COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Modern computers are electronic and process digital information. The physical machine consists of
transistors, digital circuits implemented with transistors, wires, and mechanical components in
peripheral devices used for data storage. These physical entities are collectively called hardware.
System and application programs are called software. A general purpose computer system is a
programmable machine that can solve problems by accepting inputs and instructions on how to use
these inputs. The instructions are included in computer programs that normally contain sequences of
instruction. Graphical languages are rarely used to represent computer programs as collections of
instructions with relationships between arbitrary pairs of them.
There exist several types of general purpose computer systems. These types are grouped together
into two major computer classes. The class of sequential or conventional computer systems comprises:
Laptops and palmtops.
These are small, portable computer systems. Laptops often contain very powerful processors and
have capabilities very close to those of PCs ; their major drawbacks are smaller screens, smaller
memory, and fewer peripheral (Input/Output) devices which are, however, portable. These single-user
computers are implemented in the form of microcomputers. The prefix micro denotes the inclusion of
a microprocessor that resides on a single chip and serves as the CPU. Other component which the
critical ones are a keyboard for data input, a screen (monitor) for information display, memory chips
for temporary storage, and a hard disk for data storage.
PCs (personal computers) or desktops. These computers also are of the microcomputer type. It
an electronic device with a microprocessor as its central processing unit (CPU). It has small digital
computers whose CPU is contained on a single integrated semiconductor chip. Thus, a microcomputer
uses a single microprocessor for its CPU, which performs all logic and arithmetic operations. The
system also contains a number of associated semiconductor chips that serve as the main memory for
storing program instructions and data and as interfaces for exchanging data of this sort with peripheral
equipment—namely, input/output devices (e.g., keyboard, video display, and printer) and auxiliary
storage units. Smaller microcomputers first marketed in the 1970s contain a single chip on which all
CPU, memory, and interface circuits are integrated.
Workstations. They appeared in the 1980s as single-user computers with much better
performance than PCs, primarily because they contain very advanced microprocessors. They often
include proprietary co-processors to facilitate graphics functions because they basically target the
scientific and engineering communities. They were uniprocessor computers in the early days, but

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multiprocessor workstations appeared for the first time in the market a few years ago. They are now
often used as multi-user platforms.
Minicomputers: are more powerful than the microcomputers. They have higher memory
capacity and more storage capacity with higher speeds. These computers are mainly used in process
control systems. They are mainly used in applications like payrolls, financial accounting, Computer
aided design etc. ex. VAX, PDP-11. They have been replaced recently by advanced workstations and
networks of workstations.
Mainframes. Very powerful computers that can serve many dozens or hundreds of users
simultaneously. IBM has produced numerous computers of this type. They have been replaced
recently in many occasions by networks of workstations.
Contrary to sequential computers that use a single CPU to solve a problem, parallel computer systems
employ many CPUs in appropriately connected structures. This new class of computers comprises
multiprocessors, multicomputers, and vector supercomputers.
Also, distributed computer systems can be developed, where several complete computer systems are
connected together in a networked fashion to solve a problem in parallel.
Super Computers: A super computer is the fastest, most powerful and most expensive computer
which is used for complex tasks that require a lot of computational power. Super computers have
multiple processors which process multiple instructions at the same time. This is known as parallel
processing. These computers are widely used in very advanced applications like weather forecasting,
processing geological data etc.
2. Main compounds of computers
Let us present briefly the basic components of a sequential computer and discuss their interoperability.
The basic resources of complete computer systems are the CPU, instruction and data caches, main
memory, peripheral devices, busses for the interconnection of this component s, and some interfaces
that implement the data exchange protocols. They are studied in the following:
2.1. Central Processing Unit
The CPU is the heart of any computer system, which is the most important part in PC. It performs all
calculations and determines how fast your computer will run. The CPU speed is measured by MHZ or
Gigahertz (GHZ) the CPU content the following :
1. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): The former unit performs arithmetic and logic operations and
controls the speed of this operation.

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2. Control unit: which represent control, organize and coordinate all other units as well as understand
the successive processes seemed to transfer the necessary data to ALU, and after the completion
of the process to transfer the results to store unit.
3, Registers: are temporary storage units within the CPU. Some registers, such as the program counter
and instruction register, have dedicated uses. Other registers, such as the accumulator, are for more
general purpose use.

3. Buses: Buses are the information highway of the CPU. Buses are bundles of tiny wires that carry
electronic signals between all parts of computer.
2.2. Main Memory
The main memory of a general-purpose computer contains sections of programs and relevant data,
and is composed of RAM and ROM chips .It measured by bit and byte.
- Read only memory (ROM): is very small capacity and hold software that can be read but not
write. It component of the memory contains programs and data that do not change at run time.
The operating system code that initializes the computer on boot-up is normally stored here. The
content of ROM are not lost when the power is turned off
- Random Access Memory (RAM): it holds data and program instruction temporarily for
processing the data. The content of RAM are lost when the power is turn off. It is called "random
access" because the CPU can go directly to any section of main memory, and does not have go
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 about the process in a sequential order. Remaining activities depend on the type of the memory
operation. For a memory WRITE operation, the processor then sends out on the data bus the data
that must be transferred to the memory. , it now activates the READ signal. An entire memory
read or write operation is called a memory bus cycle.
- BIOS -ROM: (basic input /output system ROM) is a set of built-in software routines that give
computer work with operating system. the BIOS controls many of the most important functions of
the PC:
1. How it interprets keystrokes such as (Ctrl + Alt + Delete)
2. How it puts characters on the screen.
3. How and at what speed it communicates through its ports.
4. Determines the compatibility of the computer and its flexibility in use.
- Storage unit: is used in the computers to store the data .Magnetic disks used in computer are made on
the same principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive. Data is stored on both the
surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage device. Each disk
consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on tracks of a
disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot represents one bit and
its absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a disk can be read many times without
affecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non-destructive. But if you want to write a new
data, then the existing data is erased from the disk and new data is recorded. The capacity of a hard
disk is possibly 20 GB, 30 GB, 40 GB, 60 GB or more.
2.3. Input Devices
Input devices are the devices which are used to feed programs and data to the computer. The input
system connects the external environment with the computer system. The input devices are the means
of communication between the user and the computer system. Typical input devices include the
keyboard, floppy disks, mouse, microphone, light pen, joy stick, magnetic tapes etc. The way in which
the data is fed into the computer through each of these devices is different. However, a computer can
accept data only in a specific form. Therefore these input devices transform the data fed to them, into a
form which can be accepted by the computer. These devices are a means of communication and inter1
station between the user and the computer systems.
Thus the functions of the input unit are:
- Accept information (data) and programs.
- Convert the data in a form which the computer can accept.
- Provide this converted data to the computer for further processing.
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Keyboards
Keyboards are the most common input device and are part of virtually all computer systems. Keyboards
can be stand-alone and connected to the computer with a cable or through a wireless connection, or they
might be integrated into the computer itself, such as with a laptop or notebook. . It contains a total of 101
to 104 keys. The basic layout of a keyboard is consistent within a based on the local language character
set). Variations commonly exist to reflect things like space saving, video-game enhancements or
ergonomic designs.

Touch-sensitive screens and touch pads

A recent trend has been towards integrating the keyboard into touch-sensitive screens and touch pads.
Both these devices involve the user touching an area of a screen, for example a picture of a keyboard, to
simulate the pressing of a physical key such as on a regular keyboard.
Touch pads are connected to the computer via a cable or wireless connection whereas a touch screen
would be built-in to the display unit. Examples of touch-sensitive screens include automated payment
booths used to buy train or bus tickets and bank ATM machines.
Mouse: - Mouse is an input device that is used with your personal computer. It rolls on a small ball and
has two or three buttons on the top. When you roll the mouse across a flat surface the screen censors the
mouse in the direction of mouse movement. The cursor moves very fast with mouse giving you more

freedom to work in any direction. It is easier and faster to move through a mouse.

Scanners and optical character recognition (OCR)

Scanners read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate the information into a format the
computer can use. The resolution (number of pixels recorded for each image – pixels are minute areas
of illumination on a display screen which taken together form the image) can normally be adjusted to
reflect how sharp the users need their image on the computer.
Some scanners incorporate optical character recognition (OCR) software which translates the image
into text. For this to work accurately the input document must be high quality print.
Voice date entry (VTE)
Many computers can now accept voice input via a microphone and voice data entry (VTE)
software. One particularly useful application is found in language translation programs that support
simultaneous translation. Another example might be in a smartphone where you can enter commands
aurally rather than by typing, for example with an instruction such as ―Call Office‖.
Digital cameras
Digital cameras can be found in the form of stand-alone units or they may be integrated into other
technology such as smartphones and tablet computers. Digital cameras capture images and videos in

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digital form and allow easy transfer to a computer where they can be manipulated by software. Digital
cameras are used in many situations whether it is for the development of marketing material, recording of
crime scenes by the police, or by an auditor on a year-end inventory count.

2.4 Output device

The output device allows the compute to communicate with the outside world by accepting data from
the computer and transforming it into user readable form. The various types of output devices are:
- Monitor: The device which displays computer output. The monitor displays the video and
graphics information generated by the computer through the video card. Monitors are very similar to
televisions but usually display information at a much higher resolution. There are three types of
monitor
•Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

•Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

•Light-emitting Diode (LED)

Speakers
A hardware device connected to a computer's sound card that outputs sounds generated by the
computer. Speakers can be used for various sounds meant to alert the user, as well as music and
spoken text

Printers: printer produces the output from the computer on the paper. It is the most commonly used
output device. The printers produce a hard copy i.e. a permanent copy of the results which can be
stored and read later. Printers are classified as:

a) Impact Printer
b) Non-Impact Printer
3. Computer Performance factors
It means the factors that affect the speed of CPU processing. There are many factors which affect
from performance computer:
1. Clock Speed: the speed of processor is represent by its clock speed which is related to number of
time that CPU can process data of instruction in second
2. Random Access memory: the more of memory you have faster the computer will appear to operate.
3. The hard disk: speed of hard drive is determined by the latency of data measured in milliseconds.
The lower the access time, the faster the data is stored on the hard drive or retrieved from it.
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 4. Free hard disk space: if there are no enough space on the hard, the computer will be slow windows
need to create temporary file to move data between RAM and hard.
5. CPU speed: determines how fast computer will run .the higher the value of the CPU speed the faster
CPU operates. The CPU speed measured by MHZ or GHZ.
6. Number of running application: the performance of computer is decrease if you run much
application at same time.
4. Parallel Computers
Parallelism in the computing field has been around since the early days. It has assumed several forms,
such as instruction look ahead, pipelining, data parallel operations (such as, vector operations),
multiskilling, multithreading, etc. However, the term parallel computer is distinctly used for computers that
contain more than one processor. There exist three classes of parallel computers, namely multiprocessors
or shared-memory computers, multicomputer or message-passing computers, and vector supercomputers.
Hybrid versions also of these classes exist, but only the pure classes are discussed in the following
subsections. The main idea behind the design of these computers is to connect many processors (and their
memories) together to derive very high aggregate performance. The term supercomputer is assigned
indiscriminately nowadays to any type of parallel computer that contains dozens, hundreds, or thousands of
processors.
Michael Flynn has classified computer architectures based on the numbers of instruction and data
streams that can be active simultaneously. He introduced four models.
-SISD (single- instruction stream, single-data stream) model comprises all sequential computers,
- SIMD computers contain a single control unit that fetches one instruction at a time, decodes it, and then
sends the same control signals to all processing elements (i.e., processors) in the machine; these
processors do not comprise a control unit.
- MISD (multiple-instruction streams, single-data stream) model for systolic-array computers that apply
different operations on the same data.
- MIMD (multiple-instruction streams, multiple-data streams) model which is the most powerful general-
purpose model for parallel computers.
4.1. Multiprocessors
Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units within a single computer system.
The term also refers to the ability of a system to support more than one processor or the ability to allocate
tasks between them. Multiprocessors or shared-memory parallel computers contain main memory which
is shared by all processors

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4.2. Multicomputer
In the case of multicomputer, a static point-to-point processor interconnection network is used to
connect processors together. Processors exchange information by sending messages to each other.
These messages may have to go through other processors before they reach their destination. There
exist numerous processor interconnection networks for multicomputer. However, the two- or three-
dimensional torus is the most commonly used network nowadays. The torus is a grid with wraparound
connections at all its ends.
4.3. Vector Supercomputers
Vector supercomputers apply the same operation simultaneously to many or all elements of vector
data (i.e., arrays of elements). A vector instruction is implemented with a software loop on a
conventional machine, while specialized primitive processors are used to implement in one step the
corresponding vector operation on a vector supercomputer. Examples are the Cray Research
supercomputers Cray-1, Cray-2, X-MP, and Y-MP, the Japanese supercomputers NEC SX/2, Fujitsu
VP200, and Hitachi S820, and the mini supercomputers Convex C-1 and C-2. Specialized vector
hardware can also be found on some mainframes, minicomputers, multicomputer, advanced
workstations, and multimedia processors.