Application Note 01

V / UHF Antenna Design

DEFINITION......................................................................................................................................................... 2

ACRONYMS AND TERMS................................................................................................................................. 2

UNDERSTANDING THE ANTENNA................................................................................................................ 3

PROPAGATION ................................................................................................................................................... 5

ANTENNA TYPES ............................................................................................................................................... 6

REFERENCE ANTENNA .......................................................................................................................................... 6
DIPOLE ANTENNA ................................................................................................................................................. 6
QUARTER WAVE .................................................................................................................................................. 8
LOOP .................................................................................................................................................................... 9
HELICAL ............................................................................................................................................................... 9
PATCH ................................................................................................................................................................ 10
RULES OF THUMB ........................................................................................................................................... 11
CENTER FREQUENCY .......................................................................................................................................... 11
BANDWIDTH ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
POLARIZATION ................................................................................................................................................... 11
GAIN .................................................................................................................................................................. 11
RADIATION PATTERN.......................................................................................................................................... 11
IMPEDANCE ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
ANTENNA MATCHING.................................................................................................................................... 12

A FEW FIGURES ............................................................................................................................................... 13

DECIBEL CONVERSION ........................................................................................................................................ 13
VSWR ............................................................................................................................................................... 13
MICROSTRIP LINE IMPEDANCE ............................................................................................................................ 13
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................................................ 14

DRAWINGS......................................................................................................................................................... 14

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Scope
The antenna is usually the last element considered when designing an RF equipment. But
remember, a chain is as weak as its weakest element. As part of the transmission chain in a
wireless link, the transmit and the receive antenna are directly involved to achieve the desired
overall performance.

The purpose of this document is to give some knowledge as well as a guideline to the design
of antennas in wireless projects.

Fundamental antenna designers might find the description in this document to simplistic.
More accurate and precise descriptions, as well as mathematical developments are described
in depth in the documents listed at the last page.

Definition
An antenna is a conductive element which converts electrical energy into an electromagnetic
field (transmit), or converts an electromagnetic field into electrical energy (receive).
An important feature is the property of reversibility: the same antenna can be used with the
same characteristics as a transmit or as a receive antenna.
An antenna is characterized by its center frequency, bandwidth, polarization, gain, radiation
pattern and impedance.

Acronyms and terms

λ Lambda Wavelength, expressed in meters (m).
The propagation of the electromagnetic field is usually considered in free space, where
it travels at the speed of light ( C = 3.108 m/s).

λ(m) = C / f(Hz)

In the VHF / UHF band, the following expression is used:

λ(m) = 300 / f(MHz)

Example f = 433.92 MHz λ = 300 / 433.92 = 0.691 meters

f = 915 MHz λ = 300 / 915 = 0.327 meters

VSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

dB Decibel For ease of use, values are given in dB

Refer to the chapter A few figures for dB conversion

dBm The dBm is a power value, related to 1 mW

dBi Value of gain related to the Isotropic reference antenna

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Understanding the antenna
The basic phenomenon is easily described, while the in-depth understanding requires strong
electromagnetic theory, out of range for this document.

A simple wire in which a current flows generates a magnetic field (H) and an electrical field
(E). Both fields are perpendicular between them and also with respect to the wire. The surface
generated by the electrical field (E) gives the reference for the polarization’s direction.

The following figure illustrates a vertical polarization.

Fig. 1: Electromagnetic wave

Let us consider an alternative current. The antenna, a single wire only connected on one side,
will behave like an impedance. The impedance is a function of various parameters such as
wire length, wire shape, and dielectric constant of the environment.

An antenna should be considered as a passive RLC network. Like any RLC network, its
characteristic impedance value is directly related to the frequency. Smith’s chart is used to
visualize the impedance. It is also a very helpful tool to complete the matching.

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 The maximum performance of the antenna, requires two conditions:

1. Resonance: It will be obtained at the centered frequency, when the characteristic

impedance of the antenna is strictly resistive: the minimum reactive part should be
observed at the considered frequency.

50 ohms
resonance point

Resonance line

Fig.2 : Smith’s Chart

2. Matching: A proper matching of the antenna to the feed point implies that both impedance
are identical. This condition ensures that all the energy delivered by the feed point is
converted in an electromagnetic field. In case of mismatch, a Standing Wave appears, and
part of the energy returns to the transmitter.

Fig.3: VSWR
The VSWR determines the amount of energy which is not converted by the antenna into an
energy. The antenna can either radiate the energy (wanted), or turn it in heat (unwanted).

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Measurements against a reference antenna should be made in order to understand if the
energy is just burned, or radiated. So the equivalent drawing of an antenna looks like 4
elements connected in series : L, C, Rradiated, Rloss .

All the above explanation have been made for a transmitter feeding an antenna. The
reversibility property of the antenna makes it also valid for the case of an antenna feeding a
receiver.

The major difficulty with small antennas is the validity of the measurement performed:
proximity of the hands, connectors, environment, may completely modify the measurement. It
is recommended to perform measurements as close as possible from the final configuration.

Propagation
Usual frame for propagation measurement is the open field. Even though free space’s
characteristics differ slightly from the open field, it is the commonly used model.
Estimation of transmission range in free space is given by

Pr = Pt.Gt.Gr.( λ / (4.π))2.(1/d2)

Where Pr is the received power (dBm)

Pt is the transmitted power (dBm)
Gt is the gain of the transmitter’s antenna (dB)
Gr is the gain of the receiver’s antenna (dB)

This equation in free space is valid in the following conditions:

• Far field, i.e. over 2.D2 / λ, with D the overall diameter of the antenna. Practically, for the
considered range of frequency, far field should start at a minimum of 3 or 4 times this
distance.
• Minimum decoupling height between antennas and the ground of at least one λ
• Propagation distance is limited by the optical line of sight, itself limited by the earth’s
curve.

When the propagation is in urban areas or inside facilities, it may suffer from several
damages:

1. Multipath effect, when waves bounce from one wall to another. It may cause some sort of
echo on the receiver.

2. Multipath fading. The same effect can generate a very important fading if the bounced
waves come back to the main one with a 180° shift.

3. Increase of attenuation: the (1/d2) model valid in open space can be reduced to (1/d3) or
(1/d4) for propagation through concrete walls or windows for example.

Once again, a target free space range should be specified. But the real measurement happens
on the site with all the difficulties specific to this location.

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Antenna Types
Basically, an antenna is made out of 2 conductors. One of them is radiating with respect to the
other. Bearing this consideration in mind, different shapes can be used, each of them having
their specific properties.

As a general physical rule, an antenna’s efficiency is directly proportional to its volume. As

we will see in the next examples, the size of the antenna is also related to the wavelength. In
other words, a small antenna operating on low frequencies doesn’t have a chance to be
efficient.

Reference antenna
Radiation pattern is purely isotropic, which means that it radiates equally in every x, y, z axis.
As it is considered as the reference for any measurements, the gain is 0 dBi.

This antenna is a purely theoretical model because an isotropic radiation is not compatible
with the electromagnetic vibration’s nature. However, it is a very useful model because of all
the simplifications brought to the calculations.

Dipole antenna
An antenna which length is multiple of λ/2 is a resonant antenna. The current distribution
inside a half-wave dipole is as follows.

Wire length: λ/2

Fig.4: Resonant antenna

Let us suppose that the wire is fed by its center point, and we have a resonant dipole antenna.

The following description is also called the Lenz antenna.

Total length : λ/2

l
L
Feed point
Fig.5: Lenz antenna

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For a practical application in 434 MHz, the following values give good results:
Diameter of the poles: 4 mm
l : 10 mm
L: 157.5 mm
Spacing between both poles: 6 mm (10 mm between pole’s center)
The total length of this antenna is 2 x 157.5 + 6 = 321 mm, and λ/2 is 691/2 = 345 mm
So the real antenna length is 0.93 x λ/2.

Measured impedance of this antenna is slightly above 50 Ω. Gain expected is close to 2 dBi.

The radiation pattern is omnidirectional in the E plan

Fig.6: λ/2 radiation pattern

The dipole antenna is typically an external antenna used when the horizontal range
optimization is required.

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Quarter Wave
The quarter wave antenna is the simplest model of antenna: it only requires a rigid wire and a
ground plane.

Fig.7: λ/4 antenna

The quarter wave antenna (λ/4 length) must radiate with respect to a ground plane. The
ground plane can be either the PC board itself, or the metal case of the outlet. In both cases,
make sure the wire is vertical to get the highest impedance. Anyhow, the impedance value
will remain under 50 Ω. If the antenna is tilted parallel to the ground, the impedance value
will decrease significantly.

The λ/4 length is purely theoretical. Depending on the nature of the wire and the geometry of
the ground plane, consider the length as (k . λ/4 ) with k comprised between 0.93 and 0.98 .
Wire size should be at least 0.34 mm2 (AWG 22).

In case the antenna is to be set outside the case, the radiating length to be considered is only
the part outside the case. However, the connection from inside the case to the PC board must
be done with an adapted coaxial cable.

Fig.8: λ/4 radiation pattern

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Compared to the λ/2 dipole, the radiation pattern in the E plane looks much rounder: lobes go
higher in altitude, but not as far away (negative gain: - 4.5 dBi).In many data-sheets, the
quarter wave antenna is the reference antenna, hence with a 0 dBi gain.

Loop
The loop antenna’s main advantage is its cost, directly included in the cost of the PC board.
Polarization is on the same surface as the PC board, with an omnidirectional radiation pattern.
The variable tuning capacitor may be replaced by a fixed capacitor when the value has been
determined, depending upon the location of the PC board.

This antenna has a theoretical gain of –5dBi. The realization showed a gain closer to –8dBi,
due to the very poor tg σ of the FR4 substrate.

The components must be placed in the center of the PC board, leaving a gap over 3.5 mm to
the antenna. When inserting the PC board inside a case, make sure the case is not shielded,
that no screws would come closer than 4 mm to antenna. Make sure also that no external
wires cross the antenna’s layout on its surface.

The design is optimized for an FR4 PC board 0.5 mm thick, 35 um copper and 1 um gold
covering. With a series capacitor of 10 pF, the impedance is exactly 75 ohms at 433.92 MHz,
giving a VSWR close to 1.5 .
44 mm

1 mm wide
35 um Cu
40 mm

> 3.5 mm

1 mm
Fig.9: loop antenna

The loop antenna is perfect for portable instruments which are not to demanding in terms of
range. Beware of attenuation and directivity caused by body effect in case the antenna is to be
placed close to the body.

Helical
The helical antenna is very space effective, and also quite easy to setup. Unfortunately, it is
very difficult to define a theoretical model for this kind of antenna. So tuning has very much
to do with empirical maneuvers. An important parameter to bear in mind is the difficulty to
fix the resonant point of this antenna due to its narrowband characteristic.

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Directivity is an important character of the helical antenna. Unlike all of the above described
antennas the gain cannot be expressed as an isotropic gain in the E plane. Also, polarization
can not be considered as horizontal or vertical. It has more to do with an ellipsoidal
polarization.

Parameters are the following for a defined frequency, with a sample of values working
correctly for the 434 MHz:
• Material used, and section of the wire Copper, 0.34 mm2
• Section of the coil 5.5 mm
• Number of turns 15
• Spacing between each coil Stretch to tune
When the correct spacing has been found, it is important to keep this value. We recommend to
fix the last coil on the PC board with a slight drop of glue. Beware not to fill the whole coil
with glue as it might change significantly the dielectric constant in which the field is
generated, hence de-tuning the antenna.

An approximation of the inductance value of the coil can be given as

L(µµH) = d2n2 / (18d + 40l)

Where L is the inductance in microhenrys,

d is the external diameter of the coil in inches (from wire centers)
n the number of turns
l the coil length in inches

Patch
More often used at higher frequencies, the patch antenna’s main advantage is the real omni-
directional pattern. The drawback is definitely the very sharp bandwidth available.

Like any other antenna type, the patch antenna is heavily dependant on the dielectric constant
of the substrate. Commonly used substrate is the FR4 epoxy board. Unfortunately, this
doesn’t design very precisely the substrate, which has been measured from 4 to 4.7,
depending on the source.

The following results show the difference:

The patch is circular, fed in its center.

∅ patch
Substrate

Feed point
Fig.10: Patch antenna
Patch diameter: 20.10 cm

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 Center Bandwidth Impedance
frequency VSWR = 2
εr = 4 433.920 MHz 1.7 MHz 163.5 + j4.2
1.6 mm thick
εr = 4.7 400.405 MHz 1.7 MHz 155.3 + j3.9
1.6 mm thick

So the same patch behaves totally differently with 2 different sources of FR4.
The reader may also notice that the impedance is very different from the conventional 50 Ω.
Which means that the patch needs a matching close to its feed point in order to use a coaxial
connector.

Rules of thumb

Center frequency
Depends on the size of the wire. For fine tuning, take a wire just a little bit longer than the
theoretical value, perform field measurement, and shorten until the correct value is obtained.

Bandwidth
Depends on the width of the wire. The bandwidth will depend on the number of channels
required, the data rate, the kind of modulation used. If a large bandwidth is required, use a
rather thick wire.

Polarization
Needs to be the same on both sides. Prefer a horizontal polarization which gives better
immunity against industrial noise in most cases.

Gain
Might be a wanted or unwanted effect. If the gain is omnidirectional (λ/2 compared to λ/4
antenna), it is probably a wanted effect. In the case of an antenna placed close to another
object, some reflection might occur, enhancing the electromagnetic field in one direction, but
reducing it in the opposite direction. To double the free space range, the gain must be +6 dB
above the reference.
The gain can be a positive figure, or a negative in case the output power is lower than the
references.

Radiation pattern
Dependant upon the shape of the antenna. Place the receiver’s antenna in the horizontal plane
perpendicular to the transmitter’s antenna. Beware that a high gain antenna may have a flatter
radiation pattern of the E field. If the antennas may move otherwise than on a horizontal
plane, it might be worth considering a lower gain antenna.
Like for the gain, the proximity of an antenna with other objects might disturb the radiation
pattern. The body effect is an example of radiation pattern disturbance.

Impedance
Closely related with the center frequency. The reactive part of the impedance will be mostly
reduced when the antenna resonates at the correct frequency. For most applications 50 ohms
is the reference impedance. Impedance relies very much on the close environment of the
antenna. Make sure the measurements are made as close as possible to the final environment.

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Antenna matching
Antenna matching is critical in order to get the lowest VSWR, i.e. the best amount of energy
transmitted to the antenna.
Several techniques are available for antenna matching. The easiest, because the most visual, is
the Smith’s chart. Let us with an example make our antenna a perfectly resonant antenna, as
close as possible to 50 Ω.

Fig.11: Smith’s Chart

Impedance is 41.24 – j19.17 ohms at 434 MHz

Fig.12: Smith’s Chart

Add a 33 nH shunt inductor and you get a perfect 50 ohms resonance point at 434 MHz

The adjunction of shunt or series inductor or capacitor changes the position of the initial point
on the chart. For more details we recommend Artech, Advanced Automated Smith Chart.
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A few figures
Decibel conversion

Power (mW) in dBm:

P(dBm) = 10 Log P(mW)

Voltage (mV) to dBmV:

U(dBmV) = 20 Log U(mV)

VSWR

SWR = (1 + ρ) / (1 - ρ)

With ρ , reflection coefficient magnitude defined as

ρ = √(Power reflected / Power forward)

VSWR Transmitted Power = 1 – Power reflected Reflection Coefficient

1 100 % 0
1.222 99 % 0.100
1.925 90 % 0.316
2.61 80 % 0.445
3 75 % 0.500
4.4 60 % 0.631
5 55 % 0.666
11.8 30 % 0.844

Microstrip line impedance

Material: FR4, impedance 50 Ω

Board ⇒ 0.5 mm 1.5 mm 1.6 mm

Copper
35 µm 0.84 mm 2.66 mm 2.85 mm

70 µm 0.78 mm 2.6 mm 2.78 mm

Fig.13: Microstrip line

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Bibliography

1. Mc Graw-Hill, Antenna Design: A Practical Guide

George J. Monser; May 1996

2. Artech, Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications

Kazimierz Siwiak; 1995

3. Artech, Advanced Automated Smith Chart, Version 3.0: Software and User’s Manual
Leonard Schwab; 1998

4. ARRL, ARRL Antenna Book, © 1997 – 18th edition

Drawings

Fig.1: Electromagnetic wave

Fig.2 : Smith’s Chart
Fig.3: VSWR
Fig.4: Resonant antenna
Fig.5: Lenz antenna
Fig.6: λ/2 radiation pattern
Fig.7: λ/4 antenna
Fig.8: λ/4 radiation pattern
Fig.9: loop antenna
Fig.10: patch antenna
Fig.11: Smith’s Chart
Fig.12: Smith’s Chart
Fig.13: Microstrip line

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