Introduction to Computer & its Parts

If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single part called the "computer." A computer is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts, which you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware. (Software, on the other hand, refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.) The illustration below shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system. Your system may look a little different, but it probably has most of these parts. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a single notebook-sized package.

Desktop computer system Let's take a look at each of these parts.

System unit
The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process information. The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.

Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device or device.

System unit

Storage
Your computer has one or more disk drivesdevices that store information on a metal or plastic disk. The disk preserves the information even when your computer is turned off.

Hard disk drive

Your computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard disk, a rigid platter or stack of platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can hold massive amounts of information, they usually serve as your computer's primary means of storage, holding almost all of your programs and files. The hard disk drive is normally located inside the system unit.

Hard disk drive

CD and DVD drives

Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on the front of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a CD, and many CD drives can also write (record) data onto CDs. If you have a recordable disk drive, you can store copies of your files on blank CDs. You can also use a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.

CD DVD drives can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. If you have a DVD drive, you can watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can record data onto blank DVDs.

Floppy disk drive

Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks, also called floppies or diskettes. Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store only a small amount of data. They also retrieve information more slowly and are more prone to damage. For these reasons, floppy disk drives are less popular than they used to be, although some computers still include them.

Floppy disk Why are floppy disks "floppy"? Even though the outside is made of hard plastic, that's just the sleeve. The disk inside is made of a thin, flexible vinyl material.

Mouse
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice are wireless.

Mouse A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you to scroll smoothly through screens of information. When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's positioned on your screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer.

Keyboard
A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard on a typewriter, it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys:

The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending on where they are used.

The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to enter numbers quickly. The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position within a document or webpage.

Keyboard You can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you can perform with a mouse.

Monitor
A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer screen can show still or moving pictures. There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but LCD monitors have the advantage of being much thinner and lighter. CRT monitors, however, are generally more affordable.

LCD monitor (left); CRT monitor (right)

Printer
A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to use your computer, but having one allows you to print e-mail, cards, invitations, announcements, and other materials. Many people also like being able to print their own photos at home. The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and laser printers. Inkjet printers are the most popular printers for the home. They can print in black and white or in full color and can produce high-quality photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers are faster and generally better able to handle heavy use.

Inkjet printer (left); laser printer (right)

Speakers
Speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or connected with cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound effects from your computer.

Computer speakers

Modem
To connect your computer to the Internet, you need a modem. A modem is a device that sends and receives computer information over a telephone line or high-speed cable. Modems are sometimes built into the system unit, but higher-speed modems are usually separate components.

Cable modem The system unit of a PC is the case that houses processing hardware and other hardware. All of the hardware contained within the system unit is connected to the system board or motherboard.

Memory: RAM Random Access Memory) is the computers main memory and is used to temporarily storage programs and data with which it is working. RAM is volatile (erased when the power to the PC goes off). RAM comes in a variety of types, speeds, and size. Memory speed is typically measured in megahertz.

Virtual Memory: look at RAM for areas that have not been used recently and copy them onto the hard disk. This frees up space in RAM to load the new application ROM: Read Only Memory. Non-volatile chips inside which data or programs are stored. It can be programmed with programmed with specific data when it is manufactured Data Processing: CPU: The CPU (central processing unit) does the vast majority of processing for a computer. Major operations include: comparison, arithmetic operations etc. CPUs contain a variety of circuitry and components and are connected to the motherboard & a lso called the processor or microprocessor. Examples: Intels Pentium, Celeron and AMDs Athlon etc. Processing Speed: Processing speed (clock speed) is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz) and measures the number of clock ticks per second. Pentium4s processing speed can be 3.06 GHZ. Word Size: A computer word is a group of bits or bytes that a CPU can manipulate at one time. 64bit words means data move around/within the CPU and from CPU to memory in 64-bit chunks. Cache memory fast memory chips located on or close to the CPU chip.
If your computer's CPU had to constantly access the hard drive to retrieve every piece of data it needs, it would operate very slowly. When the information is kept in memory, the CPU can access it much more quickly. Most forms of memory are intended to store data temporarily. As you can see in the figure bellow, the CPU accesses memory according to a distinct

hierarchy. Whether it comes from permanent storage (the hard drive) or input (the keyboard), most data goes in random access memory (RAM) first. The CPU then stores pieces of data it will need to access, often in a cache, and maintains certain special instructions in the register CPURegisterCache (level1, level2)RAMPhysical Devices (Hard drive, floppy diskette) Registers: Registers are temporary memory units that store words. The registers are located in the processor, instead of in RAM, so data can be accessed and stored faster.
Data Transmission: Buses: Buses

Connects the CPU to peripheral devices. There are verities of bus standards: ISA, PCI, AGP, USB, FireWire etc. CPU Chipset: It bridges various buses to the CPU. Ports: Connectors to which devices can be attached.

Common ports: Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Modem. Typical CPU Components: ALU, Control Unit, Registers, Prefetch Unit, Decode Unit, Internal Cache

ALU: Arithmetic and Logic Unit: the smart part of a processor chip that performs commands like adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing Control Unit: Based on instructions from the Decode Unit, it creates control signals that tell the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Registers how to operate, what to operate on, and what to do with the result. The Control Unit makes sure everything happens in the right place at the right time. Decode Unit: it decodes or translates complex machine language instructions into a simple format understood by the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Registers. This makes processing more efficient. POWER SUPPLY UNIT: A power supply unit (PSU) converts mains AC to low-voltage regulated DC power for the internal components of the computer. Modern personal computers universally use a

switched-mode power supply. Some power supplies have a manual selector for input voltage, while others automatically adapt to the supply voltage. Most modern desktop personal computer power supplies conform to the ATX form factor. ATX power supplies are turned on and off by a signal from the motherboard. They also provide a signal to the motherboard to indicate when the DC power lines are correct so that the computer is able to boot up. While an ATX power supply is connected to the mains supply it provides a 5 V stand-by (5VSB) line so that the standby functions on the computer and certain peripherals are powered. The most recent ATX PSU standard is version 2.31 of mid-2008.

Motherboard
In personal computers, a motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern computers and holds many of the crucial components of the system, providing connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the mainboard, system board, or, on Apple computers, the logic board. It is also sometimes casually shortened to mobo.

Expansion card

The expansion card (also expansion board, adapter card or accessory card) in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard or backplane to add functionality to a computer system via the expansion bus. One edge of the expansion card holds the contacts (the edge connector) that fit exactly into the slot. They establish the electrical contact between the electronics (mostly integrated circuits) on the card and on the motherboard. Connectors mounted on the bracket allow the connection of external devices to the card. Depending on the form factor of the motherboard and case, around one to seven expansion cards can be added to a computer system. 19 or more expansion cards can be installed in backplane systems. There are also other factors involved in expansion card capacity. For example, most graphics cards on the market as of 2010 are dual slot graphics cards, using the second slot as a place to put an active heat sink with a fan. Some cards are "low-profile" cards, meaning that they are shorter than standard cards and will fit in a lower height computer chassis. (There is a "low profile PCI card" standard that specifies a much smaller bracket and board area). The group of expansion cards that are used for external connectivity, such as network or modem cards, are commonly referred to as input/output cards (or I/O cards). The primary purpose of an expansion card is to provide or expand on features not offered by the motherboard. For example, the original IBM PC did not provide graphics or hard drive capability. In that case, a graphics card and an ST-506 hard disk controller card provided graphics capability and hard drive interface respectively.

Video Card
The video card is an expansion card that allows the computer to send graphical information to a video display device such as a monitor or projector. The Video Card is Also Known as graphics card, graphics adapter, video adapter Important Video Card Facts:

Each motherboard supports only a limited range of video card formats so always check with your motherboard manufacturer before making a purchase. Many modern computers do not have video expansion cards but instead have GPUs integrated directly onto the motherboard. This allows for a less expensive computer but also for a less powerful graphics system. This option is wise for the average business and home user not interested in advanced graphics capabilities or the latest games. Popular Video Card Manufacturers: NVIDIA Corporation, ATI Technologies, Matrox Note: These companies actually manufacture the processors, called graphics processing units (GPUs), that operate the video card. Many other companies utilize these processors in their particular brands of video cards. Video Card Description: A video card is rectangular in shape with numerous contacts on the bottom of the card and one or more ports on the side for connection to video displays and other devices. The video card installs in an expansion slot on the motherboard. While most video cards are of the PCIe format, video cards come in other formats as well, including PCI and AGP. These additional formats are older standards and don't communicate with the CPU and other components as quickly as PCIe. Since the motherboard, case, and expansion cards are designed with compatibility in mind, the side of the video card fits just outside the back of the case when installed, making its ports available for use. Some video cards have only one port for connection to a standard monitor or projector while more advanced cards may have ports for connections to multiple output sources including additional monitors and televisions. Still other cards may have inputs for video editing and other advanced tasks.

Sound card
An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become commonplace on modern personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output sound through speakers connected to the board, to record sound input from a microphone connected to the computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk. Nearly all sound cards support MIDI, a standard for representing music electronically. In addition, most sound cards are Sound Blaster-compatible, which means that they can process commands written for a Sound Blaster card, the de facto standard for PC sound. Sound cards use two basic methods to translate digital data into analog sounds: FM Synthesis mimics different musical instruments according to built-in formulas.

 Wavetable Synthesis relies on recordings of actual instruments to produce sound. Wavetable synthesis produces more accurate sound, but is also more expensive.

MODEM
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used over any means of transmitting analog signals, from light emitting diodes to radio. The most familiar example is a voice band modem that turns the digital data of a personal computer into modulated electrical signals in the voice frequency range of a telephone channel. These signals can be transmitted over telephone lines and demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.

How to Connect a Modem to a Computer

To get Internet access on a computer, you'll need to connect a modem to the source and the system. The modem transforms the signal from the source into a signal that your computer can use. If you have a cable Internet connection, the modem transforms the cable signal into a digital signal that allows the computer to access the Internet. Making the connection is simple. Once you determine where to place the cables, your modem should be connected to your computer in a few minutes.

Instructions Things You'll Need

Modem Modem power supply Ethernet cable USB cable Telephone wire (depending on the type of modem) Cable wire (depending on the type of modem)

1.

1 Power off your computer. Connect the modem to the signal source. If the source
is a cable signal, connect the modem with a cable wire. If it's a DSL signal, connect it with a telephone wire.

2 Connect the proper ends of the USB wire to the USB ports on the modem and the
computer.

3 Connect the ethernet cable to the modem and the computer. 4 Insert the power source into the modem and then plug it into the wall socket or
the series circuit.

5 Wait until all the lights on the modem are lit and then turn on the computer. When
the Hardware Wizard detects the new device, you may have to insert the disk that came with it to install the software for the device. This will complete the connection of the modem to the computer.

Network interface controller

Network Interface Card (NIC)

A 1990s Ethernet network interface controller card which connects to the motherboard via the now-obsolete ISA bus. This combination card features both a (now obsolete) bayonet cap BNC connector (left) for use in coaxial-based 10base2 networks and an 8P8C connector (right) for use in twisted pair-based 10baseT networks. (The ports could not be used simultaneously.) Connects to Motherboard via one of:

Integrated PConnector ISA Connector PCI-E

FireWire USB

Network via one of:

Fast Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet Optical fiber Token ring

Speeds

10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1000 Mbit/s up to 160 Gbit/s

Common manufacturers

Novell Intel Realtek Others

A network interface controller (also known as a network interface card, network adapter, LAN adapter and by similar terms) is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to a computer network. Whereas network interface controllers were commonly implemented on expansion cards that plug into a computer bus, the low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet standard means that most newer computers have a network interface built into the motherboard.
A LAN adapter is a device used to allow a computer to interface with a network. Many computers may have some sort of LAN adapter already installed, but others may require a special installation, which is accomplished by adding a network interface card to the system or possibly connecting the adapter to a USB port. Most networks that are used in an office or home environment are known as local area networks (LANs). This type of network is one used over a limited geographic area. Most of the time, the network goes no further than the building which houses its main components, though that is not always the case. A LAN adapter is simply one that is able to access this type of network.

A LAN adapter can be used with a wireless or wired network, though when purchasing on, it is important to understand what type of network and connection is needed. In most cases, a wireless LAN adapter cannot be used for a wired network and vice versa. Those needing an adapter but unsure of the type should consult their network administrators for more information. In many cases, a wired LAN adapter is used for Ethernet connections, one of the fastest and most reliable forms of wired networks. Because of their performance and security, they are often used in office or business environments. Most home users, and some business environments, make use of a wireless LAN. These are often very easy to set up, require no line of sight or wiring, and the LAN adapter can be connected through a relatively easy installation process. In many cases, home users may prefer a LAN adapter with the capability of being plugged into the USB port, simply because its installation requires no major expertise. It simply plugs into the back of the computer. For those buying an internal LAN adapter, the installation process can be a little more complex, but still is within the capability of most computer users. It normally requires opening the case and plugging the card into an expansion slot. Depending on the operating system and type of LAN adapter, additional software, often included with the computer hardware, may be required to ensure proper operation.

HARD DISK
A magnetic disk on which you can store computer data. The term hard is used to distinguish it from a soft, or floppy, disk. Hard disks hold more data and are faster than floppy disks. A hard disk, for example, can store anywhere from 10 to more than 100 gigabytes, whereas most floppies have a maximum storage capacity of 1.4 megabytes. A single hard disk usually consists of several platters. Each platter requires two read/write heads, one for each side. All the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm so that they cannot move independently. Each platter has the same number of tracks, and a track location that cuts across all platters is called a cylinder. For example, a typical 84 megabyte hard disk for a PC might have two platters (four sides) and 1,053 cylinders. In general, hard disks are less portable than floppies, although it is possible to buy removable hard disks OR

Hard disk
All hard drives share a basic structure and are composed of the same physical features. However, not all hard drives perform the same way the quality of the parts inside the hard drive will affect its performance. Following is a description of the common features of the hard drive and how each part

works in relation to the others. Hard drives are extremely sensitive equipment and the internal workings of a hard drive should not be handled by anyone other than an experienced professional. The Platters The platters are the actual disks inside the drive that store the magnetized data. Traditionally platters are made of a light aluminum alloy and coated with a magnetizable material such as a ferrite compound that is applied in liquid form and spun evenly across the platter or thin metal film plating that is applied to the platter through electroplating, the same way that chrome is produced. Newer technology uses glass and/or ceramic platters because they can be made thinner and also because they are more efficient at resisting heat. The magnetic layer on the platters has tiny domains of magnetization that are oriented to store information that is transferred through the read/write heads. Most drives have at least two platters, and the larger the storage capacity of the drive, the more platters there are. Each platter is magnetized on each side, so a drive with 2 platters has 4 sides to store data.

The Spindle and Spindle Motor

The platters in a drive are separated by disk spacers and are clamped to a rotating spindle that turns all the platters in unison. The spindle motor is built right into the spindle or mounted directly below it and spins the platters at a constant set rate ranging from 3,600 to 7,200 RPM. The motor is attached to a feedback loop to ensure that it spins at precisely the speed it is supposed to.

The Read/Write Heads

The read/write heads read and write data to the platters. There is typically one head per platter side, and each head is attached to a single actuator shaft so that all the heads move in unison. When one head is over a track, all the other heads are at the same location over their respective surfaces. Typically, only one of the heads is active at a time, i.e., reading or writing data. When not in use, the heads rest on the stationary platters, but when in motion the spinning of the platters create air pressure that lifts the heads off the platters. The space between the platter and the head is so minute that even one dust particle or a fingerprint could disable the spin. This necessitates that hard drive assembly be done in a clean room. When the platters cease spinning the heads come to rest, or park, at a predetermined position on the heads, called the landing zone.

The Head Actuator

All the heads are attached to a single head actuator, or actuator arm, that moves the heads around the platters. Older hard drives used a stepper motor actuator, which moved the heads based on a motor reacting to stepper pulses. Each pulse moved the actuator over the platters in predefined steps. Stepper motor actuators are not used in modern drives because they are prone to alignment problems and are highly sensitive to heat. Modern hard drives use a voice coil actuator, which controls the movement of a coil toward or away from a permanent magnet based on the amount of current flowing through it. This guidance system is called a servo. The platters, spindle, spindle motor, head actuator and the read/write heads are all contained in a chamber called the head disk assembly (HDA). Outside of the HDA is the logic board that controls the movements of the internal parts and controls the movement of data into and out of the drive.

Different types of Hard Disk Drive

Hard Disk Drive - It is a non-volatile storage device which stores digitally

encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surface. Types of HDD : 1. IDE : Integrated Drive Electronics. IDE drives are also known as PATA drives( Parallel advance technology attachment ) 2. SATA : Serial advance technology attachment 3. SCSI : Small Computer System Interface. SCSI is pronounced as scuzzy. 4. SAS : Serial Attached SCSI

IDE / PATA (Integrated Drive Electronics Drive / Parallel Advance Technology Attachment Drive)

IDE/PATA Drives have usually 40 pins. IDE/PATA Drives offer 133 MB/sec transfer rate. It sends 8 bit data at a time. PATA Cables are used to connect PATA HDD. Two drives can be connected in a single pata cable. One as master and other as slave. The configuration of master and slave is done by different combination of jumpers in the hdd.

SATA (Serial Advance Technology Attachment Drive)

SATA Drives have usually 7 pins, 4 pins in pair of two for sending and receiving data and rest 3 pins are grounded. SATA Drives offers generally 300MB/sec transfer rate. It sends data bit by bit. SATA Cables are used to connect SATA HDD. Only one drive can be connected in a single sata cable.

SCSI (Small Computer System Interface Drive)

SCSI Drives have usually 50 to 68 pins. SCSI Drive offers generally 640MB/sec transfer rate. This drives are hot swappable. SCSI cables are used to connect SCSI HDD. Maximum of 16 drives can be connected in a single scsi cable. Each hdd have a 8 bytes hexadecimal code known as WWN (world wide name) for its identification in the cable.

SAS(Serial Attached SCSI Drive)

SAS Drives generally offers 805 MB/sec transfer rate. This drives are hot swappable. SAS Cables are used to connect SAS Drives. Maximum of 128 drives can be connected in a single sas cable. SAS Cables are used to connect SAS Drives. Maximum of 128 drives can be connected in a single sas cable.

System Unit
The main part, processing unit and devices, of a microcomputer is a system unit. A system unit includes a board called a motherboard that holds a microprocessor chip (or a CPU), memory chips, and expansion slots. Electronic circuitry is printed on the board and it connects between two main parts of a microcomputer, the microprocessor and primary storage and other parts. The system unit is housed within the system cabinet. A system unit includes the following parts: Motherboard Microprocessor Memory Chips System Clock Buses Ports Expansion Slots and Cards

Motherboard
A Motherboard or system board is the main printed, flat circuit board in an electronic device such as microcomputers. The board contains expansion slots (sockets) that accept additional boards (expansion Cards). In a microcomputer, the motherboard contains the microprocessor, the primary storage chips (or main memory cards), the buses, and all the chips used for controlling the peripherals.

Microprocessor
A microprocessor is a processor whose elements are miniaturized into one or a few integrated circuits contained in a single silicon microchip. It executes instructions. In a microcomputer, the central processing unit (CPU) is held on a single microprocessor. In order to function as a processor, it requires a system clock, primary storage, and power supply. Several important lines of microcomputers use some families of microprocessor chips. Intel and Motorola are the major companies that produce important microprocessors for IBM compatible and Macintosh computers.

Microprocessor Capacity

The capacity of a microprocessor chip is represented in word sizes. A word size is the number of bits (e.g., 8, 16, or 32 bits) that a computer (CPU) can process at a time. If word has more bits, the computer (CPU) are more powerful and faster. For example, a 16-bit-word computer can access 2 bytes (1 byte = 8 bits) at a time, while a 32-bit-word computer can access 4 bytes at a time. Therefore, the 32-bit computer is faster than the 16-bit computer.

CISC and RISC Chips

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CISC Chips: CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. It is pronounced "sisk." CISC is a computer architecture that has large sets of instructions. CISC machines have several hundred instructions. Intel's Pentiumchip uses CISC design. RISC Chip: RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. RISC is a computer that executes a few number of instructions. In RISC, most programs generally use only a few instructions. This architecture has a small number of instructions built into the circuits and if those basic instructions are made to execute faster, then RISC computers increase performance. Although RISC machines are only around 30% faster than their CISC machines, RISC chips are less expensive to produce. That is, RISC is less expensive per MIPS. Controversy: The proponents of RISC claim that its lower cost and speed are an extreme advantage, while the opponents claim its improvements are not great. The opponents believe that new machine languages and greater performance improvements are going to come. Besides, the reduced instructions make software (e.g., compilers) generate more code to do. Thus, the choice is not obvious.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) is the computing part of the computer that interprets and executes program instructions. It is also known as the processor. In a microcomputer, the CPU is contained on a single microprocessor chip within the system unit. The CPU has two parts: the control unit and the arithmetic-logic unit. Additional storage units called registers within control unit and ALU help make processing more efficient.
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Control Unit: A control unit is the circuitry that locates, retrieves, interprets and executes each instruction in the central processing unit. The control unit directs electronic signals between primary storage and the ALU, and between the CPU and input/output devices. Atithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU): ALU is a high-speed circuit part in the CPU. The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic (math) operations, logic (comparison) operations and related operations. The ALU retrieves alphanumeric data from memory and then does actual calculating and comparing. It sends the results of the operation back to memory again.

Memory Chips

A memory chip is a chip that holds programs and data either temporarily or permanently. The major categories of memory chips are RAMs and ROMs.

RAM Chips
RAM stands for random-access memory. Random- access memory holds the data or instructions that the CPU is presently processing. The type of primary storage is RAM. That is, a collection of RAM chips builds primary storage. Whenever a CPU writes data or instructions to RAM, it wipes out the previous contents of RAM, and when a CPU read data or instructions from RAM, it keeps their contents.

ROM Chips
ROM stands for read-only memory. A ROM chip is a memory chip that stores instructions and data permanently. Its contents are placed into the ROM chip at the time of manufacture and cannot be modified by the user. A CPU can read and retrieve the instructions and data from the ROM chip, but it cannot change the contents in ROM. ROM chips usually contain special instructions for computer operations such as ROM BIOS. The variations on the ROM chip are the following:
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PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory): A permanent storage device that becomes a read-only memory after it is written once by the customer rather than by the chip manufacturer. For example, a software producer can write instructions onto the PROM using special equipment. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): EPROM is a reusable PROM-chip that can be erased by a special ultraviolet light. EPROM holds its content until erased and new instructions can be written on it. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): EEPROM-chip can be erased, either within a computer or externally, by electric power. The process usually requires more voltage than the common +5 volts used in logic circuits.

Primary Storage (Memory)

Primary storage (internal storage, main memory or memory) is the computer's working storage space that holds data, instructions for processing, and processed data (information) waiting to be sent to secondary storage. Physically, primary storage is a collection of RAM chips. The contents are held in primary storage only temporarily. Capacity varies with different computers. Data or instructions are stored in primary storage locations called addresses.

System Clock
The clock is a device that generates periodic, accurately spaced signals used for several purposes such as regulation of the operations of a processor or generation of interrupts. The clock circuit uses the fixed vibrations generated from a quartz crystal to deliver a steady stream of pulses to the processor. The system clock controls the speed of all the operations within a computer. The clock speed is the internal speed of a computer. The clock speed is expressed in megahertzes (MHz). 33 MHz means 33 million cycles per second. A computer

processor's speed is faster if it has higher clock speed. For example, a 100-Mhz processor is four times as fast internally as the same processor running at 25MHz.

Expansion Slots/Boards
Open/Closed architectures
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Open Architecture: This architecture is a system whose specifications are made public to encourage third-party vendors to develop add-on products for it. Most microcomputers adopt open architecture. They allow users to expand their systems using optional expansion boards. Closed Architecture: This is a system whose technical specifications are not made public. With a machine that has closed architecture, users cannot easily add new peripherals.

Expansion Slots
Expansion slots are receptacles inside a system unit that printed circuit boards (expansion boards) are plugged into. Computer buyers need to look at the number of expansion slots when they buy a computer, because the number of expansion slots decides future expansion. In microcomputers, the expansion slots are directly connected to the bus.

Expansion Boards
Expansion boards are also called expansion cards, controller cards, plug-in boards, adapter cards, or interface cards. Expansion boards are printed circuit boards that have many electronic components including chips. They are plugged into expansion slots. Expansion boards are connected to peripherals through ports located on the edge of expansion boards. Expansion boards include memory expansion cards (e.g., SIMM), I/O controller cards (e.g., SCSI Card), video display card, sound cards, communications cards, etc.

Ports
A port is an external connecting socket on the outside the computer. This is a pathway into and out of the computer. A port lets users plug in outside peripherals, such as monitors, scanners and printers.

Serial Ports
Serial ports are external I/O connectors used to attach modems, scanners or other serial interface devices to the computer. The typical serial ports use a 9-pin DB-9 or a 25-pin DB-25 connector. Serial ports transmit bits one after another on a single communications line. Serial lines frequently are used to link equipment that is not located close by.

Parallel Ports
Parallel ports are external I/O connectors on a computer used to hook up printers or other parallel interface devices. The parallel port uses a DB-25 connector. This port transmits several bits simultaneously. Parallel lines move information faster than serial lines do.

Buses
A bus is a data pathway between several hardware components inside or outside a computer. It not only connects the parts of the CPU to each other, but also links the CPU

with other important hardware. The other important hardware includes memory, a disk control unit, a terminal control unit, a printer control unit, and a communications control unit. The capacity of a bus is expressed as bits. A larger capacity bus is faster in data transfer. For example, a 32-bit bus is faster than an 8-bit bus.

Three Main Bus Architectures

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ISA (Industry Standard Architecture): ISA is pronounced i- suh. This is the original PC bus architecture. It includes the 8-bit (PC, XT) and 16-bit (AT) buses in IBM personal computer series and compatibles. Now, it refers specially to the 16-bit AT bus. MCA (Micro Channel Architecture): A 32-bit bus used in IBM P/S 2 series and other IBM models. This architecture allows multiprocessing that allows several processors to work simultaneously. Micro channel architecture is not compatible with PC bus architecture. EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture): EISA is pronounced eesa. This is a bus standard for PCs that extends the AT bus (the ISA bus) architecture to a 32-bit bus. This architecture also allows more than one CPU to share the bus. The purpose of EISA is to extend and amend the old ISA standard, so that all existing AT expansion boards can work with an EISA slot.

Local Buses
The performance of a microcomputer is often restrained by the relatively slow video cards and other peripherals, which cannot keep up with today's fast CPUs. A local bus reduces the performance gap between the high-speed microprocessors and slower hard disks, video boards and other peripherals. There are two local-bus systems available today. Each bus hopes to boost microcomputer performance for I/O-intensive tasks. They are a VL-Bus and a PCI local bus.
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VL-Bus (VESA Local Bus): VESA specification was introduced by the VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association). VL-Bus added peripheral components and connectors to the existing motherboard's 486 local bus and was available first. Performance of the VL-Bus architecture declines sharply when supporting more than two devices, and the specification is currently limited to a 32-bit data path and 33-MHz operation. This design is vanishing. PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect): A PCI chip set adds a 64-bit-wide bus between the microprocessor and peripherals to offer a 64-bit data path. This chip supports speeds of 66-MHz. PCI can transfer data either 32- or 64-bits at a time. This architecture is developed by Intel, Compaq, DEC, IBM and NCR. \PCI technology incorporates a managing layer to route and manage data for efficient handling of high-speed data transfers between the microprocessor and peripherals. Its design goals are to produce a low-cost, high-performance interface and support future generations of peripherals. PCI provides excellent compatibility, higher throughput and automatic configuration of peripheral cards. PCI also has features such as expandability and plug-and-play flexibility.

Comparison: Both technologies employ a microprocessor's local bus instead of the system input/output bus to rapidly exchange data between the processor and peripherals.\The VESA design reached the market first and is less expensive than PCI, but PCI is technically superior. A VL-Bus usually supports only two or three local-bus peripherals, while PCI can support up to 10 local buses. PCI uses fewer bus lines than VL-Bus. This enables PCI to eventually cost less to manufacture. PCI is now dominating the market.