PSYCHO-ANALYTIC APPROACH (Unconscious, unresolved conflict)

INTRODUCTION Baron (2008) writes The art of life Thomas Jefferson wrote in a letter in 1786 is the art of avoiding pain. If thats the case, then most of us are not very accomplished at the art of life; for pain, in the form of emotional distress and various psychological disorders is a common part of the human experience. Psychological problems cause serious emotional discomfort, like feeling of distress, depression, embarrassment or anxieties that interfere with abilities that harm our daily life and reduce our personal happiness. This tells everything of our human journey through evolution. To attain harmony and positive interpersonal relationships among individuals in a society is the only situation that humans are striving to achieve. Since, every individual has an opinion and also unique in his or her nature, the society remained dynamic and changing forever. It is very certain for humans to believe that the universe along with the human behavior is in continuous flux. Behavior of an individual is at large reflects the thinking processes explicitly exhibited in a society. The behavior that is accepted by a society depends on the norms and culture of a given society. This accepted behavior is called normal behavior; any behavior that is away from the socially accepted norms is believed to be abnormal. Since, the definition of abnormality is dependent on the present socio cultural norms, it is found to be very difficult to reach to a common definition. Bernstein (2008) writes There are several criteria for judging whether peoples thinking, emotions, or behaviors are abnormal. Each criterion has value but also some flaws. Thus, patterns of emotion, thought, and actions considered pathological (diseased or disordered) for one or more of four reasons: statistical infrequencies, disability or dysfunction, personal distress, or violation of norms (Huffman 2010). 1. Statistical Infrequency: A behavior may be judged abnormal if it occurs infrequently in a given population. Statistical infrequency alone does not determine what is normal. For example, no one would classify Albert Einsteins great intelligence or Lance Armstrongs exceptional athletic ability as abnormal. 2. Disability or Dysfunction: People who suffer from psychological disorders may be unable to get along with others, hold a job, eat properly, or clean themselves. Their ability to think clearly and make rational decisions also may be impaired.

3. Personal Distress: The personal distress criterion focuses on the individuals judgment of his or her level of functioning. Yet many people with psychological disorders deny they have a problem. Also, some serious psychological disorders (such as antisocial personality disorder) cause little or no personal emotional discomfort. The personal distress criterion by itself is not sufficient for identifying all forms of abnormal behavior. 4. Violation of Norms: The fourth approach to identifying abnormal behavior is violation of social norms, or cultural rules that guide behavior in particular situations. A major problem with this criterion, however, is that cultural diversity can affect what people consider a violation of norms. The American Psychiatric Association (1994) defined abnormal behavior as any behavior that leads to distress (including distress to others), disability (impaired functioning), or an increased risk of death, pain, or loss of freedom. (Kalat2008). Psychological disorders are a function of many factors, such as exposure to stress, genetic disposition, family background, and so on. In Western cultures today, the predominant view is the bio psychosocial model, which emphasizes that abnormal behavior has three major aspects: biological, psychological, and sociological. Abnormal behavior is the result of various combinations of biological factors, early experiences, and learned responses to a stressful or unsupportive environment 1. The biological roots of abnormal behavior include genetic factors, which can lead to abnormal brain development, excesses or deficiencies in the activity of various neurotransmitters or hormones, and so forth. 2. The psychological component of abnormality includes a persons vulnerability to stressful events, faulty thinking (cognitive), unconscious, unresolved conflicts(psychodynamic), and inappropriate conditioning or modeling (Behavioral) 3. Finally, the behavior must be understood in a social and cultural context. People are greatly influenced by other peoples expectations. Many people with strange behavior have disordered families or social networks. Problems reflect cultural values and beliefs. The experience of depression or anxiety or any other psychological problems and their root cause is always very personal, delicate and most of the time complicated. During depression we cannot see things clearly in our heads to unravel our thoughts, memories and feelings. We become lonely. Detached. Disorganized.

THERAPY

(Diminishing the pain of psychological disorders) "Therapy (in Greek: ) or treatment is the attempted remediation of a health problem, usually following a diagnosis."

Psychologists are interested not only in the identification and diagnosis of abnormal behaviors, but also in developing techniques to treat these problem behaviors. Therapies are used to treat people with psychological disorders. A Therapy is a systematic process for helping persons overcome their psychological problems. It consists of a patient, a trained therapist, and a series of contacts between them (Zimbardo Philip G.et.al 2012). Therapy for psychological disorders takes a variety of forms, but all involve a therapeutic relationship focused on improving a persons mental, behavioural, or social functioning. Dimensions of Therapy Individual therapy: A therapy involving only one client and one therapist. Group therapy: A therapy session in which several clients participate at the same time. Insight therapy: Any psychotherapy whose goal is to lead clients to a deeper understanding of their thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

Action therapy: Any therapy designed to bring about direct changes in troublesome thoughts, habits, feelings, or behavior, without seeking insight into their origins or meanings. Directive therapy: Any approach in which the therapist provides strong guidance.

Nondirective therapy: A style of therapy in which clients assume responsibility for solving their own problems; the therapist assists, but does not guide or give advice. Time-limited therapy: Any therapy begun with the expectation that it will last only a limited number of sessions. Supportive therapy: An approach in which the therapists goal is to offer support, rather than to promote personal change. A person trying to get through an emotional crisis or one who wants to solve day-to-day problems may benefit from supportive therapy. Positive therapy: Techniques designed to enhance personal strengths, rather than fix weaknesses

Counseling is a wonderful twentieth-century invention (McLeod 2003). Counseling is a very useful option, when the experiences in this busy and changing world become difficult to cope with. The main aim of Psychological Counseling is to help people manage their difficulties and transform personal problems into their own personal growth. People usually come to psychological counseling after the consultations and discussions with friends and families about a difficult situation or a personal conflict did not yield any result. And also their advice sometimes is not sufficient, or we are too embarrassed or ashamed to tell them what is bothering us, or we just dont have an appropriate. At this point of despair and helplessness people choose to talk someone who is not directly involved in their particular circumstances. Psychological counselors are trained in the art of listening and have skills to help you explore your concerns, to help you make sense of complex issues and to find a way forwards. Psychological counselors work with individuals, couples and groups (such as families). Helping another person in distress can be one of the most ennobling human activities (Sharf 2008).

Psychological counseling is able to help with a broad range of individual and social problems. During many difficult stages in ones normal life cycles such as career changes, loss and bereavement or crisis points in relationships or in distress whether from pressures of living or through longstanding problems which have proved

resistant to change people choose to look to psychological counseling. Personal problems can have a way of taking over. You might find yourself repeating the same old pattern, or you might feel stuck and uncertain what, if anything you could change. Why suffer sometimes having someone to talk to is all that it takes to cope. Psychological counselors are trained in modern psychological methods to help you resolve fears, panic and anxieties, and to help you break through depression or other forms of sadness. Being a counselor is also a satisfying and rewarding work role (McLeod 2003). McLeod (2003) says that Counseling is an activity that is at the same time simple yet also vastly complicated. What can be simpler than talking to a concerned and interested listener about your problems? But it is what is involved in the telling and listening, knowing and being known, reflecting and acting, that can be so complex. In counseling, people talk about anything and everything. The relationship between the counselor and the person seeking counsel is simultaneously taking place at a physical, bodily level, and through language, and in the thoughts, feelings and memories of each participant. This is what makes it so complicated, and this is what makes counseling a big topic. Counseling is an interdisciplinary activity, which contains different traditions and schools of thought, and spreads itself across the discourses of theory, research and practice. Counseling has generated a rich and fascinating literature, and a range of powerful theories and research studies. I believe that it is vital for counselors to be able to find their way around this literature, to tap into all these different knowledge. Reading a book is somewhat similar to looking through a window into a room. In the room there are people doing something, but their world is always on the other side of the glass. Counseling is a practical activity, and can only be grasped through the experience of doing it, as client and counselor. Real knowledge about counseling can never be gained through reading a book. It requires immersion in an oral tradition, physically being there and doing it and crucially feeling what is happening, rather than merely looking at words on a page. Any author knows that what he or she writes does not come freshly minted from their own personal and private thoughts about things, but is in fact an assemblage of words and ideas borrowed from other people. I have been fortunate to be in a position to learn from many people.

Counseling & Psychotherapy: Differences

(Healing the Mind through Interaction) The brief definition given here covers both psychotherapy and counseling. Psychotherapy and counseling are interactions between a therapist/counselor and one or more clients/patients. The purpose is to help the patient/client with problems that may have aspects that are related to disorders of thinking, emotional suffering, or problems of behavior. Therapists may use their knowledge of theory of personality and psychotherapy or counseling to help the patient/client improve functioning. The therapists approach to helping must be legally and ethically approved. (Sharf 2008).

It is not surprising to note from the pages of any human history that, exorcism, shamanism, hypnotism, even witchcraft are no different from or share something common with counseling and psychotherapy we practice now. It is believed in Paleolithic times emotional distress was thought to occur when the soul left the body, either accidentally or when it was stolen by ghosts or sorcerers. All these references from history represent the evidence for human mental and emotional distress and also humanitys response to the healing of emotional problems. Like counseling and psychotherapy, all these methods involve a professional relationship between the person with a problem seeking help and a trained specialist offering to provide help (Dryden et al 1999).

The goal of psychotherapy is to change the personality of the person while the goal of counseling is helping people to utilize existing resources for coping with life better. Also to help individuals deal with the developmental tasks appropriate to their age.

The counseling is designed particularly to treat adolescent people with problems of sexual definition, emotional independence from parents, career decision making and preparation, and the other tasks typical of that age in different cultures. Similarly, a middle-aged person grappling with stresses of his age would seek the help of a counselor. However, more emotional and severe problems will be under the domain of a psychotherapist. In the process of psychotherapy emphasis is on the past while the process of counseling emphasize on the present. The purpose of the process of psychotherapy is treatment of the patient but counseling proceeds with the purpose of the growth of the client. The goals of psychotherapy are more likely to involve a quite complete change of basic character structure; the goal of counseling are apt to be more limited, more directed towards aiding growth, more concerned with the immediate situations, and aimed at helping the individual function adequately in appropriate roles.

In many text books, the terms counseling and psychotherapy are used interchangeably by different authors. Definition of psychotherapy According to the Random House dictionary, the definition is simply The treatment of psychological disorders or maladjustments by a professional technique, as psychoanalysis, group therapy, or behavior therapy. In contrast, the definition of counseling reads, Professional guidance in resolving personal conflicts and emotional problems In the process of psychotherapy, the therapist establishes a kind of relationship with an individual seeking help, in order to remove or modify existing symptoms, help him change his disturbed patterns of behavior and thought, and promote personal growth.

Psychotherapy, says Corey Gerald (2009) is a process of engagement between two persons, both of whom are bound to change through the therapeutic venture. At its

best, this is a collaborative process that involves both the therapist and the client in co-constructing solutions to concerns. Psychotherapy refers to any psychological technique that can bring about positive changes in personality, behavior, or personal adjustment (Coon and Mitterer 2010). Psychological therapy, or psychotherapy, is an interaction between a therapist and someone suffering from a psychological problem, with the goal of providing support or relief from the problem (Sczhacter L. Daniel 2011). Psychotherapy is also called a general term that refers to non-medical treatment for psychological issues. In psychotherapy, the patient and therapist discuss the patient's symptoms, thoughts, behaviors, wishes, and emotions with the goal of clarifying and reducing psychological problems. Psychotherapy is a treatment of mental and emotional disorders through the use of psychological techniques designed to encourage communication of conflicts and insight into problems, with the goal being relief of symptoms, changes in behavior leading to improved social and vocational functioning, and personality growth.

Therapists, says Corey (2009) are not in business to change clients, to give them quick advice, or to solve their problems for them. Instead, counselors facilitate healing through a process of genuine dialogue with their clients. The kind of person a therapist is remains the most critical factor affecting the client and promoting change. If practitioners possess wide knowledge, both theoretical and practical, yet lack human qualities of compassion, caring, good faith, honesty, presence, realness, and sensitivity, they are more like technicians. In my judgment those who function exclusively as technicians do not make a significant difference in the lives of their clients. It seems essential to me that counselors explore their own values, attitudes, and beliefs in depth and that they work to increase their own awareness. Raymond J. Corsini(1995) writes Psychotherapy cannot be defined with any precision.

A definition might go as follows: Psychotherapy is a formal process of interaction between two parties, each party usually consisting of one person but with the possibility that there may be two or more people in each party, for the purpose of amelioration of distress in one of the two parties relative to any or all of the following areas of disability or malfunction: cognitive functions (disorders of thinking), affective functions (suffering or emotional discomforts), or behavioral functions (inadequacy of behavior), with the therapist having some theory of personality's origins, development, maintenance and change along with some method of treatment logically related to the theory and professional and legal approval to act as a therapist. The Five Most Common Goals of Therapy Most therapies focus on one or more of these five goals. 1. Disturbed thoughts: Therapists work to change faulty or destructive thoughts, provide new ideas or information, and guide individuals toward finding solutions to problems.

2. Disturbed emotions. Therapist help clients understand and control their emotions and relieve their emotional discomfort.

3.

Disturbed behaviors. Therapists help clients eliminate troublesome behaviors and guide them toward more effective lives.

4. Interpersonal and life situation difficulties. Therapist help clients improve their relationships with others and avoid or minimize sources of stress in their lives. 5. Biomedical disturbances. Therapists work to relieve biological disruptions that directly cause or contribute to psychological difficulties (for example, chemical imbalances that lead to depression). Psychotherapy has THREE basic characteristics;

1. Verbal interaction between therapist and clients. 2. The development of a supportive relationship in which a client can bring up and discuss traumatic or bothersome experiences that may have led to current problems.

3. Analyzing the clients experiences and/or suggested ways for the client to deal with or overcome his or her problems. Theories of Psychotherapy and Counseling Different types of psychotherapy (e.g., psychodynamic therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy) use different techniques to achieve the desired results. After Freud and before 1950s all the theories of psychotherapy are derived from psychoanalysis of Freud. Later, after 50s many theories are developed to help people with psychological dysfunctions. The theories of psychotherapy may broadly studied under 1. Psychoanalytic approach; these theories are closely related to the works of Sigmund Freud and others psychologists. 2. Psychodynamic theories; these theories share some resemblances with psychoanalytic theories. These two theories are administered by therapists from variety of fields. 3. Cognitive and Behavioral theories; these theories are administered by mental health workers.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF THERAPIES Approaches to treating psychological disorders fall into THREE main divisions. 1. Biologically based therapies. 2. Psychologically based therapies 3. Socio cultural approaches

Biological therapies on the other hand rely on chemical or synthetic drugs and medical procedures to improve psychological functioning. Psychological therapy or psychotherapy is a treatment involves a trained professionala therapist uses psychological techniques to help someone overcome psychological difficulties, and disorders, resolve problems in living, or bring about personal growth.

In psychotherapy, the goal is to produce psychological change in a person through discussions and interactions with the therapist. In the treatment of psychological disorders, biological therapies change the persons body, behavior therapies modify the persons behavior, and cognitive therapies alter the persons thinking. sociocultural approaches view the individual as part of a system of relationships that are infl uenced by various social and cultural factors. These include group therapy, family and couples therapy, self-help support groups, and community mental health.

1. Biologically based therapies.

Biomedical therapies are forms of certain therapies that attempt to reduce psychological disorders through biological means. Efforts along these lines have confirmed for centuries, perhaps for thousands of years. This approach involves the use of various psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders by changing biological factors. A. Drug therapies B. Electro-convulsive therapies Therapy (ECT) C. Psychosurgery Therapy A Drug Therapies:

A wide range of drugs effective in treating many psychological disorders were developed to use. Types of drug therapies are as follows; a. Antipsychotic Drugs. These are also called as major tranquilizers. These are used to treat clients with bizarre symptoms of schizophrenia. b. Anti depressant drugs. These drugs are used to treat as the name itself says, reduce depression in the patients. Depressed persons taking this drug often report that they feel better than they have in their entire lives. c. Anti anxiety drugs These are also called minor tranquilizers. These drugs are used for sleep.

d. Mood stabilizers These are used to treat mood disorders. B Electroconvulsive therapy

This is commonly called shock therapy; this therapy is used to set off a seizure in the brain, much like what happens spontaneously in some forms of epilepsy. C Psychosurgery Psychosurgery is a biological intervention that involves the removal or destruction of brain tissue to improve the individuals adjustment. The effects of psychosurgery cannot be reversed. 1. Psychotherapies The treatments of psychotherapy are grouped in TWO categories. Psychologists employ two main forms of treatment, the insight therapies (focused on developing understanding of the problem) and the behaviour therapies (focused on changing behavior through conditioning (Zimbardo Philip G.et.al 2012). 1. Insight category 2. Behavior category Insight category In this, the therapist and the client talk about the clients symptoms and problem with the goal of reaching or identifying the cause of the problem. Once the client has an insight into the cause of the problem, possible solution can be discussed with the therapist. There are FOUR major approaches to Insight category 1. Psychodynamic approach a. Free association b. Transference c. Resistance d. Dream analysis e.Interpretation 2. Cognitive approach a.Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) b. Cognitive therapy 3. Humanistic approach a. Person centered therapy b. Existential or Gestalt therapy 4. Socio cultural (Group therapy) Group therapy treatment, Family therapy treatment and Marital therapy treatments (Healing interpersonal relationships)

These approaches are based on the models of personality and psychological disorders developed by psychologists. Psychodynamic approach Modern psychotherapy can be very effective and prevent much needless sufferings not only for people with psychological disorders but also for those seeking help with everyday problems in living (Huffman 2010). Behavior Category 1. Treatments based on classical conditioning techniques a. Systematic desensitization b. Aversion therapy 2. Operant Conditioning Techniques: Increasing the Good and Decreasing the Bad a. Shaping b. Reinforment c. Punishment d. Extinction e. Modeling

Types of Psychotherapists Counseling Psychologist A psychologist who practices psychotherapy holds a doctorate with specialization in clinical psychology. Sometimes these psychologists will have a specialty, such as working with adolescents or helping people overcome sleep disorders, and will usually conduct therapy that involves talking. They deal more with problems of living than with the mental disorders that are treated by clinical psychologists.

Psychiatrist A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who has completed an M.D. with specialized training in assessing and treating mental disorders. Psychiatrists can prescribe medications, and some also practice psychotherapy

Social worker Social workers have a masters degree in social work and have training in working with people in dire life situations such as poverty, homelessness, or family conflict. Clinical or psychiatric social workers also receive special training to help people in these situations who have mental disorders. Social workers often work in

government or private social service agencies, and they also may work in hospitals or have a private practice. Clinical psychologist They focus on psychosocial and environmental factors and use psychotherapy to treat mental health disorders. Counselor Counselors have a wide range of training. Counselors who work in schools usually have a masters degree and specific training in counseling in educational settings.

Why do people consider using psychotherapy? Psychotherapy is said to be a partnership between an individual and a professional such as a psychologist who is willing to help people understand their feelings and assist them with changing their behavior. People often consider psychotherapy, also known as therapy, under the following circumstances: 1. They feel an overwhelming and prolonged sense of sadness and helplessness, and they lack hope in their lives. 2. Their emotional difficulties make it hard for them to function from day to day. For example, they are unable to concentrate on assignments and their job performance suffers as a result. 3. Their actions are harmful to themselves or to others. For instance, they drink too much alcohol and become overly aggressive. 4. They are troubled by emotional difficulties facing family members or close friends. 5. They are unhappy about the way they currently experience life. The growth of counseling and psychotherapy We live in constant pressures in society that influences our physical and mental health. The pressures of pain, suffering, and change directly influence the ways we treat each other, messes up our minds, lower our productivity, and sometimes destroys our fragile relationships. The question is what causes one person to live a simple and cheerful life, while another claws his or her way ruthlessly to the top? What makes some people come out stronger after facing tragedy or hardship, while

others are weakened or destroyed? We are so far unable to find a single answer to these questions. The results of research in the field of counseling and psychotherapy put forward many reasons for this problem. Some of the researchers are of the opinion that fewer people are religious and the extended families are scattered that resulted in the lacking of family support and the intervention of religious priests. They feel caught in patterns of thinking and feeling that keep them in unhappy, unfulfilled or self-destructive ways of being and relating (Sharf 2008). Our behavior is the product of our thoughts, feelings, fantasies, and actions, which has both direct and indirect effects on health. These behaviors resulted from pressures limits the individuals ability to see options and exercise choice. Robert J Ursano, et al (2004) says Psychotherapy, the talking cure, is the medical treatment directed toward changing behavior through verbal means. Through talk, psychotherapy provides understanding, support, and new experiences that can result in learning. The goal of all psychotherapies is to increase the range of behaviors available to the patient and in this way relieve symptoms and alter patterns that have created increased morbidity and potential mortality. Psychotherapy is essential and crucial for many depressed and psychiatric patients especially for those who cannot take antidepressant medication such as pregnant and nursing mothers, some elderly depressed patients, and some depressed patients with concomitant medical illness. Research has demonstrated that psychotherapy can result in increased work function and decreased feeling of suicide. The theories of psychotherapy have a common desire to help others with psychological problems and alleviate personal misery.

Theories of Psychotherapy and Counseling

Different types of psychotherapy (e.g., psychodynamic therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy) use different techniques to achieve the desired results. After Freud and before 1950s all the theories of psychotherapy are derived from psychoanalysis of Freud. Later , after 50s many theories are developed to help people with psychological dysfunctions.

The theories of psychotherapy may broadly studied under 1. Psychoanalytic approach; these theories are closely related to the works of Sigmund Freud and others psychologists. 2. Psychodynamic theories; these theories share some resemblances with psychoanalytic theories. These two theories are administered by therapists from variety of fields. 3. Cognitive and Behavioral theories; these theories are administered by mental health workers.

Therapists use some 400 different varieties of psychotherapy, approaches to therapy that focus on psychological factors. Although diverse in many respects, all psychological approaches see treatment as a way of solving psychological problems by modifying peoples behavior and helping them gain a better understanding of themselves and their past, present, and future. Psychodynamic Psychotherapy Sigmund Freud has developed a monumental and a revolutionary theory called psychoanalysis. This is the first of the psychological therapies, and its terminology crept into our modern vocabulary. In this theory he has constructed and described personality development. There are other approaches to psychodynamic category. These are 1. Psychoanalysis founded by Sigmund Freud, 2 Adlerian psychotherapy founded by Alfred Adler, 3. Analytical Psychotherapy founded by Carl Jung, 4. Object Ralations developed by Mahler, Winnicott, Fairbairn, Klein, Gutrip, Kernberg and others 5. Self Psychology founded by Heinz Kohut. Psychoanalytic theories were based on the conflicts that believed to be at the core of human existence. These conflicts arise from our biological selves with our social selves. Aspects of these conflicts are unconscious and influence our behavior without our awareness. Psychodynamic therapies work to make the unconscious conscious so that we can have greater insight into our needs and behavior and therefore more control over how we allow these conflicts to affect us. Here the unconscious plays a key role where it stores all the unresolved past conflicts and thus, causes psychological problems that is anxiety. Though the psychoanalytic counselors differ from each other in the techniques that are used, in general, free association, interpretation of dreams, and transference, as well as counter transference issues, are used frequently in psychoanalytic treatment.

Humanistic-Existential Psychotherapy Humanistic psychotherapy is an approach which tries to do justice to the whole person including mind, body and spirit. It represents a broad range of therapeutic

methods. Each method recognizes the self-healing capacities of the client. The humanistic psychotherapist works towards an authentic meeting of equals in the therapy relationship. Abraham Maslow is perhaps the best know theorist associated with Humanistic Psychology and Carl Rogers (Client Centered Psychotherapy) the best know therapist, though many have followed including Fritz Perls and his Gestalt Therapy.

Existential psychotherapy aims at enabling clients to find constructive ways of coming to terms with the challenges of everyday living. The focus is on the clients concrete, individual experience of anxiety and distress leading to an exploration of their personal beliefs and value system, in order to clarify and understand these in relation to the specific physical, psychological and socio-cultural context. The experience and influences of the past, present and future are given equal emphasis. The questioning of assumptions and facing up to the possibilities and limitations of living is an important part of this interactive, dynamic and direct approach. Four "existential problems" are cited as the core of the existential struggle that is the primary focus in this therapy and considered to be at the root of most psychological difficulties: death, freedom vs. responsibility, isolation, and meaninglessness. There are no absolute solutions to the existential problems yet all of us have to come to terms with them.

Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a practical approach that seeks to define concrete goals and uses active techniques to reach them. The cognitive-behavioral therapist looks at patterns of thinking and behavior and how these patterns are reinforced and maintained by the person within his or her environment. Some of the techniques and programs that are usually associated with CBT are relaxation training, systematic desensitization, assertiveness training, and social skills training. Historically, Cognitive-Behavior Therapy (CBT) has its roots in the work of behaviorists such as Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Joseph Wolpe, and B.F. Skinner. Skinner, in particular, developed theories of operant conditioning that were the basis of behavior therapy, which views the consequences of behavior as shaping future behavior. Associated with Skinner are terms such as stimulus-response, positive reinforcement, and contingencies of behavior.

Transpersonal Psychotherapy

Transpersonal/Psycho spiritual psychotherapy can be defined by its orientation which includes the spiritual dimension rather than the content of therapy. It views the human psyche as having a central core Self or Soul as the centre of identity as well as a personal ego. Psychotherapists draw on a wide range of therapeutic methods towards the uncovering of past psychological material within a context of the individuals potential based on spiritual insight and experience. Within this perspective there is both a movement of the personal centre to the Self and a movement of the Self to manifest its nature through and in the personal centre. Thus therapy includes both repair and individuation.

Eclectic psychotherapy This is a form of psychotherapy that involves drawing on techniques from different forms of therapy, depending on the client and the problem. In this form of therapy the therapist apply an appropriate theoretical perspective that is suited to the problem at hand rather than administering a single theoretical perspective for all clients and all types of problem

THEORIES OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

Psychotherapy is called as the art and science of easing emotional and disturbed problems. All the types and kinds of psychotherapies are designed and developed to help the client know and understand what is in their unconscious. Very few are designed to actually change what is in the unconscious. However, if the material in the unconscious is not changed, the result is "neurosis." In one way or another, it always results in emotional pain.

Psychodynamic psychotherapies explore childhood events and encourage individuals to use this understanding to develop insight into their psychological problems (Schacter L. Daniel 2011).During childhood development the aggressive and sexual urges are repressed through the use of defense mechanisms. During therapy to reduce the unwanted influence of repressed conflicts the therapists encourage their clients to

bring these repressed conflicts into consciousness so that the clients can understand them.

Psychoanalysts try to uncover the unconscious reasons behind self-defeating behaviors. To bring the unconscious to consciousness, they rely on free association, dream analysis, and transference. A wide variety of therapies share certain features: All rely on a caring relationship between therapist and client. All promote selfunderstanding. All improve clients morale. And all require a commitment by clients to try to make changes in their lives.

Plotnik Rod (2011) says, Psychoanalysis focuses on the idea that each of us has an unconscious part that contains ideas, memories, desires, or thoughts that have been hidden or repressed because they are psychologically dangerous or threatening to our self-concept. To protect our self concept from these threatening thoughts and desires, we automatically build a mental barrier that we cannot voluntarily remove. However, the presence of these threatening thoughts and desires give rise to unconscious conflicts which in turn, can result in psychological and physical symptoms and mental disorders. Psychoanalytic theories were based on the conflicts that believed to be at the core of human existence. These conflicts arise from our biological selves with our social selves. Aspects of these conflicts are unconscious and influence our behavior without our awareness. Psychodynamic therapies work to make the unconscious conscious so that we can have greater insight into our needs and behavior and therefore more control over how we allow these conflicts to affect us. Here the unconscious plays a key role where it stores all the unresolved past conflicts and thus, causes psychological problems that is anxiety. Though the psychoanalytic counselors differ from each other in the techniques that are used, in general, free association, interpretation of dreams, and transference, as well as counter transference issues, are used frequently in psychoanalytic treatment. The psychoanalysis makes THREE major assumptions.

1. Unconscious conflicts were believed to be the chief reason for the development of psychological problems (such as paranoia) and physical symptoms (such as loss of feeling in a hand). Patients need to become aware of, and gain insight into their unconscious conflicts and repressed thoughts to overcome disorders. 2. To deal with mentally disordered person, Freud developed the following techniques. a. Free association b. Dream interpretation c. and analysis of slip of tongue etc., - these provide clues to unconscious conflicts and repressed thoughts. 3. During some part of therapy, the patient would react to the therapist as a substitute parent, lover, sibling, or friend and, in the process, project or transfer strong emotions onto the therapist.

View of Human Nature Corey Gerald (2009) writes, The Freudian view of human nature is basically deterministic. According to Freud, our behavior is determined by irrational forces, unconscious motivations, and biological and instinctual drives as these evolve through key psychosexual stages in the fi rst 6 years of life. Instincts are central to the Freudian approach. Although he originally used the term libido to refer to sexual energy, he later broadened it to include the energy of all the life instincts. These instincts serve the purpose of the survival of the individual and the human race; they are oriented toward growth, development, and creativity. Libido, then, should be understood as a source of motivation that encompasses sexual energy but goes beyond it. Freud includes all pleasurable acts in his concept of the life instincts; he sees the goal of much of life as gaining pleasure and avoiding pain. Freud also postulates death instincts, which account for the aggressive drive. At times, people manifest through their behavior an unconscious wish to die or to hurt themselves or others. Managing this aggressive drive is a major challenge to the human race. In Freuds view, both sexual and aggressive drives are powerful determinants of why people act as they do.

SIGMUND FREUD: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

Sigmund Freud was born May 6, 1856, in a small town Freiberg in Moravia. His father was a wool merchant with a keen mind and a good sense of humor. His mother was a lively woman, her husband's second wife and 20 years younger. Sigmund had

two older half-brothers and six younger siblings. When he was four or five the family moved to Vienna, where he lived most of his life. A brilliant child, always at the head of his class, he went to medical school, one of the few viable options for a bright Jewish boy in Vienna those days. There, he became involved in research under the direction of a physiology professor named Ernst Brcke. Brcke believed in what was then a popular, if radical, notion, which we now call reductionism: "No other forces than the common physical-chemical ones are active within the organism." Freud would spend many years trying to "reduce" personality to neurology, a cause he later gave up on. Freud was very good at his research, concentrating on neurophysiology, even inventing a special cell-staining technique. But only a limited number of positions were available, and there were others ahead of him. Brcke helped him to get a grant to study, first with the great psychiatrist Charcot in Paris, then with his rival Bernheim in Nancy. Both these gentlemen were investigating the use of hypnosis with hysterics. After spending a short time as a resident in neurology and director of a children's ward in Berlin, he came back to Vienna, married his fiance of many years Martha Bernays, and set up a practice in neuropsychiatry, with the help of Joseph Breuer. Freud's books and lectures brought him both fame and ostracism from the mainstream of the medical community. He drew around him a number of very bright sympathizers who became the core of the psychoanalytic movement. Unfortunately, Freud had a penchant for rejecting people who did not totally agree with him. Some separated from him on friendly terms; others did not, and went on to found competing schools of thought. Freud immigrated to England just before World War II when Vienna became an increasing dangerous place for Jews, especially ones as famous as Freud. Not long afterward, he died of the cancer of the mouth and jaw that he had suffered from for the last 20 years of his life. Approaches to understand psychoanalytic theories.

The Dynamic Approach (drive theory or instinct theory) This approach is also called as drive theory or instinct theory where Freud distinguished between self preservative drives (including breathing, eating, drinking, and excreting) and species-preservative drives (sexuality). Freud believed that human beings are filled with mental or psychic energy from two sources. One is called EROS energy which is associated with life and sex, the second is called THANATOS that is associated with death and aggression. This psychic determinism proposed by Freud underlies psychological explanation for every emotion, thought, impulse and behavior. Nothing happens by chance. Each psychic action is determined by which preceded it. Flanagan -John Summers (2004) says, If you oversleep, youre probably avoiding something or someone. If you go out and party too hard, maybe youre expressing antagonism toward your parents demands for responsible behavior. If you forget your professors name, perhaps somewhere deep inside you have an aggressive impulse toward her. Or she may remind you, in some unconscious way, of someone you felt sexual feelings for and so you defend against your sexual impulse by not recalling her name. This theory emphasizes that every impulse has an origin, aim object and intensity. An impulse always originates from some place in the body. For example, in very young children, most pleasure (or libidinal) impulses arise from the oral region. This is why young children put everything into their mouths. Their aim (or goal) is to obtain oral gratification. Though Freud believed that human motivation was sexual in the broad sense that individuals were motivated to bring themselves pleasure. However, libido later came to be associated with all life instincts and included the general goal of seeking to gain pleasure and avoid pain (Sharf 2008). The Topographic Approach (unconscious, the preconscious, and the conscious.) The mind according to psychoanalysis is divided into three interrelated regions. One region is called Unconscious, the second is called the Preconscious and third one is called Conscious. The conscious according to psychoanalytic theory includes sensations, and

experiences that the person is aware of at any point of time. Examples; feeling of hot and cold, heavy and light, and light and darkness etc. Freud believed that this

experience is very small part of persons mental life. The preconscious is like a memory place where events and experiences are stored and can be retrieved with little effort. Examples such as remembering phone numbers, places, names of friends etc. This preconscious is like a bridge between conscious mind and larger unconscious. The Unconscious plays a vital role in psychoanalytic theory. This contains emotions and memories that are threatening to the conscious mind and must be pushed away. Examples include hostile or sexual feelings toward a parent and forgotten childhood trauma or abuse. Also included are needs and motivations of which individuals are unaware. Although unconscious motivations are out of awareness, they may still be exhibited in an individuals thoughts or behaviors. Bringing these undesired conflicts to conscious from unconscious is the main objective of Psychoanalysis. The Developmental Stage Approach Freud believed the theory that childhood experiences influence later adult functioning. All children according to Freud progress through four different developmental stages as well as latency period. This is driven by biological maturation- which forces the individual to confront demands inherent within each stage. At each stage, if parents are overly indulgent or withholding, the child can end up with fixations or complexes associated with the stage. A fixation or complex is an unresolved unconscious conflict.

The Structural Approach (id, ego, and superego) This approach is concerned with structure of personality. The structure of a personality contains three basic systems. These three systems are called 1. ID 2. THE EGO 3. THE SUPER EGO. Though these are three separate systems, they function together as a whole. ID. This is the seat of biological desires. This represents unchecked biological forces. This is called by Freud as a chaos, a cauldron full of seeking excitations. Id functions on pleasure principle, its impulses are outside awareness or unconscious. At birth, the infant is all id. An infant does not possess conscious awareness only possess unconscious behaviour. When only the id is operating, for an infant or an adult,

individuals try to find pleasure and avoid or reduce pain. Thus, an infant who is hungry, operating under the pleasure principle, seeks the mothers nipple.

EGO The ego is the rational thinking that mediates between the Id and super ego and deals with reality. Ego is made up of reality principle. This is called as the secondary process. This is in marked contrast to the fantasizing of the primary process of Id. For example, the young child learns to ask for food rather than to cry immediately when her needs are not met. It is the function of the ego to test reality, to plan, to think logically, and to develop plans for satisfying needs. Its control or restraint over the id is referred to as anticathexis. In this way the ego serves to keep us from crying or acting angrily whenever we do not get our way. SUPER EGO This is concerned with society, elders and law. Id and ego represents individual and his or her aspects, the super ego represents values. Super ego is of two parts 1. Conscience 2. Ego ideal. Conscience refers to behaviors disapproved of by parents. Ego ideal represents behaviors that parents approved by parents. This way, the individual develops a moral code or sense of values to determine whether actions are good or bad. There is always a chance for conflict among Id, Ego and Super ego and the result is anxiety.

The conflict among Id, Ego, and Super Ego produces anxiety in a person. In this conflict, if the Id has the too much control, individuals may become impulsive, selfindulgent, and destructive. On the other hand, if the super ego is too strong, individuals may set unrealistically high moral of perfectionist standards for themselves and thus develop a sense of incompetence or failure.

In conceptualizing anxiety, Freud described three types of anxiety: reality, neurotic, and moral. Having an unfriendly person chase after us is an example of reality anxiety; the fear is from the external world, and the anxiety is appropriate to the situation. In contrast, neurotic and moral anxieties are threats within the individual.

Neurotic anxiety occurs when individuals are afraid that they will not be able to control their feelings or instincts (id) and will do something for which they will be punished by parents or other authority figures. When people are afraid they will violate parental or societal standards (superego), moral anxiety is experienced. In order for the ego to cope with anxiety, defense mechanisms are necessary.

THE FOCUS OF PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOTHERAPY Psychodynamic therapy seeks to bring unresolved past conflicts and unacceptable impulses from the unconscious into the conscious, where patients may deal with the problems more effectively (Feldman, 2011). These are based on Freuds psychoanalytic approaches to personality. According to this approach the individuals employ defense mechanisms to protect themselves from unacceptable back into the unconscious. The problem with these threatening conflicts is that these cannot be completely buried in the unconscious level and an abnormal behavior is produced in the form neurotic symptoms from the anxiety associated with these conflicts. The problem now is how do we get out of this anxiety produced by unconscious, unwanted impulses and drives to avoid neurosis. According to Freud, the possible answer was to confront the conflicts and impulses by bringing them out of the unconscious part of the mind and into the conscious part. Freud assumed that this technique would reduce anxiety stemming from past conflicts and that the patient could then participate in his or her daily life more effectively. A psychodynamic therapist, then, faces the challenge of finding a way to assist patients attempts to explore and understand the unconscious. The technique that has evolved has a number of components, but basically it consists of guiding patients to consider and discuss their past experiences in explicit detail from the time of their first memories. This process assumes that patients will eventually stumble upon longhidden crises, traumas, and conflicts that are producing anxiety in their adult lives. They will then be able to work throughunderstand and rectifythose difficulties. The different psychotherapies target different aspects of psychological functioning for unconscious impulses. Repression is one of the common mechanisms used to push the threatening conflicts

change. Psychodynamic (psychoanalytically oriented) psychotherapy focuses primarily on the effects of past experience on the molding of patterns of behavior and expectations through particular cognitions (defenses) and interpersonal styles of interaction and perception (transference) that have become repetitive and that interfere with health. Focus Effects of past experience on present behaviors (cognitions, affects, fantasies, and actions)

Goal Understanding the defense mechanisms and transference responses of the patient, particularly as they appear in the doctorpatient relationship. Technique Therapeutic alliance Free association Defense and transference interpretation Frequent meetings

How to Develop Insight The process that make the client to understand the unconscious is called developing insight. The techniques used by psychoanalyst are: Kalat W. James. (2008) says, Freud believed that psychological problems result from unconscious thought processes and that the way to control self-defeating behavior is to make those processes conscious. Bringing them to consciousness, he thought,

would produce catharsis, a release of pent-up emotions associated with unconscious thoughts and memories. To bring unconscious material to consciousness, Freud used dream analysis, free association, and transference. The insight therapies designed in such a way that they change people on the inside changing the way they think and feel. These are also called talk therapies,these methods share the assumption that distressed persons need to develop an understanding of the disordered thoughts, emotions, and motives that underlie their mental difficulties. Psychoanalysis believes that the psychological problems are the results of the tensions created in the unconscious mind by forbidden impulses and threatening memories. The duty of the therapist is to probe the unconscious in an attempt to bring these issues into the consciousness where they can be rendered harmless. The process is like reveal and interpret the unconscious minds contents. Unfortunately, according to Freud, the ego has strong defense mechanisms that block unconscious thoughts from coming to light. Thus, to gain insight into the unconscious, the ego must be tricked into relaxing its guard. In order to bring the forbidden impulses from unconsciousness to consciousness, Freud developed four basic techniques to uncover the unconscious roots of neurosis. These are free association, dream analysis, analysis of resistance, and analysis of transference. FREE ASSOCIATION According to Freud, when you let your mind wander and remove conscious censorship over thoughtsa process called free associationinteresting and even bizarre connections seem to spring into awareness. Freud believed that the first thing to come to a patients mind is often an important clue to what the persons unconscious wants to conceal. In this method the patient would relax and talk about whatever came to mind, while the therapist would listen, ever alert for veiled references to unconscious needs and conflicts. During the therapeutic sessions, the patients are advised to speak without worrying whether ideas are painful, embarrassing, or illogical. The patients must allow their thoughts to move freely from one idea to the next, without self-censorship so that unconscious thoughts and feelings can emerge. The patient has to report everything that comes to mind- a word, a phrase, a visual image. During this free association, the therapist tries to find the links and themes that might tie the patients fragmentary remarks together. This is based on the philosophical assumption that nothing

happens without a cause, and every jump from one thought to another reveals a relationship between them. DREAM ANALYSIS According to Freud, defenses are lowered during sleep, and forbidden desires and unconscious conflicts can be freely expressed. Even while dreaming, however, these feelings and conflicts are recognized as being unacceptable and must be disguised as images that have deeper symbolic meaning. Thus, during Freudian dream analysis, a therapist might interpret a dream of riding a horse or driving a car (the manifest content) as a desire for, or concern about, sexual intercourse (the latent content). Dreams are believed to be metaphors that symbolize unconscious conflicts or wishes, and that contain disguised clues that the therapist can help the client understand. A psychoanalytic therapy session might begin with an invitation for the client to recount a dream, after which the client might be asked to participate in the interpretation by freely associating to the dream. He believed that hidden beneath the obvious or manifest content of dreams is latent content that reflects the wishes, impulses, and fantasies that the dreamers defense mechanisms keep out of consciousness during waking hours (Bernstein A. Douglas et.al 2008).Freud believed that consciously unacceptable feelings and forbidden desires are disguised in dream form.

Psychoanalysts believe that dreams uncover unconscious material and providing insight for unsolved issues. . In interpreting dreams, the analyst or therapist encourages the patient to free-associate to the various aspects of the dream and to recall feelings that were stimulated by parts of the dream The psychoanalyst after listening to the dreams of the patient through free association interprets the content of the dream by which the wishes, needs, and fears of the patient are revealed. Dreams express the unacceptable motivations or memories in symbolic forms. For Freud, a dream is a compromise between the repressed Id impulses and Ego defenses. As patients explore the dream, the therapist processes their associations and helps them become aware of the repressed meaning of the material, thus developing new insights into their problems. Although Freud focused on repressed sexual and aggressive drives, other analysts have used other approaches to dream interpretation and emphasized an ego, object relations, self, or relational approach.

Three different ways are developed to interpret a dream in the dream analysis. 1. Freuds Drive Model 2. Interpretation using object relations 3. Interpreting using self psychology. Interpretation The core of all psychoanalytic therapy is interpretation. During free association, dream analysis, resistance, and transference, the analyst listens closely and tries to find patterns and hidden conflicts. At the right time, the therapist explains (or interprets) the underlying meanings to the client. 1. Freuds drive model Freuds drive model says that various drives are represented in a dream. A dream presents us with many different objects which have a different meanings.Ina dream people are not important for themselves, but they are related to drives and defenses. People in the dream would be objects of desire and punishment (Sharf 2008).

2. Interpretation using object relations In this model a dream is viewed as representing how the dreamer sees oneself and how one sees in relation to others. One way relate to others is through a compulsive loyalty that helps feel close to others emotionally. Yet there is also a part of oneself that wants to impulsively pursue ones own interests, but this may risk separating oneself from others.

3. Interpretation using self psychology The focus is on the patients sense of self, including her fears and feelings. Questions arise as to whether she feels overtaxed with concerns. Perhaps the patient may be worried about being too impulsive. Or perhaps afraid of becoming weaker. Depending on the analysts or therapists point of view and the nature of the Patients problem and disorder, an analyst or therapist might use any of these means of understanding the unconscious material in a dream.

Analysis of Transference During psychoanalysis, patients supposedly disclose intimate feelings and memories, and patients often apply (or transfer) some of their unresolved emotions and attitudes from past relationships onto the therapist. The therapist uses this process of transference to help the patient relive painful past relationships in a safe, therapeutic setting so that he or she can move on to healthier relationships. Transference is the tendency to transfer ones own feelings to a therapist or to any person whom the patient thinks he is close to him emotionally. A patient treats another person as if they were someone else from the past. As the patient reexperiences repressed emotions, the therapist can help the patient recognize and understand them. Troubled persons often provoke anger, rejection, boredom, criticism, and other negative reactions from others. The rule of anonymity allows the transference to develop; clients can see an anonymous psychotherapist as a mother or father figure, as a sibling or any other significant person in their life. Initially Freud thought that transference was something that only occurred between the client and the therapist. However he came to recognize that it is present in all human relationships. Transference can be positive. Analysis of Resistance During free association or dream analysis, Freud believed patients often show resistancefor example, suddenly forgetting what they were saying, changing the subject, not talking, and/or arriving late or missing appointments. It is the therapists job to confront this resistance and to help patients face their problems. When free associating or describing dreams, patients may resist talking about or thinking about certain topics. Such resistances (blockages in the flow of ideas) reveal particularly important unconscious conflicts. As analysts become aware of resistances, they bring them to the patients awareness so the patient can deal with them realistically. Rather than being roadblocks in therapy, resistances can be challenges and guides.

Analysis of resistance. In the process of trying on different interpretations of the clients thoughts and actions, the analyst may suggest an interpretation that the client

finds particularly unacceptable. Resistance is a reluctance to cooperate with treatment for fear of confronting unpleasant unconscious material. For example, the therapist might suggest that the clients problem with obsessive health worries could be traced to a childhood rivalry with her mother for her fathers love and attention. The client could find the suggestion insulting and fervently resist the interpretation. Curiously, the analyst might interpret this resistance as a signal not that the interpretation is wrong but instead that the interpretation is on the right track. If a client always shifts the topic of discussion away from a particular idea, that might signal to the therapist that this is indeed an issue on which the client could be directed to confront in order to develop insight.

DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF PSYCHO THERAPIES PSYCHOTHERAPHY Insight therapies Psychodynamic Therapies Humanist ic Therapies Cognitiv e Therapi es Behavior therapies Therapies based on operant conditioni ng Therapies based on observation al learning Therapies based on classical conditioni ng

Psychoanaly sis

NeoFreudia n Therapi es

REFERENCES Baron Robert A, Psychology 4th edition , Allyn & Bacon King Laura A, The science of Psychology, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2011 Huffman Karen, Psychology in Action, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010 Bernstein A. Douglas et.al Psychology, Houghton Mifflin Company 2008 Sharf S. Richard Theories of Psychotherapy and Counseling: Concepts and Cases, Brooks/Cole 2008 McLeod John, An introduction to counseling Open University Press 2003 Corey Gerald, Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy Thomson Brooks/Cole `2009 Dryden Windy and Mytton Jill Four approaches to psychotherapy Routledge 1999 Robert Ursano, J et al Concise guide to psychodynamic psychotherapy : principles and techniques of brief, intermittent, and long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.2004 Feldman, Robert S. Essentials of understanding psychology, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2011 SCHACTER L. DANIEL (et al ) Introducing Psychology WORTH PUBLISHERS 2011

Coon Dennis and Mitterer O.John, Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning 2010 Kalat W. James Introduction to Psychology Thomson Learning, Inc.2008 Flanagan -John Sommers and Rita Sommers-Flanagan, Counseling and psychotherapy theories in context and practice: Skills, strategies, and techniques, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2004. Zimbardo Philip G.et.al, Psychology; core concepts, Pearson Education.Inc. 2012 Plotnik Rod, Kouyoumdjian, Introduction to psychology, Wads Worth 2011 Corsini Raymond J., Wedding Danny(EDITORS), Current Psychotherapies, F.E. Peacock Publishers, Inc. 1995

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