit ourselves to 1 ă D plane progressive wave which
in its most general form is given by

y = A sin (t kx  )

From Eqn. it is clear that a set of four parameters A, ,  and k completely describes a plane
progressive wave.

(1) As the maximum value of sin or cos functions can be 1, A represents the maximum value
of wave-function as is called the amplitude of the wave.

(2) The constant  is called phase constant or initial phase and enables us to find the position
from where time is considered. If at t = 0, x = 0, will be zero which is usually the case with
a wave and implies that in wave motion time is considered when the wave was at the origin.
Henceforth we shall assume  = 0 and the wave is travelling along positive x-axis unless
stated otherwise.

(3) As the wave at a given position at time t´ [Fig. A] will be

y´ = A sin (t´ ă kx)

So the wave will repeat itself if y´ = y, i.e., t´ = t + (2/) as sin ( + 2) = sin .
Now as the time after which a wave repeats itself is called time period, i.e.

T = t´ ă t = (2/)

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 9

Further as the rate at which the wave repeats itself is called its frequency f (with units Hz)
so

1 
f  
T 2

or  = 2f,  is called angular frequency (with units rad/s). Here it is worth noting that
, f or T are the characteristers of the source producing the wave and are independent of
the nature of the medium in which the wave propagates.

x = constt. t = constt.
  = v
T=  = 1 =
f k f
y y
T/2 T 3T/2 x T/2 T x' 3T/2
t t'
t x

Displacement of a particle Position of different particles

at different instants at same instant in a string
(A) (B)

(4) As the wave at a given time at position x´ [Fig.(B)] will be

y´ = A sin (t ă kx´)

So the wave will repeat itself if y = y´, i.e., x´ = x + (2/k) as sin (  2) = sin .
Now as the distance after which the wave repeats itself is called wavelength  ,

2 2
so   x´  x  , i.e., k ...(5)
k 

k is called propagation constant or wave vector and has unit (rad/m). The constant
k or wavelength  depends on the nature of the medium (as same source will produce waves
of different wavelengths in different media) and also on the source producing the waves (as
in a given medium sources of different frequencies will produce different wavelengths).

(5) If the shape of the wave does not change as the wave propagates in a medium, with increase
in t, x will also increase in such a way that

t ă kx = constt. ...(6)

The argument of harmonic function (t ă kx) is called phase of the wave and is constant
if the shape of the wave remains unchanged.

WAVES & SOUNDS

10 MARKS
Further, if we consider two points at positions x1 and x2 on a wave at a given instant, then
1 = t – kx1 and 2 = t – kx2
so 2 ~ 1 = k(x2 ă x1 )

2  2 
i.e.,                      =

x as k    ...(7)
 

From this it is clear that if x = , = 2, i.e., a path difference  corresponds to a phase
change

(6) As the phase of a plane progressive wave is constt., i.e.,

t – kx = constt.
the so called wave or phase velocity will be given by

dx  2f
v   f ...(8)
dt k  2 / 

(7) As a plane progressive wave propagating along positive x-axis with t = 0 at x = 0 is given
by
y = A sin (t ă kx)

dy
so the velocity of a particle on it will be vP a   A cos   t  kx ...(10)
dt

2
But as cos  t  kx  {1  sin 2  t  kx}  1   y / A 

so v Pa =  A
2
 y2  ...(11)

It will be maximum when y2 = min = 0

i.e., (vPa) max = A ...(12)

The acceleration of the particle is the second partial derivative of y (x, t) with respect to t,

 2 y x, t
 aP  = ă 2 A sin (kx ă wt)
 t2

= ă 2 y
i.e. the acceleration of the particle equals ă 2 times its displacement. Thus

aP = ă 2 (displacement)

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 11

(8) A plane progressive wave (either transverse of longitudinal, mechanical, non-mechanical) in

the light of above can be written in many forms such as
y = A sin [t ă kx] ...(a)
or y = A sin 2 [ft ă x/)] [as  = 2f and k = (2/)]

t x 
or y = A sin 2    [as f = 1/T]
T  

or y = A sin k [vt ă x] [as in (a), v = /k]

or y = A sin  [t ă (x/v)] [as in (a), k/  = 1/v]
Note : In solving numerical problems related to equation of plane progressive wave remember that :
(1) If the sign between t and x terms is negative the wave is propagating along positive x-axis
and vice-versa.
(2) The coefficient of sin or cos function, i.e., A gives the amplitude of the wave while its
argument (t  kx) denotes phase.
(3) The coefficient of t gives angular frequency  [= 2f = (2/T)].
(4) The coefficient of x gives propagation constant or wave number k (= 2/).
(5) The ratio of coefficient of t to that of x gives wave or phase velocity, i.e., v = (/k) and is
constant for a given medium.
(6) Particle velocity will be obtained by differentiating y with respect to t, i.e., vPa = (dy/dt) =
ă v (slope of y/x curve) and is not constt. with maximum value = A.
(7) When a given wave passes from one medium to another its frequency does not change, so
from v = f
(v1 )/(v2) = (1 )/(2)
(8) In case of vibrations of string (in its fundamental mode)
 = 2 [length of string]
(9) While passing equation v = f, be careful to decide which out of v, f and  is constant
(10) Figure shows the velocity (VP) and acceleration (a P) for two points 1 and 2 on a string as
a sinusoidal wave is travelling in it along positive x-direction.
At 1 : Slope of the curve is positive. Hence particle
velocity (VP) is negative or downwards. Similarly Y
displacement of the particle is positive, so Vp
1 v
acceleration will be negative or downwards. 2
At 2 : Slope is negative while displacement is vp ,ap ap
positive. Hence VF will be positive (upwards) and
a P is negative (downwards).
Note : The direction of VP will change if the wave
travels along negative x-direction.

WAVES & SOUNDS

 12 MARKS
Exa mpl
plee 5
 
The equation of a wave is y (x, t) = 0.05 sin   10x  40t    m
2 4
Find (a) the wavelength, the frequency and the wave velocity
(b) the particle velocity and acceleration at x = 0.5 m and t = 0.05 s.
Solution :

  
(a) The equation may be written as, y  x, t   0.05 sin 5x  20t  m
 4 

Comparing this with equation of plane progressive harmonic wave,

y (x, t) = A sin (kx ă t + ) we have,

2
wave number k =  5 rad/m


  = 0.4 m Ans.
The angular frequency is,  = 2f = 20 rad/s
 f = 10 Hz Ans.


The wave velocity is, v=f =  4 m/s in + x direction Ans.
k

(b) The particle velocity and acceleration are,

y 5 
= ă (20) (0.05) cos   
t  2 4

= 2.22 m/s

2 y  5  
= ă 20  0.05 sin  2    4 
2

t 2  

= 140 m/s2 Ans.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 6
Y
Figure shows a snapshot of a sinusoidal travelling wave taken
P
at t = 0.3 s. The wavelength is 7.5 cm and the amplitude is 2
cm. If the crest P was at x = 0 at t = 0, write the equation of t = 0.3s
2 cm
travelling wave. X
1.2 cm

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 13

Solution :
Given A = 2 cm,  = 7.5 cm

2
k=  0.84 cm 1


The wave has travelled a distance of 1.2 cm is 0.3 s. Hence the speed of wave

1.2
v  4 cm/s
0.3

 Angular frequency  = (v) (k) = 3.36 rad/s

Since the wave is travelling along positive x-direction and crest (maximum displacement is
at x = 0 at t = 0 , we can write the wave equation as,

y (x, t) = A cos (kx ă t)

or y (x, t) = A cos (t ă kx) as cos (ă ) = cos 

Therefore, the desired equation is,

y (x, t) = (2 cm) cos [(0.84 cmă1) x ă (3.36 rad/s)t] cm Ans.

En
Eneer gy o
off a P
Pllane Pr
Prog
og
ogrre ss
ssiiv e W av
avee

Consider a plane wave propagating with velocity v in x-direction across an area s. An element of
material medium (density =  kg/m3) will have a mass (sdx)
The displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position is given by the wave equation.
y = A sin (t ă kx)

1
Total energy, dE  m V 2max
2

1
  sdx  A 
2
dE =
2

=  sdx (22 f 2 A 2)

Area= S
 energy density =
dE
sdx

 2  2 f 2 A 2  J / m3  dx

energy per unit length = s (22 f2 A2)

 power transmitted = 22 f2 A2 s v (J/s)

WAVES & SOUNDS

 14 MARKS
Intensity of t he Wa
Wave
ve ( I)

Intensity of the wave is defined as the power crossing per unit area.
 I = 22 f 2 A 2 v (Watt/m 2)
For wave propagation through taut string
s = ø, the linear density in kg/m
 Energy per unit length = 22 f 2 A 2 ø
Note :
(1) The energy is the average value over a time period
(2) Intensity I  A 2
(ø and f are constant)

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 7

 64 t  x 
The equation of a progressive wave is given by as y = 0.05 sin 2    where the
 3.2 
amplitude and wavelength are in metres. (i) Calculate the phase velocity of the wave, (ii)
also calculate x, if the phase difference between two points at a distance 0.32 m apart, along
the line of propagation is /x (iii) if the wave propagates through air (density = 1.3 kg/m 3)
find the intensity of wave. (Assuming 2 = 10)
Solution :

2
(i) The progressive wave is represented by y  0.05 sin  64t  x 
3.2

2
Comparing this with the standard equation y  A sin  vt  x

the phase velocity (wave velocity) = 64 m/s
(ii) The phase difference of the particles separated by a distance of  is equal to 2.

2 
 phase difference of particles separated by a distance 0.32 m =  0.32 = radians
3.2 5
 x = 5
(iii) The intensity of the sound wave is given by

I
1
2
1
2
kg   m 
m  s 
 
v2 A 2   1.3 3   64  4 2n 2  0.05m 
2

64
Here n is the frequency of the wave and is equal to  20 Hz
3.2

1
 I =  1.3  64  4  2  400  0.0025 W / m 2 = 1664 W/m2
2
WAVES & SOUNDS
 MARKS 15

VELOCI TY O
OFF W
WAV
AV
AVEE P
PRROPAGATIO N

The physical quantities that determine the velocity are tension in string (T), mass per unit length
(ø).

Transve rse W
Waave iin
n a S
Sttre tc
tchhe d St
Strring

Consider a transverse pulse produced in a taut string of linear mass density ø. Consider a small
segment of the pulse, of length l, forming an arc of a circle of radius R. A force equal in
magnitude to the tension T pulls tangentially on this segment at each end.
Let us set an observer at the centre of the pulse, which moves along with in the pulse towards
right. For the observer any small length dl of the string as shown will appear to move backward
with a velocity v.
Now the small mass of the string is in a circular path of radius R moving with speed v. Therefore
the required centripetal force is provided by the only force acting (neglecting gravity) is the
component of tension along the radius.
The net restoring force on the element is

Tl
F = 2T sin ()  2T () =
R

The mass of the segment is m = øl

v2
The acceleration of this element towards the centre of the circle is a  , where v is the velocity
R
of the pulse.

T l v2
Using second law of motion   
l l
R R
 
T 2  T
T
or v


Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 8

A wire of uniform cross-section is stretched between two points 1 m apart. The wire is fixed
at one end and a weight of 9 kg is hung over a pulley at the other end produces fundamental
frequency of 750 Hz. (a) What is the velocity of transverse waves propagating in the wire?
(b) If now the suspended weight is submerged in a liquid of density (5/9) that of the weight,
what will be the velocity and frequency of the waves propagating along the wire?

WAVES & SOUNDS

 16 MARKS
Solution :
(a) In case of fundamental vibrations of string
(/2) = L, i.e.,  = 2 ï 1 = 2 m
Now as v = f and f = 750 Hz
L
and v = 1500 m/s
(b) Now as in case of a wire under tension

T vA TA TB M
v so  , i.e. v B = 1500
m vB TB TA

Mg´ g[1   / )]    

or vB = 1500  1500 as g´  g 1   
Mg g    

5
or vB  1500 1   1000 m/s
9

Further as here  = constt. = 2 m so from v = f,

vB 1000
fB    500 Hz
B 2

i.e., in this situation,

 = 2 m, f = 500 Hz and v = 1000 m/s

Note : Here  = constant; so f and v will change according to the relation v  f with v  T.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 9

A wire of mass 9.8 ï 10ă3 kg per metre passes over a frictionless pulley fixed on the top of
an inclined frictionless plane which makes an angle of 30Ĉ with the horizontal. Masses M 1
and M2 are tied at the two ends of the wire. The mass M 1 rests on the plane and the mass
M2 hangs vertically downwards. The whole system is in equilibrium. Now a transverse
wave propagates along the wire with a velocity of 100 m/s. Find the value of masses M1 and
M2. (g = 9.8 m/s2)
Solution :
For equilibrium of M1 along and perpendicular to the plane we have respectively :
M1g sin  = T and M1 g cos  = R ...(1)
And for equilibrium of M2 ,
M 2g = T ...(2)

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 17

Now as the velocity of a wave on a string is given by

T
R
T T
v=
m  M2
g sin M1g Cos 
i.e. T = v2m M 1
M2g
ă3
and as here v = 100 m/s and m = 9.8 ï 10 kg/m
T = (100)2 ï 9.8 ï 10 ă3 = 98 N ...(3)
Substituting the value of T from Eqn. (3) in Eqns. (2) and (1),
M2 = (T/g) = (98/9.8) = 10 kg
M 1 = (T/g sin ) = 98/[9.8 ï (1/2)] = 20 kg

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 10

A uniform rope of mass 0.1 kg and length 2.45 m hangs from a ceiling. (a) Find the speed
of transverse wave in the rope at a point 0.5 m distant from the lower end, (b) Calculate the
time taken by a transverse wave to travel the full length of the rope (g = 9.8 m/s 2)
Solution :
(a) As the string has mass and it is suspended vertically, tension in it will be different at
different points. For a point at a distance x from the free end, tension will be due to the
weight of the string below it. So if M is the mass of string of length L, the mass of length
x of the string will be (M/L)x.

M 
 T =  x g
L 

L
T Mgx
So v=   gx ...(1)
m L M / L  Pulse
x
Here x = 0.5 m

so v= 0.5  9.8  2.21 m/s

(b) From part (a) it is clear that the tension and so the velocity of the wave is different at
different points. So if at point x the wave travels a distance dx in time dt,

dx dx
v= or gx  [From Eqn. 1]
dt dt

L
dx 1
or  dt 
 gx , i.e., t
g 
0
x 1/2
dx

WAVES & SOUNDS

 18 MARKS

i.e. t 2 L / g ...(2)

Hence L = 2.45 m so t 2  2.45 / 9.8  1 sec

P ri
rinnc ipl e o f Sup er po
poss it ion

Two or more waves can travel simultaneously in a medium without affecting the motion of one
another. Therefore, the resultant displacement of each particle of the medium at any instant is
equal to the vector sum of the displacements produced by the two waves separately. This principle
is called Âprinciple of superpositionÊ. It holds for all types of waves, provided the waves are not of
very large amplitude. We can express the superposition principle in the form
y (x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t) + ... + yn (x, t)

or y( x, t)  y
J 1
j x, t 

Here, the yj are the individual wave functions, and their sum, the wave function y(x, t) describes
the resultant behaviour of the medium as a function of position and time.

Inter fe
fere
re
renc
nc
ncee :

Consider the superposition of two sinusoidal waves of same frequency at a point. Let us assume
that the two waves are travelling in the same direction with same velocity. The equation of the
two waves reaching at a point can be written as,
y 1 = A1 sin (kx ă t)
and y 2 = A2 sin (kx ă t + )
The resultant displacement of the point where the waves meet is
y = y1 + y 2
= A1 sin ( ă t) + A 2 sin (kx ă t + )
= A1 sin (kx ă t) + A 2 sin (kx ă t) cos  + A 2 cos (kx ă t) sin 
= (A 1 + A2 cos ) sin (kx ă t) + A 2 sin  cos (kx ă t)
= A cos  sin (kx ă t) + A sin  cos (kx ă t)
or y = A sin (kx ă t + )
Here, A1 + A2 cos  = A cos 
and A 2 sin  = A sin 
or A2 = (A 1 + A2 cos )2 + (A 2 sin ) 2

or A = A 12  A 22  2A1 A 2 cos  .... (1)

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 19

A sin  A2 sin
and tan  = 
A cos  A 1  A 2 cos 

The above result can be obtained by graphical method as well. Assume

A2 A

a vector A1 of length A1 to represent the amplitude of first wave.

 
Another vector A 2 of length A2, making an angle  with A1 represents
 
the amplitude of second wave. The resultant of A 1 and A 2 represent

the amplitude of resulting function y. The angle  represents the A1

phase difference between the resulting function and the first wave.

Now we know that intensity of a wave is given by :

1
I = A 2 2 v
2

i.e. I  A2
So, if ,  and  are same for both interfering waves, Eq. (i) can also be written as,

I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos  ...(ii)

we see that the resulting amplitude A and intensity I depends on the phase difference  between
the interfering wave. Where cos  = + 1, A = Amax = A1 + A2

 
2
or I = Imax = I1  I2

and the waves are said to be interfering constructively.

Similarly where cos  = ă 1, A = A min = A 1 ~ A2

 
2
or I = Imin = I1  I 2

and the waves are said to be interfering destructively.

Note :
(1) All maxima are equally spaced (as path difference between two consecutive maxima is )
I
 
2
and equally loud  m ax  I1  I2  . Same is also true for minima with

 
2
I m in  I1 ~ I 2 . Also interference maxima and minima are alternate as for maxima
x = 0, , 2 etc., while for minima x = (/2), (3/2), etc. This all is shown graphically.

WAVES & SOUNDS

20 MARKS

2
Imax = ( I 1 + I 2 )
2 I 1 I2
I1 + I2
2 I 1 I2
2
Imin = ( I 1 ă I 2)

Phase Diff. 0  2 3 4 5 6  
Phath Diff. 0 2  32 2 52 3  x

 
2
I max I1  I2  A1  A 2 
2
I1 A 12
(2)  with 
 I2   A1 ~ A 2  I2 A 22
Imin 2 2
I1 ~

So if I 1 and I2 or A1 and A2 are given (Imax /Imin) can be calculated and vice-versa. From
the above it is also clear than if I1 = I 2 = I0 .

   
2 2
I max  I 0  I0  4I0 and I m in  I 0  I0 O

i.e., in maxima intensity will be 4-times that of a single wave (I0) while intensity of minima
is zero if the interfering waves are of equal intensities.

 
2
(3) In interference the intensity of maxima I1  I2 exceeds the sum of individual intensities

 
2
(I1 + I2) by an amount 2 I1I 2 while of minima I1 ~ I2 lacks (I 1 + I 2) by the same

amount 2 I1I 2

Hence, we conclude that in interference energy is neither created nor destroyed but is
redistributed.
(4) Here we had assumed that the two waves from S 1 and S2 start in the same phase. Hence,
at P they have a constant phase difference  = (2/)x, developed due to different paths
traversed by them. Such waves are said to be ÂCoherentÊ and produce sustained interference
effects. However, if there is an initial phase difference between the waves 0 then  =
0 + (2/)x and if 0 is not constant and varies rapidly and randomly with time, at P
sometimes constructive and sometimes destructive interference will take place so that

1
I av = (I + Imin) = (I1 + I2) and hence, no interference effect is observed. Such waves
2 max
are called ÂIncoherentÊ.
So for observing interference effects waves must be coherent.

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 21

Ref le
lect
ct
ctii on and Transmission of Wave s

The nature of the reflected & transmitted wave depends on the nature of end point. There are
three possibilities.
(a) End point is fixed : Waves on reflection from a fixed end undergoes a phase change of
180Ĉ .

Reflected
wave
incident
wave

(b) End point is free : There is no phase change in waves on reflection.

incident Reflected
wave wave

(c) End point is neither completely fixed nor completely free

For example, consider a light string attached to a heavier string as shown in figure if a wave
pulse is produced on the light string moving towards the junction, a part of the reflected and
a part is transmitted on the heavier string. The reflected wave is inverted with to the
original one (figure (a).

incident wave

Reflected wave Transmitted wave

(a) (b)
On the other hand, if the wave is produced on the heavier string, which moves towards the
junction, a part will be reflected and a transmitted, no inversion of wave shape will take
place (as shown in figure (b).
So the rule is : if a wave enters a region where the wave velocity is smaller, the reflected
wave is inverted. If it enters a region where the wave velocity is larger, the reflected wave
is not inverted. The transmitted wave is never inverted.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 11

Finding the amplitude of reflected and transmitted displacement waves from a plane
boundary at normal incidence, discuss the change in phase of reflected and transmitted
waves if any.

WAVES & SOUNDS

22 MARKS
Solution :
Suppose the incident wave of amplitude Ai and frequency  is propagating along positive x-axis
with velocity v1, i.e.,
yi = Ai sin  [t ă (x/v 1)] ...(1)
Now as on reflection frequency does not change and for normal incidence, the reflected wave will
move opposite to incident wave (i.e., along negative x-axis), but in same medium, so if Ar is its
amplitude, it will be given by
yr = Ar sin  [t + (x/v1)] ...(2)
Transmitted wave will move in the direction of incident wave with same frequency in the other
medium with speed v2 and so if Ai is its amplitude it will be given by
yt = At sin  [t ă (x/v 2)] ...(3)
Now as wave is continuous so at the boundary x = 0, continuity of displacement requires
yi + yr = yt for x= 0
Substituting Eqns. (1), (2) and (3) in the above with x = 0 and simplifying, we get
A i + A r = At ...(4)
Also at boundary the slope of wave will be continuous, i.e.,

dyi dy dy
 r  t for x= 0
dx dx dx

which in the light of Eqns. (1), (2) and (3) gives

 A i A   A t
cos t  r cos t  cos t
v1 v1 v2

i.e., Ai ă Ar = (v1/v 2 )A t ...(5)

Solving Eqns. (4) and (5) for A r and A t, we get

v2  v1 2v 2
Ar  and At  Ai
v1  v2 v1  v2

These are the required results from these it is clear that in case of displacement waves :
(1) As At is always positive whatever be v 1 and v2 , the phase of transmitted wave always
remains unchanged.
(2) As Ar will be positive only if v2 > v 1 , i.e., in case of reflection from a rare medium (or free
end) there is no change in phase.
(3) As Ar will be negative if v2 < v1 , i.e., in case of reflection from a denser medium (or rigid
boundary or fixed end) there is a phase change of .

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 23

Wave property Reflection Transmission (Refraction)

 does not change changes
f, T,  do not change do not change
, k do not change change
A, I change change
  = 0, from a rarer medium does not change
 = , from a denser medium

Exa mpl
plee 12

Two strings 1 and 2 are taut between two fixed supports (as shown in figure) such that the
tension in both strings is same. Mass per unit length of 2 is more than that of 1. Explain
which string is denser for 1 transverse travelling wave.
Solution :
Speed of a transverse wave on a string

T 1
v or v
 
1 2
Now ø 2 > ø1 (given)
 v2 < v1
i.e. medium 2 is denser and medium 1 is rarer.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 13

Figure shows a rectangular pulse and triangular pulse approaching each other. The pulse
speed is 0.5 cm/s. Sketch the resultant pulse at t = 2 s.

2 cm

ă2 ă1 0 1 2 3
x (cm)

Solution :
In 2 s each pulse will travel a distance of 1 cm.
The two pulses overlap between 0 and 1 cm as shown in figure. So, A1 and A2 can be added as
shown in figure (c).

WAVES & SOUNDS

24 MARKS

(a) A1 2 cm

ă1 0 1
+ (c) 2 cm
A1
(b)
2 cm A2 2 cm
A2

0 1 2 ă1 0 1 2

ST AN DI
DINNG W AV ES

A standing wave is formed when two identical waves travelling in the opposite directions along
the same line interfere.
Consider two waves of the same frequency, speed and amplitude, which are travelling in opposite
directions along a string. Two such waves may be represented by the equations.
y1 = A sin (t ă kx)
y2 = A sin (kx + t)
Hence the resultant may be written as y = y1 + y2 = A sin (t ă kx) + A sin (t + kx)
y = 2A sin kx cos t
This is the equation of a standing wave.
This is the required result and from this it is clear that :

d2 y 1 d2 y
(1) As this equation satisfies the wave equation,  it represents a wave. However,
dx2 v2 dt2
as it is not of the form F (ax  bt), the wave is not travelling and so is called standing or
stationary wave.
(2) The amplitude of the wave A s = 2A cos kx is not constant but varies periodically with
position (and not with time as in beats).
(3) The points for which amplitude is minimum are called nodes and for these

 3 5
cos kx = 0, i.e., kx  , , ,...
2 2 2

 3 5  2 
i.e., x , , , ...  as k   
4 4 4  

i.e., in a stationary wave nodes are equally spaced, and the spacing between two adjacent
nodes is (/2) with Amin = 0. Also for nodes, displacement y = 0 for all values of time

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 25

(as As = 0), i.e., nodes are permanently at rest (through they are not physically clamped).

 /2 /4 /2 t= 3T
4
2A
N N N t=0
AN AN AN AN
O x
Segment1 Segment2
X t= T
4
/4  /2  /4   /2 /2

(4) The points for which amplitude is maximum are called antinodes and for these,
cos kx  1, i.e., kx = 0, , 2, 3, ...

 2 3  2 
i.e, x  0, , , , ...  as k   
2 2 2  

i.e., like nodes, antinodes are also equally spaced with spacing (/2) and Amax =  2A.
Furthermore, nodes and antinodes are alternate with spacing (/4).

(5) The nodes divide in the medium into segments (or loops). All the particles in a segment
vibrate in same phase, but in opposite phase with the particles in the adjacent segment.
Twice in one period all the particles pass through their mean position simultaneously with
maximum velocity (As), the direction of motion being reversed after each cycle.

N N N
t=0
y
t=T4

t=T2
y
t=3T
4

t=T

t=T4

x=0 /4 3/4 5 /4

(6) Since antinodes have always maximum displacement, their velocity is also maximum compared
to other points and velocity at nodes is zero.
(7) Standing waves can be transverse or longitudinal, e.g., in strings (under tension) if reflected
wave exists, the waves are transverse-stationary, while in organ pipes waves are longitudinal-
stationary. In case of of longitudinal waves are pressure and displacement waves have a
phase difference of (/2) at nodes where displacement is min pressure will be max while at

WAVES & SOUNDS

26 MARKS

2A Displacement wave

y AN AN
x
N N N

p
x

Pressure wave

antinodes where displacement is max pressure will be min, i.e. in case of longitudinal-
stationary waves, nodes are points of max pressure (min displacement) while antinodes of
minimum pressure (max displacement).
(8) As in stationary waves nodes are permanently at rest, so no energy can be transmitted
across them. However, this energy oscillates between elastic potential energy and kinetic
energy of the particles of the medium. When all the particles are at their extreme position
KE is minimum while elastic PE is max and when all the particles (simultaneously) pass
through their mean position KE will be maximum while elastic PE minimum. The total
energy confined in a segment (elastic PE + KE), always remains the same.
(9) In standing wave if the amplitudes of component waves are not equal, then as Amin 0 i.e.,
node will not be permanently at rest and so some energy will pass across the node and the
wave will be partially standing.

(A1 ~ A2 ) (A1 + A2) 2Amin

x
2Amax

In such situations we estimate the extent to which the resultant wave is standing by the
term standing wave ratio defined as

A max  A1  A 2 
SWR = 
A min  A 1 ~ A 2 

[as A max = A 1 + A 2 and A min = A1 ~ A2]

So that for a progressive wave SWR = (min) = 1 (as A2 = 0) while for perfectly standing wave
SWR = (max) =  (as A1 = A 2). The value of SWR for all other waves will lie between these
limits (i.e., 1 and ).

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 27

Di ff
ffer
er
ereenc
ncees b
beetwee n a T
Trr av
avel
el
elli
li
linng W
Wav
av
avee an
andd a S
Sttandi
ding
ng W
Waav e

(1) In a travelling wave, the disturbance produced in a region propagates with a definite
velocity but in a standing wave, it is confined to the region where it is produced.
(2) In a travelling wave, the motion of all the particles is similar in nature. In a standing wave,
different particles move with different amplitudes.
(3) In a standing wave, the particles at nodes always remain at rest. In travelling waves, there
is no particle, which always remains in rest.
(4) In a standing wave, all the particles cross their mean position together. In a travelling wave,
there is no instant when all the particles are at the mean position together.
(5) In a standing wave, all the particles between two successive nodes reach their extreme
positions together, thus moving in phase. In a travelling wave, the phases of nearby particles
are always different.
(6) In a travelling wave, energy is transmitted from one region of space to other but in a
standing wave, the energy of one region is always confined in that region.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 14

The vibrations of a string of length 60 cm fixed at both ends are represented by the equation
 x 
y  4 sin   cos  96 t  where x and y are in cm and t in sec. (a) What is the maximum
 15 
displacement at x = 5 cm ? (b) Where are the nodes located along the string ? (c) What is
the velocity of the particle at x = 7.5 cm and t = 0.25 s ? (d) Write down the equations of
component waves whose superposition gives the above wave.
Solution :
(a) For x = 5, y = 4 sin (5/15) cos (96t)

or y  2 3 cos 96t 

So y will be max when

cos (96t) = max = 1, i.e.  y max  x  5  2 3 cm

(b) At nodes amplitude of wave is zero,

 x  x
i.e. 4 sin    0 or  0 , , 2, 3, ...
 15  15

So x = 0, 15, 30, 45, 60 cm [as length of string = 60 cm]

(c) As y = 4 sin (x/15) cos (96t)

dy  x
  4 sin   sin  96t    96 
dt  15 
WAVES & SOUNDS
28 MARKS
So the velocity of the particle at x = 7.5 cm and t = 0.25 s,
vpa = ă 384 sin (7.5/15) sin (96 ï 0.25)
i.e., vpa = ă 384ï 1 ï 0 = 0
(d) As 2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A ă B)

x 
So y = 4 sin   cos  96 t
 15 

  x   x 
= 2 sin   96 t   sin   96 t  
  15   15 

 x   x 
y = 2 sin 96 t  2 96 t  15  [as sin (ă ) = ă sin ]
15 
or
  

 x 
y = y1 + y2 with y1 = 2 sin 96 t 
15 
i.e.,


Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 15

A metallic rod of length 1 m is rigidly clamped at its mid point. Longitudinal stationary
waves are set up in the rod in such a way that there are two nodes on either side of the
mid-point. The amplitude of an antinode is 2 ï 10 ă6 m. Write the equation of motion at a
point 2 cm from the mid-point and those of constituent waves in the rod. (Y = 2 ï 1011 N/
m2 and  = 8 ï 103 kg/m3 )
Solution :
In rods, like strings, clamped point is a node while the free antinode; so the situation in accordance
with given condition is as shown in Fig.

x
x=0 x=L/2 x=L

Now as distance between two consecutive nodes is /2 while between a node and an antinode is
/4

    21
4     2    L i.e.,    0.4 m ... ...(1)
 2 4 5

Also as Y = 2 ï 1011 N/m 2 and  = 8 ï 103 kg/m 3

Y 2  1011
v=   5000 m/s
 8  103

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 29

So from v = f, f = (v/) = (5000/0.4) = 12500 Hz ...(2)

Now if incident and reflected waves along the rod are y1 = A sin (t ă kx) and y2 = A sin (t +
kx + ), resultant wave will be :
y1 = y 1 + y2 = A [sin (t ă kx) + sin (t + kx + )]

C + D   C ~ D
But as sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos
2 2

   
y  2A cos  kx   sin  t  2
 2  

Now as free end of the rod is an antinode, i.e., amplitude is max at x = 0, so that

 
cos  k  0    max  1, i.e.   = 0
 2

and Amax = 2A = 2 ï 10 ă6 m (given)

So y = 2 ï 10 ă6 cos kx sin t

 2   2 
or y = 2 ï 10ă6 cos 
  sin 2 ft as k   and   2 f 

Above equation in the light of Eqns. (1) and (2) reduces to

y = 2 ï 10 ă6 cos 5x sin 25000t ...(3)

Now as for a point 2 cm from the mid-point x = (0.50  0.02),

y = 2 ï 10ă6 cos 5 (0.50  0.02) sin 25000t

This is the required result.

Now as 2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) ă sin (A ă B)

the resultant wave y = 2 ï 10ă6 cos (5x) sin (25000t) can be written as

y = 10ă6 [sin (5x + 25000t) ă sin (5x ă 25000t)]

i.e. y = 10ă6 sin [25000t + 5x] + 10ă6 sin [25000t ă 5x] [as sin (ă ) = ă sin ]

or y = y1 + y2 with y1 = 10ă6 sin [25000t + 5x]

and y2 = 10ă6 sin [25000t ă 5x]

St
Staa ti
tioonary wave s in St
Strr in
inggs

When a string capable of vibrating (under tension) is set into vibration, transverse harmonic
waves will propagate along it. It gets reflected at the other fixed end. The incident and the

WAVES & SOUNDS

30 MARKS
reflected waves interfere to produce a stationary transverse wave in which the ends are always
nodes, if both ends are fixed, whereas if there is a free end and one fixed end, then free end will
be an antinode as here displacement will be maximum.

fixed and free end

Both ends fixed one end fixed

(a) Fundamental Mode : In the simplest form, the string vibrates in one loop in which the
ends are the nodes and the centre is the antinode. This mode of vibration is known as the
fundamental mode and frequency of vibration is known as the fundamental frequency or
first harmonic.
Since the distance between consecutive nodes is

1 
L  1 = 2L
2 2

If f1 is the fundamental frequency of vibration, then the velocity of transverse waves is

given as, v =  1 f1

v
or f1  ...(i)
2L

(b) The same string under the same conditions may also vibrate in two loops, such that the
centre is also the node
 L = 22/2   2 = L
If f 2 is frequency of vibrations
 
v v 2 2
 f2 = 
2 L

v
 f2 = ...(ii)
L

The frequency f2 is known as second harmonic or first overcome.

(c) The same string under the same conditions may also vibrate in three segments.

3 3
 L=
2

2
 3 = L
3

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 31

If f 3 is the frequency in this mode of vibration, then,

3v
f3 = ...(iii)
2L

The frequency f3 is known as third harmonic or second overtone.

Thus a stretched string vibrates with frequencies, which are integral multiples of the
fundamental frequencies. These frequencies are known as harmonics.

T
The velocity of transverse wave in stretched string is given as v  . Where T = tension


in the string.
ø = linear density or mass per unit length of string. If the string fixed at two ends, vibrates
in its fundamental mode, then v = 2Lf

1 T
f 
2L 

Now as in case of waves v = f, i.e., f = v/ and for waves along a string v  T / m  , the possible

frequencies of vibration of the string in the light of Eqn. (1) will be :

n T
fn  with n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2L m

i.e., in case of vibrations of strings, number of natural frequencies are possible and if we take

1 T
f  , f = nf
2L m n

i.e., f1 = f, f 2 = 2f, f3 = 3f, ...

So in case of vibrations of strings higher frequencies are integral multiples of f, i.e., forms a
harmonic series.

The frequency will be minimum when n = min = 1, i.e.

1 T
fmin  f1  f 
2L m

WAVES & SOUNDS

32 MARKS
Antinodes
Harmonic Mode or loops Nodes Frequency Wavelength
First Fundamental 1 2 f (2L/1)
Second I overtone 2 3 2f (2L/2)
Third II overtone 3 4 3f (2L/3)
... ... ... ... ... ...
nth (n ă 1)th n (n + 1) nf (2L/n)
overtone

Regarding frequency of a vibrating string it is worth noting that :

(1) As a string has many natural frequencies (all integral multiples of fundamental frequency),
so when it is excited with a tuning fork (or a vibrating body), the string will be in resonance
with the given body if any one of its natural frequencies coincides with that of the body.

(2) As for a sting f = (1/2L)  T/ m 

(a) f  (1/L) if T and m are constant

(b) f  T if L and m are constant


(c) f  1/ m  if T and L are constant

These laws of vibration of string are known as Mersenne’s laws of vibration of string and
according to these the frequency of a string can be changed by changing its length, tension
or mass per unit length.

(3) If M is the mass of a string of length L, m = (M/L)

1 T 1 T 1 T
So f    ...(4)
2L m 2L M/L  2 ML

Also if the radius of string is r and its density , m = r2.

1 T 1 T
So f  i.e., f  ...(5)
2L 2
r  2Lr 

(4) If the string is vibrating in nth harmonic, its frequency will be nf, the number of loops in
the string or antinodes will be n, while total number of nodes (including two at the ends)
will be (n + 1), e.g., in case of 3rd harmonic of a vibrating string, frequency of vibration will
be 3f, antinodes will be 3 while total nodes = 3 + 1 = 4 and  = (2L/3).

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 33

(5) In case of vibrations of composite string (i.e., string made up by joining two strings of
different lengths, cross-sections and densities) having same tension through out, the joint is
a node while lowest common fundamental frequency of the string will be
fC = n1 f1 = n 2 f 2
Here higher harmonics will be integral multiples of common frequency fC .

Exa mpl
plee 16

The fundamental frequency of a sonometer wire increases by 6 Hz if its tension is increased

by 44% keeping the length constant. Find the change in the fundamental frequency of the
sonometer wire, when the length of the wire is increased by 20% keeping the original
tension in the wire.
Solution :
If case of vibration of a string, fundamental frequency is given by

1 T
f 
2L m

So if length of given wire is kept constant,

(f´/f) = (T´/T) ó
and as here f´ = f + 6 and T´ = T + 0.44 T = 1.44 T,

f  6 1.44T
 i.e. f = 30 Hz
f T

Now it keeping the original tension (T), the length of given wire is changed.

f ´´ l 1
 = [as l´´ = l + 0.20 l = 1.20 l]
f l ´´ 1.20

30
so f´´ =  25 Hz
1.2

and hence f = f´´ ă f = 25 ă 30 = ă 5 Hz

i.e, fundamental frequency will decrease by 5 Hz. Ans.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 17

Two strings A (length L 1) and B (length L 2) are made of steel and are kept under the same
tension. If A has a radius twice that of B, what should be value of L2/L 1 for them to have
the same fundamental frequencies? What should be the value of L2/L 1 if the first overtone
of the former should equal the third harmonic of the latter?

WAVES & SOUNDS

34 MARKS
Solution :
String A String B
Tension T T (same tension)

2
r 
Linear mass density r 2    = density of steel
2 

Fundamental frequency f f (same)

Lengths L1 L2

1 T
For the string A, f 
2L1 r2 

1 T 1 4T
For the string B, f  2

2L2  r 2L2 r 2
 
 2

Since both have the same fundamental frequency.

1 T 1 4T
2

2L1 r  2L 2 r2 

L2
2
L1

If f be the fundamental frequency of string A with length L1

1 T
f 
2L1  r2 

The first overtone of A = second harmonic = 2n

1 4T
 f´ 
2L 2  r2 

The third harmonic of this is 3n´

3 4T
3f ´ 
2L2  r 2

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 35

Since 2f = 3f

1 T 3 4T 3 T
 
L1 2
r  2L 2 2
r  L2  r2

L2
3
L1

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 18

Two metallic strings A and B of different materials are connected in series forming a joint.
The strings have similar cross-sectional area. The length of A is l A = 0.3 m and that of B is
l B = 0.75 m. One end of the combined string is tied with a support rigidly and the other end
is loaded with a block of mass m passing over a frictionless pulley. Transverse waves are
set up in the combined string using an external source of variable frequency. Calculate
(i) the lowest frequency for which standing waves are observed such that the joint is a node
and (ii) the total number of antinodes at this frequency. The densities of A and B are
6.3 ï 10ă3 kg m ă3 and 2.8 ï 10ă3 kg mă3 respectively.
Solution :
p T
The frequency of transverse waves in a stretched string is given by n 
2l m
where the string is vibrating with p loops, T = tension in the string and m = mass per unit length
of the string.
As the frequency of the wave in both string (A vibrating with p loops B vibrating with q loops)
must be the same, so
A C B
p T q T
= 0.3 m 0.75 m
2 lA mA 2l B mB

p lA mA l A
  A
q = lB mB lB B

0.3 6.3 3
= 
0.75 2.8 5

So, p = 3, q = 5
No. of antinode = p + q = 3 + 5 = 8 Ans.
Note : (i) The frequency cannot be calculated as tension is not provided.
(ii) Total no. of nodes including the two at the ends will be = 9

WAVES & SOUNDS

36 MARKS
Exa mpl
plee 19

An aluminium wire of cross-sectional area 1 ï 10ă6 m 2 is joined to a copper wire of the same
cross-section. This compound wire is stretched on a sonometer, pulled by a weight of 10 kg.
The total length of the compound wire between the two bridges is 1.5 m of which the
aluminium wire is 0.6 m and the rest is the copper wire. Transverse vibrations are set up
in the wire by using an external force of variable frequency. Find the lowest frequency of
excitation for which standing waves are formed, such that the joint in the wire is a node.
What is the total number of nodes observed at this frequency excluding the two at the ends
of the wire ? The density of aluminium is 2.6 ï 10 3 kg/m3 and that of copper 1.0401 ï 104 kg/
m3.
Solution :
As the total length of the wire is 1.5 m and out of which LA = 0.6 m, so the length of the copper
wire L C = 1.5 ă 0.6 = 0.9 m. The tension in the whole wire is same (= Mg = 10 g N) and as
fundamental frequency of vibration of string is given by

1 T 1 T
f   [as m = A]
2L m 2L A

1 T 1 T
So fA  and fC  ...(1)
2L A  AA 2LC C A

Now as in case of composite wire, the whole wire will vibrate with fundamental frequency
f = nAfA = nC fC ...(2)
Substituting the values of fA and f C from Eqn. (1) in (2),

nA T nC T

2  0.6 A  2.6  10 3 2  0.9 A  1.0401  10 4

nA 2 2.6 2 1 1
i.e.,    
nC 3 10.4 3 2 3

So that for fundamental frequency of composite string, nA

= 1 and nC = 3, i.e., aluminium string will vibrate in first AI Cu
N N N N N
harmonic (one loop), i.e., fundamental mode while copper
string in third harmonic (3 loops), i.e., II overtone as shown
 f = fA = 3fC

10 Kg

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 37

This is turn implies that total number of nodes in the string will be 5 and so number of nodes
excluding the nodes at the ends = 5 ă 2 = 3,

1 10  9.8
and f  f A   161.8 Hz   3 f C 

2  0.6 10  2.6  10 3
6

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 20

A string 120 cm in length sustains a standing wave, with the points of string at which the
displacement amplitude is equal to 2 mm being separated by 15.0 cm. Find the maximum
displacement amplitude. Also find the harmonic corresponding to this wave.
Solution :
From Fig. points A, B, C, D and E are having equal displacement amplitude.
Further, xE ă xA =  = 4 ï 15 = 60 cm

2l 2  120 A B E
As  = =  60
n n

C D
2  120
 n = 4
60

So, it corresponds to 4th harmonic.

Also, distance of node from A = 7.5 cm as distance between B and C = 15 cm and node is between
them. Taking node at origin, the amplitude of stationary wave can be written as,
a = A sin kx

2 2
Here a = 2 mm; k    60 and x = 7.5 cm

2  
 2 = A sin  60  7.5   A sin 4

Hence, A = 2mm

WAVES & SOUNDS

 38 MARKS

SOUND
Sound waves are mechanical waves. They require a medium for their propagation i.e. they cannot
propagate in vaccum.
Sound is produced in a material by a vibrating source. Sound waves constitute alternate compression
and rarefaction pulses travelling in the medium. The compression travels in the medium at a
speed, which depends on the elastic and inertial properties of the medium.
The description in terms of pressure wave is more appropriate than the description in terms of the
displacement wave as far as sound properties are concerned.

So
Souund as Pr es
essu
su
surre W av
avee

A longitudinal wave in a fluid is described either in terms of the longitudinal displacements

suffered by the particles of the medium or in terms of the excess pressure generated due to the
compression or rarefaction.
Consider a wave going in the x-direction in a fluid. Suppose that at a time t, the particle at the
undisturbed position x suffers a displacement y in the x-direction.

 x
y  y0 sin  t   ...(i)
 v
y y+ y
A is cross-sectional area.
Increase in volume of this element at time t is A
V = A dy
x x+ x

    x
= Ay 0   cos   t   x
 v   v

where y has been obtained by differentiating equation (i) with respect to t.

 x
Ay0  cos   t    x
 volume strain is  V    v y  x  y
 0 cos  t   
V vA x v  v  x

y
 volume strain =
x

The corresponding stress i.e., the excess pressure developed in the element at x, at time t is

 V
p = B  
 where B is the bulk modulus of the material.
 V 

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 39

By0   x
 p= cos   t   ...(ii)
v  v

By
 P= 
x

Comparing equations (i) and (ii), the relation between the pressure amplitude P0 and the
displacement amplitude s0 is

B p
p0  y0  Bky0  y0  0 where k is a wave number.
v 2 B

As observed from equations (i) and (ii), pressure wave is Âcos Ê type, if displacement is described
as Âsin Ê type.
Thus, the pressure-maxima occur where where the displacement is zero and displacement maxima
occur where the pressure is at its normal level.

Sp
Speee d of a Longitudina
nall Wav e

First we calculate the speed at which a longitudinal pulse propagates through a fluid. We will
apply NewtonÊs second law to the motion of an element of the fluid and from this we derive the
wave equation.

x y y+ y

P0 P0 P0+ P1 P0 + P2

a b

Consider a fluid element ÂabÊ confined to a tube of cross sectional area S as shown in figure. The
element has a thickness x. We assume that the equilibrium pressure of the fluid is P0 . Because
of the disturbance, the section ÂaÊ of the element moves a distance y from its mean position and
section ÂbÊ moves a distance y + y to a new position b´. The pressure on the left side of the element
becomes P0 + P 1 and on the right side it becomes P0 + P 2. If  is the equilibrium density, the
mass of the element is Sx. (When the element moves its mass does not change, even though
its volume and density do change).
The net force acting on the element is,
F = (P1 ă P2) S

2 y
and its acceleration is a=
 t2

WAVES & SOUNDS

 40 MARKS
Thus, NewtonÊs second law applied to the motion of the element is

2 y
(P1 ă P 2) S = S x
t 2

Next we divide both sides by x and note that in the limit as x  0 we have (P1 ă P 2) / x

P  2y
 P/x, Eq. (i) then takes the form   2 ...(ii)
x t

y
The excess pressure P may be written as  P   B
x

When this is used in Eq. (ii), we obtain the wave equation

 2y   2y  2y B  2y
 . or 
x2 B t2 t2  x2

Comparing this equation with the wave equation

2 y 2 2 y
= 
t 2 x 2

B
We have = 
(speed of longitudinal wave in a fluid)

This is the speed of longitudinal waves within a gas or a liquid.

When a longitudinal wave propagates in a solid rod or bar, the rod expands sideways slightly
when it is compressed longitudinally and the speed of a longitudinal wave in a rod is given by

Y
= (speed of a longitudinal wave in a solid rod)


Ve
Velo
lo
loccit y of S
Sou
ou
ounnd IIn
n An I de
deaal Gas

The motion of sound wave in air is adiabatic. In the case of an ideal gas, the relation between
pressure P and volume V during an adiabatic process is given by
PV = constant
Where  is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure to that at constant volume.
After differentiating, we get

dP
V  PV  1  0
dV
WAVES & SOUNDS
 MARKS 41

vd P
Since B    P
dV

P RT
using the gas equation  where M is the molar mass.
 M

RT
Thus v  (T = temperature is Kelvin).
M

Note :
(i) Effect of temperature : If the specific volume of gas is v. The velocity of sound =

P  RT

 M

If c1 and c2 be the velocities of sound in a gas at temperatures t1 C and t2C and P1 and P 2

the respective pressures and V1 and V2 the specific volumes at these temperatures, ratio of
the two velocities of sound is

v1 P1V1 RT1
  where T and T2 are the absolute temperatures.
v2 P2 V2 RT2

Hence, v T

v1 273  t1
 
v2 273  t2

vt 273  t
If v t and v 0 are the velocities at tĈC and 0ĈC, then 
vo 273

ó
 t 
 vt  v0 1  
 273 

when t is small

vt  t 
 1
v0  546 

 t 
 vt  v0 1  
 546 

WAVES & SOUNDS

 42 MARKS
Put v 0 = 332 m/s at 0ĈC
v t = (332 + 0.61 t) m/s
This implies that for small temperature variations at 0ĈC, velocity of sound changes by 0.61
m/s when temperature changes by 1ĈC.

P RT
(ii) Effect of pressure : In a gas; v   change in pressure has no effect on velocity
 M

P
of sound in a gas, so long as temperature is constant because;  constant; as long as

temperature is constant.
(iii) Effect of relative humidity : When humidity increases, there is an increase in the relative
number of water molecules and hence a decrease in molar mass, and the speed of sound
increases.
(iv) The speed of sound in air is not affected by amplitudes, frequency, phase, boundness, pitch
of quality.

En
Eneer gy
gy,, Pow
owee r an
andd I nt
nteensity of Soun
undd
If a sound wave given by y = A sin (t ă kx) is propagating through a medium, the particle
dy
velocity will be vPa   A cos  t  kx
dt
So if  is the density of the medium, kinetic energy of the wave per unit volume will be

2
1  dy  1
=      A2 2 cos 2 (t ă kx)
2  dt  2

and its maximum value will be equal to energy per unit volume [as (KE)max = (PE)max = E], i.e.,
energy density U.So.

1
U  A 2 2Sx ...(1)
2

1
So the energy associated with a volume S x will be E  U V  A 2 2S x
2
So, power (rate of transmission of energy) will be

E 1  x 
P   2A 2S
t 2 as t  V  ...(3)
 
Now as Intensity is defined as average energy transmitted per unit normal area per sec., i.e.,
power per unit area, so

E P 1
I =    v2 A2 ...(4)
S t S 2

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 43

Further as in case of sound wave displacement amplitude is related to pressure amplitude through
t he r el at i on p 0 = vA, so

2
1  p0  1 p02
I = v2  v   ...(5)
2   2 v

Eqns. (4) and (5) give intensity of sound in terms of displacement and pressure amplitude
respectively and according to these for a given source and medium

I  A2 (or p02 ) ...(6)

Note : In case of vibrating string, as S will represent mass per unit length m, so from Eqn. (3)
the average rate of transport of energy, i.e., power transmitted by a vibrating string will be

1 mass
P mv 2A 2 with m ...(7)
2 length

The SI unit of intensity is W/m2. However; as human ear responds to sound intensities over a
wide range, i.e., from 10ă12 W/m2 to 1 W/m2, so instead of specifying intensity of sound in W/m2 ,
we use a logarithmic scale of intensity called the sound level defined as

 I
SL = 10 log   ...(8)
I 0 

where I0 is the threshold of human ear, i.e., 10ă12 W/m 2. The sound level defined in this way is
expressed in decibel (dB). A sound of intensity I 0 has an SL = 10 log (I 0/I 0) = 0dB while sound
at the upper range of human hearing called threshold of pain has a intensity of 1 W/m2 or a SL
= 10 log (1/10ă12 ) = 120 dB.
We also use dB as a relative measure to compare different sounds with one another, rather than
with reference intensity; as for two intensities I1 and I2.

I1 I
SL 1  SL 2  10 log 10 log 2
I0 I0

I1
or SL 1  SL 2  10 log ...(9)
I2

e.g., two sounds whose intensity ratio is 2 differ in SL by 10 log 2 = 3 dB. Here it must be kept
in mind that ratio of two intensities corresponds to difference in their sound level (and not ratio).

Note : While solving problems related to intensity of sound along with the above, also remember
that :

WAVES & SOUNDS

 44 MARKS

E E
(i) As intensity, I while U =
S t V

I  E S L  L 
So    v  as  V  S  L and  v
U S t E   t 

or intensity I (energy flux) = U ï v

= Energy density ï velocity ...(10)
(ii) With increase in distance from the source the total energy or power transmitted remains the
same but intensity decreases. For an isotropic point source of power P, intensity I at a
distance r from it will be

P P 
I  as S = 4r2  ...(11)
S 4 r 2  

Now as for a given medium and source, P r

I
2
I  A Source ...(12)

So from Eqns. (11) and (12)

A 2  (1/r2 ), i.e., for spherical waves
I  (1/r2) and A  (1/r)
(iii) In case of electromagnetic waves (e.g. light or radio waves),

1 1
I EB  with E  c and c 
0 B 0 0

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 21

(a) The power of sound from the speaker of a radio is 20 mW. By turning the knob of
volume control the power of sound is increased to 400 mW. What is the power increase
in dB as compared to original power ?
(b) How much more intense is an 80 dB sound than a 20 d B whisper ?
Solution :
(a) As intensity is power per unit area, for a given source P  I, so
SL2 ă SL1 = 10 log (I2 /I 1)

P2 400
i.e. SL = 10 log  10 log
P1 20

i.e. SL = 10[log 20) ~ 13 dB

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 45

(b) By definiton of sound level,

SL 2 ă SL 1 = 10 log (I2 /I1)
So 80 ă 20 = 10 log (I2/I1)
or 6 = log (I2/I1 ), i.e., (I2/I1) = 106

Exa mpl
plee 22

An observer is at a distance of one metre from a point of light source whose power output
is 1 kW. Calculate the magnitude of electric and magnetic fields assuming that the source
is monochromatic, it radiates uniformly in all directions and that at the point of observation
it behaves like a travelling plane wave. Given that (ø0 /4) = 10 ă7 H/m and c = 3 ï 10 8 m/s.
Solution :
By definition of intensity,

P P 103 103
I=    W/m2
S 4 r2
4  12 4

Now in case of electromagnetic waves, as

1 E
I = EB and =c
0 B

1 E
so I =  E c , i.e., E = I 0 c
0

 E=  
[10 3 / 4 ]  4   10 7  3  10 8  100 3  173 V / m

E 100 3 1
and B = c  8
  10 6  5.77  10 7 Web / m2
3  10 3

Note :

5.77  107
(i) As B   H , H   0.46 A / m
4  107

(ii) The peak values of fields will be E 0  ( 2)E and B0  ( 2)B  as E  E0 / 2 

 

WAVES & SOUNDS

 46 MARKS
Cha
harract er
eriist ic
icss of Sound

Sound is characterised by the following three parameters :

(a) Loudness : It is the sensation received by the ear due to intensity of sound.
L  log I
i.e. greater the amplitude of vibration, greater will be the intensity I ( A2 ) and so louder
will be the sound as in a shout and lesser the intensity.

I
The unit of loudness is decibels (dB) and L  10 log 10 (in d B) Here, I0 is constant i.e.,
I0

minimum intensity (= 10ă12 W/m2 ) just double at intermediate frequencies.

(b) Pitch : It is the sensation received by the ear due to frequency and is the characteristic which
distinguishes a shrill (or sharp) sound from a grave (or flat) sound. As pitch depends on
frequency, higher the frequency higher will be the pitch and shriller will be the sound.
Regarding pitch it is worth noting that :
(1) The buzzing of a bee or humming of a mosquito has high pitch but low loudness while
the roar of a lion has large loudness but low pitch.
(2) Due to more harmonic usually the pitch of female voice is higher than male.

(c) Quality (or Time) : It is the sensation received by the y

ear due to waveform. Two sounds of same intensity and a
t
frequency as shown in fig. will produce different sensation T
on the ear if their waveforms are different. Now as
y
waveform depends upon overtones present, quality of a
sound depends on number of overtones, i.e., harmonics t
T
present and their relative intensities. The dependence of
quality on phase is controversial. Regarding quality it is
a
worth noting that : t
(1) We can recognise a person (without seeing) by T
listening to his sound as it has a definite quality.
(2) If same note is played on different instruments say sitar and veena at same loudness
it produces different sensation on the ear due to their quality.
(3) Sometimes it becomes difficult to recognise a person by listening to his sound on
telephone or tape due to poor quality of sound.

St
Staa ti
tioonary Waves in Air Column
Cl ose d P ipe
A stationary wave pattern can be maintained in a closed tube containing a gas only for a
frequency, which has one of the values making the length of the column a whole number of

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 47

quarter wavelengths. It should be noted that the open end is always an antinode and the closed
end a node. According to this condition there arises a number of standing waves as shown in
figure. The wave pattern, which has the lowest frequency, is called fundamental and the others
are called overtones.

A A A

N
N

A N

N N N
Fundamental First overtone Second overtone

(a) First Mode of vibration (Fundamental mode)


The length of air column L is equal to
4

  = 4L
v = f

v v
f = 
 4L

where f is the frequency of fundamental mode.

(b) Second Mode of Vibration (First overtone)

3 1
L=
4

4L
1 =
3

 frequency f1  v  3 v  3f
1 4L

The frequency of first overtone is 3 times the value of fundamental.

WAVES & SOUNDS

48 MARKS
(c) Third Mode of Vibration (Second overtone)

Here L = 5  2
4

4L

5

v 5v
 frequency f2    5f
2 4L

When an air column is excited the fundamental and a number of possible overtones are present
in the vibration. Of these the loudest is the fundamental and overtones progressively becomes
weaker in intensity. The overtones whose frequencies are integral multiples of fundamental are
called harmonics. The fundamental with frequency f itself is taken as first harmonic. The overtone
with frequency 2f is called second harmonic and the overtone with frequency 3f is called third
harmonic and so on.
In the case of closed type indicated above all odd harmonics are present and even harmonics are
absent.
End correction : In the above discussion it is assumed that the position of antinode coincides
with the opened of pipe exactly. This is not however true and it is found that antinode is a little
bit displaced above the open end. If e is the end correction, then for fundamental mode.

1
 L  e
4

32
For the first overtone   L  e  and so on.
4
The end correction depends upon the diameter of the pipe. If d is the diameter, the end correction
e = 0.3 d.

Ope n Pi pes

A pipe with both ends open is

called open pipe. The first three
modes of vibrations, starting from
fundamental in open pipes are
shown in figures.

Fundamental First overtone Second overtone

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 49

(a) First mode of vibration (Fundamental mode) : In the fundamental mode there is a node
between antinodes at each end.


 L= or  = 2L
2

v v
f  
 2L

(b) Second mode of vibration (First overtone) : If  1 and f 1 are the wavelength and frequency
of the first overtone in open pipe.
1 = L

v v 2v
f1     2f
1 L 2L

The frequency of first overtone is twice that of fundamental. It corresponds to second

harmonic.
(c) Second overtone : If 2 and f 2 be the wavelength and frequency of second overtone in the
open pipe.

3 2
L=
2

2L
2 =
3

v 3v
f2 =   3f
 2 2L

This corresponds to third harmonic of the vibrating system.

In an open pipe all the harmonics, both odd and even are present.

Free , Damped an
andd Forc ed Vi
Vibr
br
brat
at
atio
io
ionns

A body capable of vibration, if excited, and set free, vibrates freely in its own natural way. The
frequency of such free vibration depends on the mass, elastic property and dimensions of the
body. The frequency is called free frequency or natural frequency of the body.

Da
Dammpe d Vib ra ti on
onss

The amplitude of free vibrations of a body gradually diminishes and finally the vibrations die
away after sometime. This is due to the vibratory motion being damped by forces internal and
external to the body.

WAVES & SOUNDS

 50 MARKS
For ce
cedd Vib rat io ns

If an external periodic force is applied to a body which is capable of vibration and if the frequency
of the applied periodic force is not the same as the frequency of the body, the body begins to
vibrate initially with its own natural frequency but these vibrations die down quickly and the
body ultimately vibrates with the frequency of the external periodic force. Such vibrations are
called forced vibrations.

Ex a m pl e

Where will a person hear maximum sound at (displacement) node or antinode ?

Solution :
Perception of sound is due to pressure variations and as at node displacement is minimum,
pressure will be maximum while at antinode as displacement is maximum, pressure will be
minimum. So sound will be maximum at displacement nodes (which is actually pressure-antinode).

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 23

A tuning fork having frequency of 340 Hz is vibrated just above a cylindrical tube. The
height of the tube is 120 cm. Water is slowly poured in. What is the minimum height of
water required for resonance ? (v = 340 m/s)
Solution :
As the tuning fork is in increase with air column in the pipe closed at one end.

v
f n with n = 1, 3, 5, ...
4L

nv 340  100
So length of air column in the pipe L  n  25n cm with n = 1, 3, 5, ...
4f 4  340

i.e., L = 25 cm, 75 cm, 125 cm, ...

Now as the tube is 120 cm, so length of air column must be lesser than 120 cm, i.e, it can be only
25 cm or 75 cm. Further if h is the height of water filled in the tube,
L + h = 120 cm or h = 120 ă L
So h will be minimum when L = max = 75
 hmin = 120 ă 75 = 45 cm Ans.

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 24

AB is a cylinder of length 1 m fitted with a thin flexible diaphragm C at middle and two
other thin flexible diaphragms A and B at the ends. The positions AC and BC contain
hydrogen and oxygen gases respectively. The diaphragms A and B are set into vibrations

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 51

of the same frequency. What is the minimum frequency of these vibrations for which
diaphragm C is a node ? Under the conditions of the experiment the velocity of sound in
hydrogen is 1100 m/s and oxygen 300 m/s.
Solution :
As diaphragm C is a node, A and B will be antinodes (as in an organ pipe either both ends are
antinode or one end node and the other antinode), i.e., each part will behave as a closed end
organ pipe so that

vH 1100 A C B
fH = 4L = 4  0.5 = 550 Hz
H
H2 O2
v0 330
And fO = =
4  0.5
= 150 Hz
4LO

As the two fundamental frequencies are different, the system will vibrate with a common
frequency fC such that
fC = n Hf H = nOfO

nH f O 150 3
i.e., =  
nO f H 550 11

i.e., the third harmonic of hydrogen and 11th harmonic of oxygen or 9th harmonic of hydrogen
and 33rd harmonic of oxygen will have same frequency. So the minimum common frequency
f = 3 ï 550 or 11 ï 150 = 1650 Hz
(as 6th harmonic of H and 22nd of O will not exist.)

Ex
Exaa mpl
plee 25
A ÂpopÊ gun consists of a tube 25 cm long closed at one end by a cork and at the other end
by a tightly fitted piston. The piston is pushed slowly in. When the pressure rises to one and
half times the atmospheric pressure, the cork is violently blown out. Calculate the frequency
of the ÂpopÊ caused by its ejection. (v = 340 m/s)
Solution :
Assuming the cross-section to be A and compression to be isothermal (as the process is slow), from
P1 V1 = P2V2
P ï 25 ï A = (3/2) ï P ï L ï A, i.e., L = (50/3) cm
Now after the ejection of cork, for oscillating air node will be at
piston (rigid boundary) while antinode will be at the open end 25cm
and as minimum distance between node and antinode is (/4).
N A
 50 2
so L cm, i.e.,  m
4 3 3 A A' L

v 340  3
and hence f    510 Hz
 2

WAVES & SOUNDS

52 MARKS
Exa mp
mplle 26

The water level in a vertical glass tube 1.0 m long can be adjusted to any position in the
tube. A tuning fork vibrating at 660 Hz is held just over the open top end of the tube. At
what position of the water level will there be resonance. Speed of sound is 330 m/s.
Solution :
Resonance corresponds to a pressure antinode at closed end and pressure node at open end.


Further, the distance between a pressure node and a pressure antinode is , the condition of
4

resonance would be,

  v 
length of air column l  n  n 
4  4f 

Here, n = 1, 3, 5, ...

 330 
l 1 = (1)    0.125 m
 4  660 

l 2 = 3l1 = 0.375 m
l 3 = 5l1 = 0.625 m
l 4 = 7l1 = 0.875 m
l 5 = 9l1 = 1.125 m
Since l5 > 1 m (the length of tube), the length of air columns can have the values from l 1 to l 4
only. Therefore, level of water at resonance will be
(1.0 ă 0.125) m = 0.875 m
(1.0 ă 0.375) m = 0.625 m
(1. 0 ă 0.625) m = 0.375 m
and (1.0 ă 0.875) m = 0.125 m Ans.

0.875m

0.625m 0.375m
0.125m

In all the four cases shown in figure, the resonance frequency is 660 Hz but first one is the
fundamental tone or first harmonic. Second is first overtone or third harmonic and so on.

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 53

Resona nc
ncee :

Resonancee is a special case of forced vibration. If the frequency of the external periodic force is
the same as the natural frequency of the body, the body responds to the forced vibrations more
willingly and there is a gain in the amplitude of its vibrations. This is called resonance.
Resonance has vast application in acoustics, electrical circuits and electronics.

Resonance in Air Columns-Re so

sona
na
nannce Tu
Tubbe s :

Suppose the length of air column in a long tube can be adjusted either by dipping the tube in
a reservoir of water or by allowing the water level to occupy a desired position in the tube by
pressure flow; the column can be made to vibrate in resonance with an excited tuning fork kept
over the mouth of the tube.
For two lengths of air column L1 and L 2 ~ 3L1, the resonance would occur and the positions
corresponds to the fundamental mode and the first overtone respectively.
If  be the wavelength of sound in air and v the velocity of sound in air, then


L1  e  L1 A
4
N
L2
3
L2  e  A
4
N
where e is the end correction
From the above equations we get


= L2 ă L 1 or  = 2 (L2 ă L1)
2

v = f = 2f (L 2 ă L1)
where f is the frequency of vibration of the air column which is in resonance with the tuning fork
of same frequency.

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 27

A tube of a certain diameter and length 48 cm is open at both ends. Its fundamental
frequency is found to be 320 Hz. The velocity of sound in air is 320 m/s. Estimate the value
of end correction in cm.
Solution :
Let the length of the open tube be L. The end correction on both sides is e. The tube vibrates in
its fundamental. Then


 L  2e or  = 2 (L + 2e)
2
WAVES & SOUNDS
 54 MARKS
If v be the velocity of sound in air the fundamental frequency is given by

v v
f =   2 L  2e
 

320
f = 320 Hz; v = 320 m/s or; 320 
2 L  2e

or L + 2e = 0.5 m
2e = 0.5 m ă 0.48 m = 0.02 m
e = 0.01 m = 1 cm.

BE A TS
When two sound waves of nearly equal (but not exactly equal) frequencies travel in same
direction, at a given point due to their superposition, intensity alternately increases and decreases
periodically. This periodic waxing and waning of sound at a given position is called beats.

Calculation of bea t fr
freq
eq
equuency
Suppose two waves of frequencies f1 and f2 (< f 1) are meeting at some point in space. Let the
oscillations at some point in space (say x = 0) due to two waves be y1 = A1 sin 2 f1t,
y2 = A2 sin 2 f2t
If they are in phase at some time ts then
2 f1t = 2 f2t or f1t = f2 t
They will be again in phase at time (t + T),
2 f1 (t + T) = 2 f 2 (t + T) + 2
 f1(t + T) = f2 (t + T) + 1

1
 T
f1  f 2

where T is the time period of the beat or Beat frequency f = f1 ă f2

Note : If the waves are in phase at some time (t = 0) will be constructive and the resultant
amplitude will be A1 + A2 , where A1 and A2 are the amplitudes of indivisual sound waves.
But at some time (t = t0) because the frequencies are different, the waves will be out of phase or
the interference will be destructive and resultant amplitude will be A 1 ă A2.

1 T
and T  2t0  A1 + A2
f1  f 2

Where t0 is the time between constructive and destructive

A1 ă A2
interference.

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 55

Alternative Method :
y1 = A sin (2 f1t), y2 = A sin 2 f2t

C + D  C  D 
Now as sin C + sin D = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 

 f 1  f 2 t f1  f 2 t
y = 2 A cos 2 sin 2
2 2

f1 ~ f 2 f1  f2
or y = 2A cos 2 f At sin 2favt with fA  and f av 
2 2
or y = Ab sin 2 f avt with A b = 2A cos (2 fA t)

f1  f 2
Thus, the resultant wave is a harmonic progressive wave of frequency fav i.e., and
2
amplitude Ab which is periodic in time.
Also, it can be seen that a beat, that is maximum and minimum intensity, will occur when
I  Ab2 = max (or min)
or cos 2fA t = + 1 or zero
or 2f A t = 0, , 2 ... or /2, 3
/2 , 5
/2

1 2 3 1 3 5
i.e. t = 0, , f , or , ,
2f A 2 A 2f A 4f A 4f A 4f A

1 1
t  beat frequency = f b   f1 ~ f 2
2 fA t

y1 t = 1s

(A) Wave of amplitude A and frequency 17

y2 t = 1s

(B) Wave of amplitude A and frequency 19

(C) Resultant waves of amplitude 2A

and frequency 18

WAVES & SOUNDS

56 MARKS
Exa mp
mplle 28

A column of air and a tuning fork produce 4 beats per second when sounded together. The
tuning fork gives the lower note. The temperature of air is 15ĈC. When the temperature falls
to 10ĈC the two produces 3 beats per second. The frequency of fork is f, then find the value
of 5f.
Solution :
Let  be the wavelength and n be the frequency of fork

v15 v
At 15ĈC,  f  4 or 15  f  4
 

v10 v
At 10ĈC,  f  3 or 10  f  3
 

v15 f  4
 
v10 f  3

v15 273  15 288 288 f 4

But    
v10 273  10 283 283 f 3

 5 
ó
f 4 5 f 4
1  283   1 
  f 3 566 f  3

5 f 4f 3 1
 
566 f 3 f 3

5f + 15 = 566
5f = 551

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 29
Two radio stations broadcast their programmes at the same amplitude A, and at slightly
different frequencies 1 and 2 respectively, where 2 ă 1 = 103 Hz. A detector receives the
signals from the two stations simultaneously. It can only detect signals of intensity > 2A2.
(a) Find the time-interval between successive maxima of the intensity of the signal received
by the detector. (b) Find the time for which the detector remains idle in each cycle of the
intensity of the signal.
Solution :
If the detector is at x = 0, the two radio-waves at the site of detector in accordance with given
conditions (i.e., A1 = A2 = A and f 1 = 1 and f 2 = 2) will be

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 57

y1 = A sin 2 1 t and y2 = A sin 22t

So by principle of superposition,
= y1 + y2 = A sin 21 t + A sin 22 t

C + D  C D
But as sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos
2 2

 2  1   1  2  t
y = 2A cos 2 t sin 2
2 2

 1  2   2  1 
or y = A´ sin 2  t with A´ = 2A cos 2 t
2 2

So that 1  (A´) 2  4A 2 cos2( 2 ă 1)t ...(1)

(a) So I will be maximum when

cos 2(2 ă  1)t = max = 1, i.e., cos (2 ă 1)t =  1
or (2 ă 1)t = 0, , 2, ...,
i.e., t = 0; [1/(2 ă 1 )], [2/(2 ă 1)], ...
So time interval between two consecutive maxima

1 1
 10 s
3
T  t2  t1  
2  1 103

(b) As 1  4A2 cos 2(2 ă 1 )t it will be 2A 2 when

2A2 = 4A 2 cos2 (2 ă 1 )t

i.e., cos (2 ă 1)t =  1 / 2  

 3 5
or (2 ă 1)t = , , , ...
4 4 4

1 3 5
i.e., t  , , ,...
4(2  1 ) 4(2  1 ) 4(2  1 )

WAVES & SOUNDS

58 MARKS
So time interval between two successive positions for which I
intensity remains  2A2 as shown in Fig.
4A 2 T
1 1
t  tn  tn1    5  10 4 s
2  2  1  2  103 2A2
t

O 1 3 t ï 10ă3
4 4

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 30

There are three sources of sound of equal intensities with frequency 400, 401 and 402 Hz.
What is the beat frequency heard if all are sounded simultaneously ?
Solution :
As intensities are equal, amplitudes of waves will be equal and it for simplicity we consider the
waves at x = 0 with 401 = f, y1 = A sin 2(f ă 1)t; y2 = A sin 2ft and y3 = A sin 2(f + 1)t
So by principle of superposition,
y = A sin 2(f ă 1)t + A sin 2ft + A sin 2 (f + 1)t
Taking first and last terms together,
y = 2A cos 2t sin 2ft + A sin 2ft
or y = A[2 cos 2t + 1] sin 2ft
or y = A´ sin 2ft with A´ = A[1 + 2 cos 2t]
So I  (A´)2  A2 (1 + 2 cos 2t) 2 ...(1)
For I to be max or min,

dI d
 0, i.e. 1  2 cos 2 t2  0
dt dt

i.e. 2(1 + 2 cos 2t)(2 sin 2t) ï 2 = 0

i.e., either sin 2t = 0 or 1 + 2 cos 2t = 0
So if 1 + 2 cos 2t = 0, i.e., cos 2t = (ă ó
)

 2 
or 2  2 n    , ..., with n = 0, 1, 2 ....
3 

1 2 4 5
i.e., t  , , , , ... ...(2)
3 3 3 3

and for these values of t [i.e., cos 2t = (ă ó

)], I = 0, i.e., intensity is minimum.
and if sin 2t = 0, i.e., 2t = n with n = 0, 1, 2 ...

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 59

1 3
i.e., t  0, , 1, , 2, ... ...(3)
2 2

I [from Eqn. (1)] will be 9A2 , A2, 9A2, A2 , ...

i.e., intensity is maximum (with two different values).
So from Eqns. (2) and (3) it is clear that in one second we get two minima (and two maxima of
different intensities) and hence beat frequency (i.e., number of beats per sec) is two.

9A2

A2
O
1 1 2 1 4 3 5 2 t
3 2 3 3 2 3

DO PPL ER EFF EC
ECTT
When a sound source and an observer are in relative motion with respect to the medium in which
the waves propagate, the frequency of waves observed is different from the frequency of sound
emitted by the source. This phenomenon is called Doppler effect. This is due to the wave-nature
of sound propagation and is therefore applicable to light waves also. The apparent change of
colour of a star can be explained by this principle.

Cal cu
culla ti
tion
on of Ap pa
parre nt Fr
Freequ
quee nc
ncyy
Suppose v is the velocity of sound in air, v0 is the velocity of the observer (O) and f is the
frequency of the source.
(i) Source moves towards stationary observer : If the source S were stationary the f
waves sent out in one second towards the observer O would occupy a distance v, and the
wavelength would be v/f.
If S moves with a velocity vs towards O, the f waves sent out occupy a distance (v ă vs)
because S has moved a distance vs towards O in 1 s. So the apparent wavelength would be

 v  vs  v
´   
 f 
Thus, apparent frequency
S O
velocity of sound relative to O
f´ = wavelength of wave reaching O S
văvs
v  v  vs
f´ = f 
´  v  vs  văvs
WAVES & SOUNDS
60 MARKS
(ii) Source moves away from stationary observer : Now, apparent wavelength

v  vs V
´ 
f

 Apparent frequency
S O
f´ = v/´

 v 
or f´ = f  
 v  vs  vs S O
(iii) Observer, moves towards stationary source v+vs

velocity of sound relative to O

f´ =
wavelength of wave reaching O

Here, velocity of sound relative to O = v + v0

and wavelength of waves reaching O = v/f

v  v0  v  v0 
 f´ f 
v/ f  v 

(iv) Observer moves away from the stationary source

v  v0  v  v0 
f´ =  f 
v/ f  v 

(v) Source and observer both moves towards each other

 v  v0   v  v0 
f  
f´ =  v  v s   v  vs 
 
 f 

(vi) Both moves away from each other

 v  v0 
f´ = f  
 v  vs 

(vii) Source moves towards observer but observer moves away from source

 v  v0 
f´ = f  
 v  vs 

(viii) Source moves away from observer but observer moves towards source

 v  v0 
f´ = f   
 v vs 

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 61

Di s c us si on

(1) There is always an increase in frequency or pitch if source moves towards detector or
detector moves towards source or both move towards each other while a decrease in frequency
if either or both move away. The change in frequency or pitch depends on speed of source
and detector and not on distance between them, e.g., if an engine is approaching a stationary
listener at constant velocity, increase in pitch, by Eqn. (2) will be same when the engine is
either at a distance of 1 km or 10 m from the listener. However, intensity will be different
in the two cases as I  (1/r2).
(2) If the motion is along some other direction, the components of velocities along the line
joining source and detector are considered for vS and vD, e.g., if at any instant the line
joining the moving source and stationary detector makes an angle  with the direction of
motion of source, vS  v S cos  Source
vs


vs
co
s

 v  Detector
and so fA   f   ...(3)
v  vS cos  

In such situations fA is not constant and depends on  and may be greater, equal to or less
than f as  < = or > 90Ĉ.
(3) If the medium is at rest relative to earth, vS , vD and v will refer to the speeds of source,
detector and sound relative to earth which is usually the case. However, if the medium (air)
itself starts moving with respect to given frame of reference (say earth), appropriate changes
must be made in Eqn. (2), i.e., if wind blows at a speed w from the source to the detector
v  v + w and if in opposite direction (i.e., from detector to source) v  v ă w.
(4) There will be no Doppler effect, i.e., no change in frequency.
(a) If source and detector both move in same direction with same speed, i.e., if vS = vP = u

v  u
f´ f   f
v  u
v
(b) If one is at the centre of a circle while the other is moving on it with
v S
uniform speed. In this situation component of u along the ling of 90Ĉ
sight, i.e., radius, will be u cos 90Ĉ = 0; so
O
v  0 
f´  f  f
v  0 

WAVES & SOUNDS

 62 MARKS
(c) If both are at rests and wind blows at speed w. In this situation

 v  w   0 
f´f   f
 v  w   0 

(5) Speed of detector or source becomes equal to or greater than that of sound, Doppler formula
(2) does not apply (as it was derived by assuming vD and vS < v). For example if vD > v and
the detector is moving away from the source, the sound will never reach it and if vS > v the
source gets ahead of the wave in its direction of motion.

vt
 S´
S vs t

When the speed of source (vS) is greater than the speed of sound (v) is called supersonic
speed and the ratio (vS/v) Mach number. In this situation a conical wavefront of
high-energy pressure waves [with source at its apex and semicone angle  = sină1 (v/vS)
= sină1 (1/Mach No.)] called Âshock-wavesÊ is continuously produced and when we intercept
it, a loud bang of sound called sonic boom is heard which can break windows and even
cause damage to buildings. Here it is worthy to note that shock-waves are produced not only
when source crosses the sound barrier (a misconception) but are generated continuously as
long as vS > v.

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 31

A source of sound is moving along a circular orbit of radius 3 m with an angular velocity
of 10 rad/s. A sound detector located far away from the source is executing linear simple
harmonic motion along the line BD with amplitude BC = CD = 6 m. The frequency of
osci l l at i on of t h e det ect or i s (5/ ) per sec. The source is at the point A when the detector
is at the point B. If the source emits a continuous sound wave of frequency 340 Hz, find the
maximum and the minimum frequencies recorded by the detector [velocity of sound = 330
m/s].
Solution :
Time period of circular motion T = (2/) = (2/10) is same as that of SHM, i.e., T = (1/f) = (/5),
so both will complete one periodic motion in same time. Further more as source is moving on a
circle, its speed
v S = r = 3 ï 10 = 30 m/s

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 63

and as detector is executing SHM N

A
vD   A2  y2  10 62  y2 3m B C D

i.e., vD  max  60 m/s when y = 0 M

i.e., detector is at C. Now in the case of Doppler effect,

 v  vD 
fA = f  
 v  vS 

So fA will be maximum when both move towards each other.

 v  vD 
fmax = f   with vD = max
 v  vS 

i.e., the source is at M and detector at C moving towards B, so

 330  60 
fmax = 340    442 Hz
 330  30 

Similarly fAwill be minimum when both are moving away from each other, i.e.,

v  v D 
fmin = f   with v D = max
 v  vS 

i.e., the source is at N and detector at C but moving towards D, so

 330  60 
fmin = 340    225 Hz
 330  30 

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 32

A locomotive approaching a crossing at a speed of 80 miles/hr., sounds a whistle of frequency

400 Hz when 1 mile from the crossing. There is no wind, and the speed of sound in air is
0.200 mile/s. What frequency is heard by an observer 0.60 miles from the crossing on the
straight road which crosses the railroad at right angles ?
Solution :
1 mile
The situation is shown in Fig. A vs B

Here as AC = 12  0.6 2  1.166 

0.6 mile

vs c
os

AB 1
cos     0.857
AC 1.166 C

WAVES & SOUNDS

 64 MARKS
So speed of source along the line of sight

80
vS  v S cos  = 60  60  0.857  0.019 mile/s

 v   0.2 
So fA   f    400    442 Hz
 v  vS   0.2  0.019 

Ex
Exaa mp
mpll e 33
A sonometer wire under tension of 64 N vibrating in its fundamental mode is in resonance
with a vibrating tuning fork. The vibrating portion of the sonometer wire has a length of
10 cm and mass 1 g. The vibrating tuning fork is now moved away from the vibrating wire
at a constant speed and an observer standing near the sonometer hears one beat per sec.
Calculate the speed with which the tuning fork is moved, if the speed of sound in air is
300 m/s.
Solution :
As the frequency of a vibrating string

1 T 1 T  M
fS =   as m  L 
2L m 2 ML  

1  64 
so fS = 2  3 1 
 400 Hz
10  10 

Now, as initially sonometer wire is in resonance with tuning fork, the frequency of tuning fork.
f = f S = 400 Hz
When the tuning fork is moved away from the observer standing near the sonometer at a
constant speed u the apparent frequency of tuning fork will be

 v 
fR = f  
v  u 
As fR is producing beats with f, fR is nearly equal to f, i.e., u << v so that
1
 u  u
fR = f 1    f 1  
 v  v

u
So beat frequency f = f ă fR = f  
 v

 f   1 
and substituting given data, u  v    300    0.75 m/s Ans.
 f   400 

WAVES & SOUNDS

 MARKS 65

Exa mp
mplle 34

A band playing music at a frequency f is moving towards a wall at a speed v B. A motorist

is following the band with a speed vm . If v is the speed of sound, obtain an expression for
the beat frequency heard by the motorist.
Solution :
The situation is shown in Fig. As the motorist (observer) is following the band (source), he will
hear two frequencies one directly from the band while the other reflected from the wall.
Taking the direction of sound from source to observer to be positive, the frequency of

f1 f
vm v
M B vB
f´
f2

Observer Source Wall

 v    vm    v  vm 
f1 = f   f  ...(1)
 v    vB    v  vB 

Now as the frequency of sound reaching the wall towards which the band (source) is moving,

 v 
f´ = f   ...(2)
 v  vB 

The frequency of reflected sound from the wall, heard by motorist (observer) who is moving
towards the wall (stationary source) will be

 v  vm   v  vm 
f2 = f´    f  [from Eqn. (2)]
 v   v  vB 

So the heat frequency heard by the motorist

v  v m  v  v m  v  v m 
f  f 2  f1  f   f  f  2vB Ans.
 v  vB   v  vB  v2  v2B  

Ex
Exaa mp
mplle 35

A train approaching a hill at a speed of 40 km/hr sounds a whistle of frequency 580 Hz when
it is at a distance of 1 km from the hill. A wind with speed 40 km/hr is blowing in the
direction of motion of the train. Find (a) the frequency of the whistle as heard by an

WAVES & SOUNDS

66 MARKS
observer on the hill (b) the distance from the hill at which the echo from the hill is heard
by the driver and its frequency. [Velocity of sound in air = 1200 km/hr]
Solution :
(a) For observer at rest (on hill) and source [engine] moving towards the observer,

 v 
fA = f  v v 
  S

Now as wind is blowing from source to observer v  v + w

v  w  Wind
1 km
 fA =
 v  w  vS [1ăx] x
s s´
Substituting the given data,

 1200  40 
f A = 580    599.3 Hz
  1200  40  40 

(b) If x is the required distance from the hill, the distance moved by the train will be (1 ă x)
and hence the time taken by the train to travel this distance is (1 ă x)/40.
In this time sound travels a distance 1 km at speed (1200 + 40) and comes back a distance
x at speed (1200 ă 40); so

1 x 1 x 29
  , i.e., x  km = 933.3 m
40 1240 1160 31

Now the engine will act as observer and hill as source; so the frequency heard by the moving
observer towards the stationary source will be

 v  vD 
f2  fA  
 v 

But in this situation as wind is blowing opposite to the direction of motion of sound;
v v ă w

  v  w   vD  1200
so f2  fA    599.3   620 Hz
  v  w  1160

WAVES & SOUNDS

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