BESE-132B3E

BESE-132
Guidance and
Indira Gandhi
Counselling
National Open University
School of Education
Block
3
CAREER DEVELOPMENT
UNIT 9
Nature of Work and Career Development 5
UNIT 10
Occupational Information 29
UNIT 11
Career Patterns 52
UNIT 12
Career Development of Girls in India 66
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Neerja Shukla (retd.) Dr. Swati Patra
NCERT, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU
Prof. Jessy Abraham Dr. Eisha Kannadi
JMI, New Delhi SOE, IGNOU
Prof. M.C. Sharma (retd.) Dr. Gaurav Singh
SOE, IGNOU SOE, IGNOU
Prof. N.K. Dash Dr. Elizabeth Kuruvilla
PROGRAMME COORDINATION
Prof. Saroj Pandey Dr. Gaurav Singh
COURSE TEAM (PRE-REVISED)

Course Contribution
Mrs. Roop Brar
Prof. Daya Pant (Retd.) Practising Counellor
NCERT, Delhi Delhi
Prof. S. Nagpal (Retd.) Prof. Vibha Joshi
NCERT SOE, IGNOU
Prof. G.K. Joneja (Retd.)
NCERT, Delhi
COURSE TEAM (REVISED)

Course Contribution Content Editing
Prof. Daya Pant (Retd.) Prof. Jessy Abraham
NCERT, Delhi JMI, New Delhi
Prof. S. Nagpal (Retd.) Dr. Eisha Kannadi
NCERT, Delhi SOE, IGNOU
Dr. G.K. Joneja (Retd.) Language & Format Editing
NCERT, Delhi Dr. Eisha Kannadi
Mrs. Roop Brar SOE, IGNOU
Practising Counsellor, Delhi
Course Coordination
Dr. Eisha Kannadi Dr. Eisha Kannadi
Material Production
Prof. Saroj Pandey Mr. S.S. Venkatachalam
Director A.R. (Publication)
School of Education School of Education
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
October, 2017
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2017
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BESE-132: Guidance and Counselling
BLOCK 1 Introduction to Guidance and Counselling

Unit 1 Understanding Guidance and Counselling
Unit 2 Guidance in the School
Unit 3 Personnel in the Guidance Programme
Unit 4 Counselling in Schools
Block 2 Techniques and Procedures

Unit 5 Techniques of Guidance
Unit 6 Guidance Programme
Unit 7 Group Guidance
Unit 8 Techniques of Counselling
Block 3 Career Development
Unit 9 Nature of Work and Career Development
Unit 10 Occupational Information
Unit 11 Career Patterns
Unit 12 Career Development of Girls in India
Block 4 Guiding Students with Special Needs
Unit 13 Guiding Students with Disabilities
Unit 14 Socio-Emotional Problems of Students with Disability
Unit 15 Behavioural Problems of Students
Unit 16 Mental Health and Stress Management
Career Development
BLOCK 3 CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Block Introduction
Career development is an important and life long process in an individual’s life.
It is influenced by a number of factors like family, personal values, interests,
aptitudes and society. There are four Units in this Block titled, Career
Development.
In Unit 9: Nature of Work and Career development, we explore our need for
work and then describe in detail the various aspects related to work. We focus on
the motivation to work and the way work affects our way of life. We have then
discussed the concept of career development. This is followed by discussion of
different theories of career development and their implications for career
counselling and the process of career development of students.
Unit 10 is titled, Occupational Information. This Unit focuses on the importance

of occupational information in career counselling and career development. We
have discussed the methods of collecting occupational information and their
classification and filing. The detailed description of ISCO-08, NCO-2015 and
industrial classification provides you with international as well as national
perspectives in occupational information and its classification. This would help
you in career counselling of your students. Tools, methods and activities for
updating and disseminating occupational information have been discussed.
Career patterns refer to the sequence of occupations in the life of an individual

or a group of individuals. Unit 11: Career Patterns introduces you to this concept.
The relationship of career patterns with life stages is discussed in detail. The
other points for discussion are different types of career patterns, factors that
determine the career patterns of individuals, career maturity and vocational
success. Lastly, we have discussed he role of teachers and parents in the career
planning of children.
Traditionally career development has been referred with respect to men. Most of
the earlier theories on career development were based on studies conducted on
men. Career counselling in schools is mostly geared to meet the needs of boys.
Unit 12: Career Development of Girls in India brings to focus the significance
of career development of girls. The different roles played by women in society,
their work participation, their educational pursuit, and socio-cultural factors
affecting their academic achievement and occupational aspirations are some of
the points for discussion. Studies on career development of women have started
emerging in the 1980s. We have included discussion on career development of
women in this Unit. We have further discussed the role of teachers and parents
in promoting the career development of girls.
4
Nature of Work and Career
UNIT 9 NATURE OF WORK AND CAREER Development
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Motivation to Work
9.3.1 Psychological Needs
9.3.2 Social Needs
9.3.3 Economic Needs
9.4 Work Affects Way of Life
9.5 Concept of Career Development
9.6 Super’s Theory of Career Development
9.7 Roe’s Theory of Personality Development and Career Choice
9.7.1 Description of the Occupational Groups
9.7.2 Levels of Each Group
9.7.3 Roe’s Proposition on the Origin of Needs and Interests
9.7.4 Modes of Child Rearing
9.8 Holland’s Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environment
9.8.1 Six Model Environment
9.8.2 Vocational Choice as an Integration between Major and Secondary Assumptions
9.9 Ginzberg’s Theory
9.9.1 The Major Periods of the Vocational Development Process
9.9.2 General Concept of the Theory
9.10 Social Learning Theory of Career Development
9.11 Social Cognitive Theory of Career Development
9.12 Let Us Sum Up
9.13 Unit-end Exercises
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to understand the nature of work we should not only look at the economic
returns it brings, but also the totality of the work situation. Nature of work also
needs to be understood in terms of its surroundings, both physical and social,
and the activity to be performed. These characteristics of the work affect different
individuals differently. People actually differ in terms of their needs which make
them see the work in different ways. The needs of the individuals are satisfied by
work which makes him/her happy and motivated. If these needs are not satisfied,
the persons are unhappy.
Career development is a lifelong process of getting ready to choose, and generally

continuing to make choices from among the many occupations available. Each
person going through this process is influenced by a large number of factors
including family, personal values, interests, aptitudes and societal context.
Considering the significance of work for both society and individual, and more
5
Career Development so recognizing the importance of the benefit of making a right career choice, it is
essential that we should understand the career development process.
9.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• describe the different motives for which people work;
• indicate the ways in which attitudes and values of the people are influenced
by the job they take up;
• indicate the way in which work affects the life-style of the individuals;
• explain the term career development;
• discuss the significance of career development in the present day context;
• explain the career development process;
• describe and compare the different approaches to career development as
explained by different theorists;
• apply the understanding of career development to practical situations of
career counseling;
• appreciate the relationship that exists between one’s present status of career
development vis-à-vis different theories of career development; and
• critically examine the different career development theories.
9.3 MOTIVATION TO WORK

The needs of the people which could be satisfied by work are economic, social
and psychological. The psychological and social needs, although not so apparent,
could be very strong motives.
9.3.1 Psychological Needs

Self-esteem: Individuals take up work for the sense of self-esteem they derive
from it. To be able to do something and to be a productive member of society
could be highly satisfying to the individual.
However, different individuals are differentially affected by the work they are
doing. It depends on their own self-concept which will influence his/her
expectations from self, and others’ expectation from him/her.
Identity: Work gives an identity to the individual, especially in the present day
society, where people are known more in terms of work. The existence of the
individual, his/her life style, his/her environment, all are influenced by the work
he/she engages in.
Self-expression of Skills and Competence: Work offers opportunities to express

various abilities, interests, skills and even the values and attitudes they have
acquired. The work becomes satisfying if the individuals are able to exercise the
competence and the skills they possess. If the work provides opportunities to use
the special training or the skills or knowledge that a person has acquired over the
years, the person feels good about it.
6
Commitment and Self-worth: Another dimension of work, which motivates a Nature of Work and Career
Development
person, is his/her own commitment to the work. The feeling of having a personal
mission to be completed, or a goal to be achieved, could be highly energizing
and motivating. The self-worth of the person also depends on this feeling of
fulfillment of his/her commitment, values and preferences.
9.3.2 Social Needs

Independence: Whenever a person gets into a group, rarely the relationship is
that of an equal. Mostly, the person assumes either a position of a subordinate or
that of a superior. Thus, within the limits of their own preferences, the workers
tend to enjoy a certain degree of independence. If the job does not allow them
the freedom they would like to have in execution of their duties, they feel
uncomfortable.
Provision for emergencies/welfare activities: Workers expect to be treated fairly

in exchange for their service time, abilities and merit. The fair treatment involves
fair pay for their expertise, level of experience and fulfillment of security needs.
When an employee falls sick or is incapacitated s/he expects the organization to
compensate so that s/he can survive. If the individual’s assessment of the treatment
s/he receives on the job is not satisfactory s/he is not happy with the job.
Status of the individual: The work gives social status to the worker. The status
which a job offers varies from one occupation to another occupation. It may be
high in case of professions, managerial and such occupations. Semi-skilled and
unskilled jobs confer a lower social status on the worker. However, the satisfaction
of the individual from his/her job and the status depends on his/her own pattern
of needs acquired in his/her typical environment.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
1) Answer the following questions in brief.
i) Why meaning of work varies from person to person?
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ii) What are the psychological needs satisfied by work?
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iii) What happens if independence on the job is denied?
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Career Development 9.3.3 Economic Needs
Present income: The satisfaction with the present income level is affected by
the level of the aspiration of the person and the parity between his/her income,
and that of others who are similar to him/her in education, income and experience.
Workers feel satisfied when they get income similar to that of fellow colleagues.
But if s/he feels that s/he is not being treated fairly and is given lesser income
than others similar to him/her in experience and competence s/he feels dissatisfied.
Job security: Workers are not simply satisfied with a job that provides satisfactory
income and helps them to maintain a social status at par with people similar to
them in education, age and experience. They would like to be ensured of a future
income too.
The jobs involving high accident rates or those offering seasonal employment
leave the employee insecure about future income. The jobs which offer pension
or other post-retirement benefits will be preferred by those whose financial
resources are limited to salaries. The retired persons may also likely to take up a
job which requires less physical effort and responsibility to earn income and be
able to retain the job.
9.4 WORK AFFECTS WAY OF LIFE

Work determines the style of living of a person. Different jobs make different
demands on the time of the individual. High level jobs do not end within the
office hours. Business keeps a person on the work for longer hours than the
office work. It is not only the time but social status of the person is also influenced
by the occupation. Although social status is complex and is influenced by many
factors, occupation is one strong influence which determines the status in present
societies.
Occupation and the Status

The jobs could be classified in a hierarchical manner according to prestige, the
income, skill or training requirement, educational level, interests and the ability.
One such classification divides occupations into following categories:
professional, proprietary and managerial, clerical and sales, skilled and
supervisory, semi-skilled and unskilled.
The difference between the various levels is clear. The higher the person on
these occupational levels of hierarchy, higher will be the income, prestige and
the responsibility.
Work Routines and Occupation

The white collar workers normally finish work in regular office hours while the
professional people (like professors, advocates, tax consultants) work beyond
office hours also. Either they may have to spend time in improving their technical
skills or they are working for their professional development. Since, the time
spent on the job is different, the time a person will be able to devote for leisure,
family and other hobbies will be automatically structured according to the
occupational demands.
8
Check Your Progress Development
2) Answer the following questions in brief.
i) Why are some people not satisfied by their income?
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ii) How does the status of different occupations vary?
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iii) What is the difference between the time structuring of professional
and other workers?
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Work Influences Attitudes and Values

Occupations differ in terms of the work activity, status, income, time routine,
leisure and even the persons one meets. Different persons have preference for
different activities, work routines and leisure. The status or the income may also
be differently valued. Therefore, people generally tend to choose occupation
according to their values and attitudes. But all of them do not succeed in entering
an occupation of their choice. Therefore, there are people with different
preferences, likes and dislikes in an occupation.
Social Climate
The social situation determines the people with whom one may come in contact
with. The limited number of people available from same type of occupation,
interest and hobbies tend to change the person in ways similar to that of the job.
Dress and Language

It is not only the interest and hobbies but also the dress, language and conduct
that are influenced by the occupation. The persons inadvertently, subconsciously
and incidentally learn to express himself/herself in language which is typical of
that used by people in that occupation. The language associated with the white
collar jobs is very different from that used in manual jobs. The professional
people employed in outdoor jobs dress up differently than those in indoor
occupations. The choice of formal and informal dress is also different to a great
extent.
9
Career Development
9.5 CONCEPT OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Planning for the career involves becoming aware of one’s own abilities, habits,
interests and values. The increasing complexities of the world of work demand
newer skills and competencies as well as preparation for them. These skills and
competencies could be acquired by pursuing appropriate educational courses or
by taking specialized training through various institutions. In order to get such
professional training and opt for appropriate courses at school level one needs to
possess accurate information about them. Thus, the process of planning for a
career involves a wide spectrum of experiences across the life-span.
Even after entering a career, it is not that a person does not change jobs or remain
in the same position. Within his/her area of specialization, they may keep acquiring
more education, or training even after entering a job.
Importance of career development lies in the fact that the process is somewhat
irreversible. Once a child has grown into adolescence his/her interests, abilities,
values, etc. have already been influenced in certain directions. Choices have
already been made which will direct the future career. Therefore these early or
timely decisions have to be made consciously and objectively. In order to help
children plan consciously and base their educational and vocational choices on
factual information, it is important that they have access to career related
information which will help them plan judiciously. It is not only career information
they need but also information related to the educational and personal
development, so that they get opportunity to develop and be able to choose from
a repertoire of choices.
9.6 SUPER’S THEORYOF CAREER

DEVELOPMENT
Career development has been conceived to be parallel to the psychological life
stages. This process is continuous, however, for the sake of convenience the
paradigm shifts taking place have been used to divide it into stages. The names
of these stages are growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance and decline.
Vocational development is the most important and central theme of each stage.
Super had elaborated this process of career development and defined the process
further right up to decline stage. The stages of development defined by Super
(1953) are as follows:
– Growth stage (up to 14 years)
– Exploration (15-25 years)
• Tentative
• Transition
• Trial
– Establishment (25-45 years)
• Trial
• Advancement
– Maintenance (45-65 years)
– Decline (66 onwards)
10
Growth Stage Nature of Work and Career
Development
In Super’s theory of career development, the growth stage corresponds to
psychological life stage of childhood and pre-adolescence. The development of
abilities, interests and attitudes takes place at this time.
The exposure to different types of people, occupations and activities helps them
to acquire experiences and information which influence differentiation of his/
her abilities, interests etc. However his/her choices are fantasy based.
Exploration stage
This stage begins with the tentative stage of choices. Here the boys and girls
consider the feedback they receive from environment i.e., school, parents, teachers
and peers, etc. This feedback helps them to translate their own self-conception
into a choice later on. Super’s contribution to career development theory is
particularly related to the conception of career development process as
development and implementation of the self-concept. As the individual comes
in contact with the information about occupations; his/her own capacities, interests
and values come in sharper focus. His/her self-concept becomes more realistic
in terms of his/her own characteristics and resources available. In the transition
stage they try and test their general preference in a career and finalize it into a
specific choice. Having decided on a specific career in their trial stage, one takes
appropriate training and finds a position in the chosen field of work.
Establishment Stage
Depending on the reality of their self-concept – those with unrealistic self-concept
may flounder for long time before establishing in a career and advancing in it.
Thus the trial stage continues into the establishment period. The trial leads to
finally settling down in a career with commitment to stay and advance in it.
Maintenance Stage
This stage begins around the age of 45 years. By this time most of the individuals
have got a status and position as a worker. If the person’s self-concept is in line
with the job he/she holds, the person feels satisfied and happy, otherwise there is
frustration and dissatisfaction with one’s career. Next stage is the decline stage,
characterized by the deterioration in the energies of the individual. Here main
task is to adjust to this new situation of reduced work activities but work continues.
You will read about the stages of career development in detail in the next Unit.
9.7 ROE’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY

DEVELOPMENT AND CAREER CHOICE
The focus of Anne Roe’s theory is on possible relationships between career
development and personality. The theory views the whole range of occupations
in terms of their relationship to individual, differences in backgrounds, physical
and psychological variable and experiences. From her findings Roe concluded
that major personality differences exist between people who join diverse
occupations. These differences are centred around the type of interactions they
have with people and things. Another conclusion she arrived at was that the
personality differences that exist are partly the result of influences of child rearing
practices. 11
Career Development 9.7.1 Description of the Occupational Groups
Roe first divided the occupations into eight occupational groups based on the
interests of people, indicating the primary focus of activity in the particular
occupational group.
1) Service: These occupations are primarily concerned with serving and

attending to the needs and welfare of other persons. This group includes
occupation such as social work, guidance, domestic and protective services.
The important element is a situation in which one person is doing something
for the other (examples, Counsellor, Social Workers, Police Personnel).
2) Business Contact: These occupations are primarily concerned with the

face-to-face sale of commodities, investments, real estate and services. The
person to person relation is important, but it is focused on persuasion to a
course of action, rather than on helping. The persuader will profit if his or
her advice is followed (Salesman, Public Relations Officers, Brokers,
Insurance Agents).
3) Organization: These are the managerial and white collar jobs in business,
industry and government. The occupation is concerned primarily with the
organization and efficient functioning of commercial enterprises and of Govt.
activities. The quality of person to person interaction is very formal
(Industrialists, Bankers, Financial Executives, Cashiers).
4) Technology: This group includes occupations concerned with the

production, maintenance and transportation of commodities and utilities.
Hence there are occupations in engineering, crafts, and the machine trades,
as well as in transportation and communication. Interpersonal relations are
of relatively little importance and the focus is on dealing with things (Ship
Captains, Chief Engineers, Applied Scientists, etc.)
5) Outdoor: This group includes the occupations primarily concerned with

the cultivation, preservation and gathering of crops, marine or inland water
resources, mineral resources, forest products and other natural resources
and with animal husbandry. Interpersonal relations are largely irrelevant.
Because of the increasing mechanization of some of these occupations a
number of jobs previously classified in this group have moved to group-4.
For example, Consulting Specialists, Architects, Scientists, Forest Rangers.
6) Science: These are the occupations primarily concerned with scientific

theory and its application under specified circumstances other than
technology (Research Scientists, Medical Specialists, Medical Technicians).
7) General Culture: These occupations are primarily concerned with the

preservation and transmission of the general cultural heritage. Here interest
is in human activities rather than in individual persons. This group includes
occupations in education, journalism, linguistics and the subjects usually
called the humanities. Most elementary and high school teachers are placed
in this group. At higher levels, teachers are placed in groups by subject
matter – e.g. teachers of science or of art or of humanities (Justice of Supreme
and High court, Lawyers, Teachers, Scholars).
12
8) Arts and Entertainment: These occupations include those concerned with Nature of Work and Career
Development
the use of special skills in the creative arts and in entertainment. The focus
in them is on a relationship between one person (or an organized group)
and a more general public. The interpersonal relation is important but neither
so direct nor of the same nature as that in group 1&2 (Adapted from Roe
and Klos 1972). Creative artists, performers of skill, athletes, designers,
conductor of music, interior decorators etc., are placed in this group.
Roe further divided each group into six levels. The levels are based on degree of
responsibility, capacity and skill. Though these criteria are not exactly correlated
but whenever there are marked differences, level of responsibility is decisive.
Responsibility includes not only the number and difficulty of the decisions to be
made but also how many different kinds of problems must be coped with. So the
dimension is essentially continuous with a variety of responsibilities.
9.7.2 Levels of Each Group

Each group has six levels which are described below:
1) Professional and Managerial (Independent responsibility): This level
includes the innovators and creators and top managerial and administrative
people, as well as professionals who have independent responsibility in
important respects. For occupations at this level, there is generally no higher
authority than the social group. The criteria suggested for this level are:
i) Important, independent and varied responsibilities
ii) Policy-making
iii) Education (High level of education)
2) Professional and Managerial: The distinction between this level and the
previous one is primarily one of degree. Genuine autonomy may be present
but with less significant responsibilities than in the previous level. Some
criteria suggested for this level are:
i) Medium level responsibilities for self and others, with regard to both
importance and variety.
ii) Policy interpretation.
iii) Education at or above the bachelor’s degree level but below the
doctoral level.
3) Semi-professional and Small Business: The criteria suggested for this
level are:
i) Low level of responsibility for others.
ii) Application of policy or determination for self only (as managing in a
small business).
iii) Education at the level of high school or technical school or the
equivalent.
4) Skilled: This level and the following levels are classic sub-divisions of
skilled occupations which require apprenticeships or other special training
or experience.
13
Career Development 5) Semi-skilled: These occupations require some training and experience, but
markedly less than the occupations in level-4. Moreover, much less
autonomy and initiative are permitted in these occupations.
6) Unskilled: These occupations require no special training or education and

not more ability than is needed to follow simple directions and to engage in
simple repetitive actions. At this level, group differentiation depends
primarily on the occupational setting. (Adapted from Roe and Klos, 1972).
9.7.3 Roe’s Proposition on the Origin of Needs and Interests

1) Genetic inheritance sets limits on the potential development of all
characteristics.
2) Whether these inherited characteristics will achieve, surpass or under achieve

their potential is determined not only by the experiences unique to the
individual, but also such factor as race, sex, social and economic position
of the family and general cultural background.
3) The direction of development of interests, attitudes and other personality

variables which have relatively little genetic control is determined entirely
by individual experiences.
The following are possible variations:

• Needs that are satisfied routinely as they appear do not become unconscious
motivators.
• Needs for which even minimum satisfaction is rarely achieved will, if of a

higher order, become eliminated, if of a lower order, prevent the appearance
of higher order needs and will become dominating and restricting motivators.
• Need for which satisfaction is delayed, but eventually accomplished, will

become unconscious motivators, according to the degree of satisfaction
felt.
• The eventual pattern of psychic energies, in terms of attention directedness,

is the major determinant of interests.
• The intensity of these needs and of their satisfaction, and their organization,
are the major determinants of the degree of expressed motivation.
• Ann Roe then suggested that individual’s genetic background underlines

abilities and interests, which in turn are related to vocational choice. A
combination of genetic factors and need hierarchies exerts influence on the
selection of a vocation later in life. The intensity of desire to achieve
vocational success is dependent upon the strength of the individual’s need
structure. In others words, given equal genetic endowments the differences
in occupational achievements between two individuals may be a result of
the discrepancies in their motivation levels. And these difference in the
strength of the need structure and motivation, Roe suggested, was due to
differences in need satisfaction during childhood. Consequently, Roe
proposed that child rearing practices related directly to the motivational
behavior expressed by adults later in life.
14
9.7.4 Modes of Child Rearing Nature of Work and Career
Development
Roe proposed that the manner in which parents interact with the child is one of
the major influences on the motivational intensity of the child. Different parenting
styles will produce distinctive behavior patterns in children. She conceptualized
them as follows:
a) Emotional concentration on the child: This could take the form of being
either over-protective or over-demanding. The over-protective parent will
fully and quickly satisfy the child’s lower needs but may hesitate in gratifying
the higher order needs of love and esteem, at the same time will reward
behavior that is socially desirable. This type of interaction will make the
child to over emphasize the immediate or quick gratification of physiological
demands. For the satisfaction of higher order needs he/she exhibits a
dependency on others and a willingness to conform to socially desirable
behavior. These higher order needs could be a need to be loved, esteem, or
a sense of belongingness. The over demanding parents have many similarities
to over-protective parents. The over-protective parents will gratify the
physical needs promptly and adequately. The over-demanding parents lay
down conditions of conformity to their values, and social achievement in
return for the love offered to the child. The child’s needs of self-actualization
are indulged in if they are in accordance with parental aspirations for the
child.
b) Avoidance of the child expressed either as emotional deprivation or

neglect. Roe put forward that parents who neglect merely the physical well-
being of the child were not causing as harmful an effect as those parents
who neglected the emotional needs of the child. This emotional rejection of
the child leads to slower emotional development, though it may not cause
miss-proportioned development.
c) Acceptance of the child, either casually or lovingly. The accepting type

of parents will satisfy their children’s needs at most levels in slightly different
ways and in varying degrees. The personality that develops in children of
accepting parents is capable of seeking gratification of needs at all levels.
Roe then hypothesized that people have two basic orientations either toward
or not toward persons. These orientations were dependent upon childhood
experiences, and they in turn affected the vocational choice.
Check Your Progress
3) Mention the various stages of career development given by Super.
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15
Career Development
4) Briefly describe Roe’s Classification of Occupational Groups.
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9.7 HOLLAND’S THEORY OF VOCATIONAL

PERSONALITIES AND WORK ENVIRONMENT
Holland was interested in finding explanations for the personal and environmental
characteristics related to stability and career change. The basic question here is a
strong commitment to finding effective methods for helping people with career
problems. His theory is based on simple, inexpensive, practical definitions and
measured dimensions. Therefore parallel sets of ideas applied both to people
and to environment have a place in it. The theory is tested not only on results of
empirical research but also to the extent of its acceptance by practitioners and
the public.
This theory is based on the assumption that, since vocational interest is one of
the aspects of personality, the description of an individual’s vocational interest
is also a description of an individual’s personality. Here personality traits are
identified by preferences for school subjects, co-curricular activities, hobbies
and work, and vocational interests can be viewed as an expression of personality.
Nature
This theory is structural – interactive in nature. It means that it provides explicit
links among various personality characteristics and corresponding job titles.
According to Holland, the description of different structural-interactive
approaches includes:
• The choice of an occupation is an expression of personality and not a random
event, although chance plays a role.
• The members of an occupational group have common personalities and
similar histories of personal development.
• Because people in an occupational group have similar personalities, they
respond to any situations and problems in similar ways.\
• Occupational achievement, stability and satisfaction depend on congruence
between one’s personality and job environment.
Its focal point is personality and its typology. He contends that each individual,
to some extent, resembles one of six basic personality types. Just as there are six
types of personalities, there are six types of environments, which, like
personalities, can be described according to certain characteristics. Environments
are characterized by the people who occupy them. For example, the personality
type of persons in a theatre differs from persons working with computers.
16
Similarly teachers working at primary level differ from their counterparts working Nature of Work and Career
Development
at colleges/universities.
Assumptions
This theory is based on four assumptions. They are:
• “In general, most persons can be categorized as one of six types: realistic,
investigative, artistic, social, enterprising or conventional.”
• “There are six kinds of environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social,
enterprising or conventional.” .
• “People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and
abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems
and roles.” This assumption is well expressed in the saying “Birds of a
feather flock together.”
• “Behavior is determined by an interaction between personality and
environment.”
9.7.1 Six Model Environment

Holland originally believed that the individual could be categorized as belonging
to a single one of the six types. He suggests that while one of the six types
usually predominates in people, there are also sub-types or personality patterns.
These provide more complete descriptions.
• Each environment is dominated by a given type of personality and each
environment is typified by physical settings posing special problems and
opportunities.
a) Realistic Environment - This environment is the one that encourages and
rewards success. It s a world of the concrete and predictable which rewards
with and values money, possessions and power.
b) Investigative Environment - This environment is the one that encourages
and rewards success in the use of the intellect and in the manipulation of
the abstract. It is a world of observing, investigating and theorizing, and it
values and rewards with status and recognition.
c) Artistic Environment - This environment is one that encourages and
rewards success in the artistic and creative values. It is a world of the abstract,
aesthetic and original. It rewards with recognition and increasing freedom
to create in one’s own way.
d) Social Environments - This environment is the one that encourages and
rewards success in sociability and helping values and tends to promote social
activities. It is a world of people and relationships that is often changing,
and it values social skills and the ability to promote change in others. It
tends to reward with recognition and approval from peers and those being
taught and helped.
e) Enterprising Environment - The environment is one that encourages and
rewards success in the risk taking, work intensive and innovative activities
and values. It is a world of continual new challenge to be overcome, valuing
and rewarding, power, status and money.
17
Career Development f) Conventional Environment - The environment is the one that encourages
and reward exacting management of data and details. It is a world of facts
that is practical and organized where dependability and attention to detail
are rewarded. Rewards tend to be in the area of economic success and status
involving material possessions and recognition of superiors and peers.
People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities,
express their attitudes and values and take on agreeable problems and roles.
Realistic types seek realistic environments. Social types seek social environments
and so on. To a lesser degree, environment also searches for people through
friendship and recruiting practices. The person’s search for environment is carried
on in many ways, at different levels of consciousness, and over a long period of
time.
The above key assumptions are supplemented by several secondary assumptions

that can be applied to both persons and environments. The purpose of the
secondary concepts is to retain or modify the predictions or explanations that are
derived from the main concepts.
a) Consistency - Consistency is the degree of relatedness or homogeneity

between personality types or between environmental models. Degrees of
consistency have a bearing upon vocational preference.
b) Differentiation - Some persons or environments are more clearly defined

than others. For instance, a person may markedly resemble a single type
showing negligible resemblance to other types, or an environment may be
dominated by the influence of a single type. Contrarily, a person who shows
some commonality to the six types is undifferentiated or poorly defined.
The degree to which a person or environment is well defined is its degree of
differentiation.
c) Identity - Personal identity is defined as the possession of a clear and stable

picture of one’s goals, interests and talents. Environmental identity is present
when an environment or organization has clear, integrated goals, tasks and
rewards that are stable over long time intervals.
d) Congruence - Different types require different environments. For example,

realistic type flourish in realistic environment because such an environment
provides the opportunities and rewards a realistic type needs. Incongruence
occurs when a type lives in an environment that provides opportunities and
rewards that are unrealistic to the person’s preferences and abilities.
9.7.2 Vocational Choice as an Integration between Major and

Secondary Assumptions
If one orientation is clearly dominant over others, the individual will seek an
occupational environment that corresponds to the orientation. But, in actual
implementation, a very low percentage of people would fall in this category.
Often, it is possible that two or more orientations are of nearly the same strength,
other being much weaker, or just on the periphery. In such a case an individual
will vacillate in the selection of an occupation. Here is where factors like
consistency, differentiations and identity come into play. A person, who is artistic
and social, will find it easier to select a vocation than a person who is artistic and
18
conventional. When a particular orientation is well differentiated than the others Nature of Work and Career
Development
in a person, vocation selection is quick, decisive and appropriate. On the other
hand, a person exhibiting all orientations in almost equal intensity would be
confused, indecisive and unsure about vocation selection. The smoothness of
decisions is affected by the clarity of the structure of developmental hierarchy.
Other environmental factors will also influence the ease with which an
occupational environment is selected. Some of these could be family factor, such
as aspirations and occupational history, financial resources, general economic
conditions in society, educational opportunities, which might result in pressures
towards a particular occupational environment. Not only does the particular
dominant personal orientation influence the career choice a person makes, but
the pattern of the orientations within the individual’s hierarchy exerts a significant
influence. That is, two students with the same major orientation will choose
similar fields, but the stability of their choice is a function of the order of the
other five orientations in their personal hierarchy. If the order is consistent, and
all other factors are constant, the choice is likely to be stable. If the pattern is
inconsistent for that occupational environment, then the choice is likely to be
unstable. For example, a dramatist with the hierarchical order Artistic,
Investigative, Social, Enterprising, Conventional and Realistic is likely to be
more stable in the pursuit of his dramatic creations than another dramatist whose
hierarchy is Artistic, Realistic, Investigative, Social Enterprising and
Conventional. The former would represent a more typical pattern for dramatists.
Implications for Counselling

In order to help students or adults know their personal orientations Holland has
given detailed descriptions of people with different orientations. To have a
concrete measure to learn about personal orientations Holland researched and
developed the Self-Directed Search Inventory, which gives scores on the six
parameters. At the end a code gives the dominant orientations of the person.
Using this information and the occupation finder (developed by Holland), which
classifies occupations according to various codes, the most suitable occupations
could be short listed. The classification of the various occupational environments
could be used by the counselor to orient a person to the world of work. It gives a
person better understanding of what to expect and what is expected of him if he
joins a particular occupation. By virtue of the extensive data that Holland has
given about the features of people possessing different personal orientations, a
counselor already has a considerable body of information about a client simply
by virtue of knowing his or her major personal orientation to life. This helps the
counselor in making some educated guesses about the client’s background,
parents, the client’s goals, values, social relations, motivators and distracters.
Check Your Progress
5) Describe the main focus of Holland’s theory in two to three lines.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
19
Career Development
6) Explain why the theory is called “Structural-interactive”
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
7) Give any two characteristics of each personality types of people.
i) Realistic
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
ii) Enterprising
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
iii) Conventional
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
9.8 GINZBERG’S THEORY

Ginzeberg and his associates found, on the basis of earlier research, that four
significant variables were involved in vocational choice.
The first was identified as a reality factor, which pressurizes the individual to
take into account various environmental factors while exercising one’s vocational
choice.
The second was the influence of the amount and quality of education which
would broaden or narrow the scope of a vocational decision.
The third was the personality and emotional make-up of the individual which
would have fallouts for vocational inclination.
Lastly, individual values were considered significant since different careers gave
opportunities to practice different values.
Ginzberg proposed vocational choice as a developmental process, occurring in
reasonably clearly marked periods and characterized by a series of compromises
the individual makes between wishes and possibilities.
9.8.1 The Major Periods of the Vocational Development Process

Fantasy Period: The chief feature of the fantasy period as suggested by the
name is the impulsive and arbitrary nature of the child’s choices reflecting the
lack of practicality in the occupational preferences expressed during the period.
The significant task that the child accomplishes during this period of early
20
vocational development is a change from a play orientation to a work Nature of Work and Career
Development
orientation. In the early stage of this period, children state vocational preferences
which are dominated primarily by the pleasure principle. This principle implies
that very young children show interest in activities for the sake of pleasure. For
example, a child wants to become a jockey because he enjoys the thrill that horse
riding provides. However, as the child grows and approaches the end of the
fantasy period, maturity occurs. This is reflected in vocational preferences, which
will lead to abstract satisfaction and pleasure, such as gaining parents approval.
For example, the child would express the desire to become a doctor, because he
is aware that this choice brings happiness to his parents. As the child learns
about the world of work, s/he expresses choices that have potential for extrinsic
rewards such as success and its money with which to buy material possessions
and so on. Coupled with the above developmental change is also the hypothesis
that a child experiences frustration due to their small size and ineffectiveness as
compared to adults. In order to overcome this sense of helplessness the child
finds relief in playing adult roles, which are clearly manifested in their work
roles. It also helps the child internalize the values of the adult world. During the
fantasy period children ignore reality, abilities and potential, and the time
perspective which are very important ingredients of the vocational choice process,
according to Ginzberg.
The Tentative Period: This occurs between the ages of approximately 11 to 18.
It is divided into various stages which differ in their vocational developmental
tasks:
– The Interest Stage: This stage comes around age 11-12, when the child is
beginning to recognize activities s/he likes or dislikes. Again the choices
are made primarily because of the intrinsic pleasure of engaging in them.
These choices may also reflect identification with the father or mother, though
still in an ambivalent stage. This facilitation in choice may be related to the
physical and emotional changes in adolescence
– The Capacity Stage: This stage occurs usually between the ages 12 to 14.
It follows the interest stage and the child exhibits more of reality orientation
by introducing the idea of ability into vocational consideration. For example,
if earlier the child expressed the desire to become an architect purely because
he enjoys being in well made buildings, now he would evaluate whether he
has the capacity to pass the entrance test for architectural course, can put in
the required effort etc. In other words, children begin to assess their ability
to perform well in the areas of interest rather than parent identification as an
influence on vocational choice, and a corresponding increase in the influence
of other, more distant models.
– The Value Stage: This stage occurs during the 15th and 16th years. It is
marked by a distinctive change in the children’s approach to vocational
choice. This is when a child realizes the potential of a vocation to satisfy
more than the need for status, earning money and owning material
possessions. It becomes evident to him/her that he/she would follow different
life styles if he/she becomes a pilot or a sales executive.
Finally, two significant developments concerning time awareness take place

during this stage. First, the students develop a larger time perspective. They
21
Career Development begin to think of a career as a lifelong activity which would become an important
part of their total life. Secondly, they exhibit a sense of urgency in realizing that
time is passing and soon they have to commit themselves to a vocation.
– The Transition Stage: This stage marks the end of the tentative period.
Occurring at about age 17, this stage is marked by more maturity and
calmness as compared to the previous stages. At this point the person cannot
back away from the necessity of making a concrete and realistic decision
about vocational future, and also responsible for the consequences of the
decisions. This stage is also crucial for the heightened awareness of the
day-to-day matters. The person understands more about the financial rewards
that the work offers, kind of preparation necessary for various careers is
studied and the awareness of the different life circumstances of careers is
sharpened.
– The Realistic Period: The realistic period takes place from age 18 to varying
ages. This period is more varying in its timing than the others, due to different
training periods that different careers require. While biological maturity
exercises a strong influence on the development of the child during the
tentative period, it has no bearing on the progress during the realistic period.
This is possible as the rate of biological change slows markedly by age 18
or 19. The realistic period is further divided into three stages:
– Exploration Stage: The important task of this stage is the selection of a

path from among two or three strongly held interests.
– The Crystallization Stage: During this stage the student is finally in the
process of becoming committed to one specific choice. Even in case of
crystallization it is possible that a student may have a change of mind later
on, due to various reasons.
– The Specification Stage: This is the final stage of the realistic period. It is
the final point of career development, and for some this stage never truly
arrives. The person here makes the final commitment by seeking a job in
the specific vocation or going in for further specialization in the chosen
vocational field.
Variation in the Pattern

Though attempts have been made to describe the pattern of the vocational process
by assigning different age groups to different periods and stages, it is not possible
that everyone adheres to the given framework. Individual variations occur in the
broad pattern due to biological, psychological and environmental reasons. Such
differences will occur in two possible behavioral areas. Firstly, people will vary
with regard to occupational choices they express over time. Some people would
display a wide variety of choice before selecting one. There may be others who
are more focused on one choice to the exclusion of others. So they settle quicker
for their particular occupational choice.
The other sphere is with regard to the timing of the crystallization stage. There
may be a wide range relating to the surfacing of crystallization. In some it may
surface towards the end of the tentative period, and in some it may materialize
only in the mid or late twenties.
22
Ginzberg also mentions that there may be deviant patterns in the development Nature of Work and Career
Development
which differ from the normal process. Some of the probable reasons could be
severe emotional disorders, limited exposure of the child to different activities,
unusual personal and financial circumstances etc.
9.8.2 General Concept of the Theory

Ginzberg concluded that there are important components which help the
individual in arriving at an adequate vocational choice. If a majority of these
ingredients fail to develop properly, an individual’s vocational development
process is bound to suffer.
Another significant concept of the theory is the child’s ability to identify with
suitable models at appropriate times during the career development process. This
identification with adults at the various stages of vocational development gives
a direction to students and help by making it easier to follow realistic mode.
Another important feature of the theory is that two basic personality types exist
with respect to work; the work oriented type and the pleasure oriented type. This
does not imply that people have either this or that kind of personality, but that
one mode is more characteristic of an individual’s approach to life. The work
oriented individual can be identified by the ability to delay gratification, nothing
or very little can distract him/her in the pursuit of his/her career goals. Whereas
the pleasure oriented person is unlikely to postpone gratification for work and is
susceptible to distraction by other alternatives that may seem reasonably attractive
e.g., a vocational course or another opportunity away from his main line of work.
In a combination mode of the two principles individual can be either active or
passive problem solvers. The active people tackle the problems, making efforts
to solve them. On the other hand, passive people are reactive; things happen to
them, they react to them, rarely emitting problem solving responses.
Implications for Counselling

The theoretical framework proposed by Ginzberg and his associates can be used
in two important ways in counseling students in their vocational development.
Firstly, this information can be well utilized by arranging experiences and activities
for students so that this could facilitate their progress through different stages.
The developmental tasks of every stage could be highlighted and brought to the
attention of teachers and parents, so that they could gather or compile their efforts
to help the students attain them.
Secondly, the theoretical framework can also be used by the teacher to anticipate
problems that might be encountered by the students at predicted stages of
development. This would help the teacher to develop preventive procedures to
encounter the problems. For example, in the interest stage the teacher could
encourage the parents and the child to devote time to various activities, give the
child adequate exposure before s/he can narrow down her/his interests to two or
three. Similarly, in the capacity stage he can caution the parents and students
against reading more than required in a test or a sports performance etc.,
emphasizing that ability has to be measured with that of others in the same field.
23
Career Development
Check Your Progress
8) List the four variables which bear a significant influence in the process
of vocational choice.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
9) What is the essential difference between the crystallization stage and
the specification stage?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
10) Explain in one line the work oriented person and pleasure oriented person
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
9.10 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF CAREER

DEVELOPMENT
Krumboltz is one of the career theorists who proposed career development theories
based on Bandura’s social learning theory. Social learning theory of career
development suggests that individuals make occupational choices based on a
number of learning experiences, some planned but most unplanned experiences.
People are not expected to know what exactly they would be doing in future, but
their actions may generate unplanned opportunities. Life events determine the
career path chosen by the individual. Krumboltz, Mitchell& Jones(1976)
suggested that career development of individuals are determined by the following
four factors.
24
1) Genetic endowments and special abilities Nature of Work and Career
Development
Individuals inherit abilities and qualities that may expand or limit their
career development( physical appearance, gender, special abilities or the
lack of it etc.)
2) Environmental conditions and events

Career development opportunities of individuals are influenced by factors
beyond their control( family resources, geographical location, training and
skill development opportunities, government policies, technological
development etc.) of the individuals.
3) Learning experiences
Instrumental, associative and vicarious learning experiences and the
consequences of the actions taken influence the career choices of individuals.
4) Task approach skills

This refers to the skill sets, work habits, mental sets, emotional and cognitive
responses that individuals bring to task situations.
Krumboltz and associates place a lot of importance on unplanned and chance

events in determining the career choice of individuals. The consequences of
these events can be positive or negative. According to this theory, unplanned
events and chance encounters are a result of earlier decisions and behavior rather
than being a random occurrence. Career counsellors can help clients learn from
these events and use them as a tool for taking actions or making decisions relevant
to their career development. Genetic and environmental factors influence career
development but they are beyond the control of the individual.
9.11 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF CAREER

DEVELOPMENT
This is another career development theory based on Bandura’s social cognitive
theory developed by Lent, Brown and Hackett(1994). They have attempted to
integrate existing theories of career development by providing a conceptual
framework that explains the process through which ;
a) career and academic interests develop,
b) career-relevant choices are forged and enacted, and
c) performance outcomes are achieved(p.80).
The social cognitive framework emphasizes the role of personal agency in career
development process and extra-personal factors that may facilitate or restrict the
exercise of personal agency.
Thus, the cognitive framework provided in the theory has focused on:
a) self-efficacy( refers to a person’s beliefs about his/her abilities to organize

and carry out a specific task successfully),
b) expected outcome( refers to a person’s beliefs about the consequences or

likely effects of performing a specific task), and
25
Career Development c) goal mechanisms( people set goals to organize and accomplish specific
task activities. Goals mean the determination to accomplish a desired task
outcome), and their interrelation with other personal, contextual and
experiential factors.
They have presented three interlocking models of career development, which

are:
1) model of interest development,
2) model of career choice, and
3) model of performance.
The findings are organized as twelve sets of propositions which are given below.
1) An individual’s occupational or academic interests at any point in time are
reflective of his/her concurrent self-efficacy beliefs and outcome
expectations.
2) An individual’s occupational interests also are influenced by his/her
occupationally relevant abilities, but this relation is mediated by one’s self-
efficacy beliefs.
3) Self-efficacy beliefs affect choice goals and actions both directly and
indirectly.
4) Outcome expectations affect choice goals and actions both directly and
indirectly.
5) People will aspire to enter occupations or academic fields that are consistent
with their primary interest areas.
6) People will attempt to enter occupations or academic fields that are consonant
with their choice goals, provided that they are committed to their goal and
their goal is stated in clear terms, proximal to the point of actual entry.
7) Interests affect entry behaviours indirectly through their influence on choice
goals.
8) Self-efficacy beliefs influence career/ academic performance both directly
and indirectly through their effect on performance goals. Outcome
expectations influence performance only indirectly through their effect on
goals.
9) Ability(or aptitude) will affect career/academic performance both directly
and indirectly through its influence on self-efficacy beliefs.
10) Self-efficacy beliefs derive from performance accomplishments, vicarious
learning, social persuasion and physiological reactions in relation to
particular educational and occupationally relevant activities.
11) As with self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations are generated through
direct and vicarious experiences with educational and occupationally
relevant activities.
12) Outcome expectations are also partially determined by self-efficacy beliefs,
particularly when outcomes (e.g. success, failures) are closely tied to the
quality or level of one’s performance (Lent, Brown and Hackett 1994).
26
Both Krumboltz et.al.(1976) and Lent et.al.(1994) acknowledge the influence of Nature of Work and Career
Development
genetic endowment, special abilities, and environmental factors on career
development. Both theories highlight the importance of learning experiences in
career development process.
The two theories differ in some aspects. While Krumboltz and associates focus
on choice behavior, Lent and associates are concerned with the interlocking
process of interest development, choice, and performance. In social cognitive
theory, self-efficacy mechanism has a crucial role in career choice and
development, where as in Krumboltz theory the role of self-efficacy is relatively
minor. The two models also differ in their role of goal setting in career
development process. In Lent’s model, goals play a prominent role, while
Krumboltz does not give importance to goals in career decision making ( Lent,
Brown & Hackett, 1994, pp85-87).
9.12 LET US SUM UP

This Unit has introduced you to the nature of work and various aspects of work
which influence people. We have discussed that people work to satisfy their
needs i.e. psychological, social, and economic needs. Work provides livelihood
and social-economic status.
Roe’s theory attends to all important aspects of vocational selection. The factors
in the early environment that dominate the development of needs are underlined.
Individual motivation is seen as largely the result of the strength of needs, which
is the outcome of the degree of deprivation in combination with his genetic
structure. Ultimately the level of responsibility and complexity that an individual
achieves in his vocation is the product of his genetic inheritance, which helps in
discerning differences in intelligence and in the ways people attempt to manipulate
various aspects of their environment.
Holland’s theory is a structural interactive or a typological interactive theory. It

is structural or ‘typological’ because it attempts to organize the vast sea of
information about people and jobs. It is ‘interactive’ because it assumes that
career and special behavior are the outcome of people and environments acting
on one another.
Ginzberg and his associates have proposed a theory which is closely related with
the broader theoretical structure of developmental psychology. They have
developed the idea of career development which depicts the vocational choice
process as a specific behavior. The theory gives an overall view of the
development, particularly of the adolescence with special emphasis on vocational
selection, in the early or late twenties. The suitability of the final choice
corresponds to the adequacy with which the various developmental tasks are
accomplished by the students along the way. Lastly, we discussed the social
learning theory of career development and social cognitive theory of career
development. We have discussed the similarities and differences of these two
theories.
9.13 UNIT END EXERCISES

1) Why people work even when they have sources of regular income?
27
Career Development 2) “People would continue to work irrespective of working conditions and
economic returns”. Examine the validity of the statement and give reasons
in support of your answer.
3) Compare the case history of a professional and non-professional worker.
4) Take up a case study of a professional person and find out the following
facts about:
a) His/her own life history.
b) His/her work schedule on the job and away from job.
c) Economic returns apart from salary.
d) His/her social relationships.
5) Vocational behavior is an interaction of genetic inheritance, early childhood
experiences and subsequent experiences unique to the person. Discuss this
statement in the context of Roe’s theory of career choice.
6) If the lower order needs are not satisfied they inhibit the emergence of
higher needs. Explain this statement keeping in mind Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs.
7) Discuss which mode of child rearing is most effective and why?
8) Try to evaluate your vocational development in the context of Roe’s theory.
9) Explain the term ‘Congruency’ in the context of Holland’s theory.
10) Outline what kinds of personal environment characteristics influence work
stability and work level.
11) Illustrate what are the reasons why some people make congruent choices,
other people make incongruent choices and many others remain undecided?
12) Take up the vocational development of any of your friends/relations and
try to judge where he stands in the context of Holland’s theory.
13) Vocational development is a part of personality development. Discuss the
statement in the context of Ginzbergs’ theory.
14) What is the importance of the capacity stage in a student’s vocational
development?
15) Give examples of the kind of activities a child should be exposed to during
the interest stage.
16) Discuss the significance of achieving various developmental tasks at the
appropriate time.
28
UNIT 10 OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION Development
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Collecting Occupational Information
10.4 Classification and Filing
10.4.1 Classifying Occupational Information
10.4.2 Characteristics of a Good Filing System
10.4.3 International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08)
10.4.4 National Classification of Occupations – 2015 (NCO-2015)
10.4.5 Industrial Classification
10.4.6 Guidance Code Number
10.5 Updating Occupational Information
10.6 Dissemination of Occupational Information
10.6.1 Tools
10.6.2 Methods
10.6.3 Activities
10.6.4 Emerging Trends
10.7 Evaluation of Occupational Information Material
10.8 Mobilising Resources for Setting Up Occupational Information Service
Programme
10.9 Let Us Sum Up
10.1 INTRODUCTION
You have been already familiar with the term Occupational Information as one
of the guidance services (Unit 6: Guidance Programme).
In an era of information explosion, it is important to know about occupations of

different kinds. This information service forms the core of guidance programme.
In this Unit, we will discuss about collection, compilation, updating and

dissemination of occupational information and technicalities involved in the same.
Before you go through the unit you may refer to Wanted Advertisements in
newspapers in general and Employment News ( a government publication) in
particular in order to get proper insight into the Unit.
10.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the term Occupational Information;
• describe the need for collecting, classifying, updating and disseminating
Occupational Information;
29
Career Development • list different sources of occupational information and different activities
for dissemination of Occupational Information;
• describe different components of Occupational Information;
• compile, organize, revise and disseminate Occupational Information; and
• review Career Literature.
10.3 COLLECTING OCCUPATIONAL

INFORMATION
The term Occupational Information means any and all kinds of information
regarding any position, job or occupation provided that the information is
potentially useful to a person who is choosing an occupation.
Occupational Information includes accurate and usable information about

industries, processes and training facilities to the extent that such information is
related to jobs. Occupational Information also includes pertinent and usable facts
about occupational trends and supply of and demand for labour.
Occupational Information does not include the study of abilities, aptitudes and
other characteristics of individuals, workers, job seekers or students. Occupational
information service serves the following purposes:
a) To develop a broad and realistic view of life’s opportunities and problems
at all levels of training.
b) To create an awareness of the need for accurate and valid occupational
educational and personal-social information.
c) To provide an understanding of the wide scope of educational, occupational
and social activities in terms of broad categories of related activities.
d) To assist in the mastery of techniques of obtaining and interpreting
information for progressive self-direction.
e) To promote attitudes and habits which assist in making career choices and
adjustment.
f) To provide assistance in narrowing choices progressively to specific activities
which are appropriate to attitudes, abilities and interests manifested.
Sources
Kinds of occupational information needed for career planning may be classified
as quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative information implies occupational
distribution trends and employment opportunities. Qualitative information implies
nature of work performed, qualifications required, conditions of work and the
returns to the worker.
Sources are basically of two types. They are primary sources and secondary
sources that regulate employment. Primary sources of occupational information
may include employer of an organization, employee in an organization,
government organizations, agencies or official bodies.
30
Some of them are listed below: Occupational Information
1) Central Institute of Research and Training in Engagement Service (CIRTES),

DGET, Ministry of Labour, New Delhi.
2) Association of Indian Universities (AIU), New Delhi.
3) National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), New
Delhi.
4) Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), New Delhi.
5) Directorate of Audio Visual Publicity (DAVP), New Delhi.
6) Planning Commission, New Delhi.
7) Ministries – Annual Reports.
8) Central Statistical Organization (CSO), New Delhi.
9) Institute of Applied Manpower Research (IAMR), New Delhi.
Secondary sources are thus called because they collect information published by
the original sources. One advantage of secondary source is that information
regarding different occupations and organization is available at one place itself.
However, the veracity of the information needs to be verified by the guidance
personnel.
Types
a) Career Fiction: An account portrayed through the experiences of one or
more fictional characters of an occupation which may encompass duties,
qualifications, preparations, conditions, nature of work and advancement.
b) Biography: An account of the life of a man or woman successful in a given
field of endeavour portraying the problems the subject faced in preparing
for and advancing in his or her career.
c) Occupational Monograph: It offers extensive coverage of all phases of an
occupation including details, comprehensive analysis of related occupations.
d) Occupational Brief: It covers the various types of specializations in an
occupational field in general terms. It is not as extensive as monograph but
yet describes all job opportunities.
e) Occupational Abstract: It is a concise summary of a job in an occupational
area citing the duties and nature of employment in general terms. It may be
in narrative or outline form.
f) Occupational Guide: It presents general information about various phases
of an occupation but doesn’t describe any specific job.
g) Job Series: It offers broad coverage of an entire occupational area giving
brief accounts of all job opportunities in the field. It may be in book, manual
or article form.
h) Business and Industrial Descriptive Literature: It gives an account of
specific industry of business and the major occupations are represented in
it.
31
Career Development i) Occupational or Industrial Description: It describes the principal
opportunities of an occupation in an industry or occupations in several
industries.
j) Recruitment Literature: It is in the form of recruitment procedures, nature
of work, financial benefits helpful to students and youth who seek
employment.
k) Poster or Chart: These are pictorial and schematic portrayal of occupational
information in the direction of catching the attention of target groups and
sustaining the same.
l) Article or Reprint: An account of an occupational phase of an occupation
or person performing the occupation.
m) Community Survey, Economic Report and Job Analysis: It is an account
of accurate, highly statistical, comprehensive report made as a result of
local, national or industrial studies.
n) Audio-Visual Material: These are in the form of motion pictures, still
pictures, video films, audio-tapes, audio skits, video skits, etc.
Methods
You may employ the following methods to collect occupational information.
1) You may call on both primary and secondary sources personally to the
possible extent or depute someone who can do the job.
2) You may address letters to both primary and secondary sources requesting
them to procure you occupational information.
3) You may contact both primary and secondary sources on telephone and
collect required information.
4) You may cull out occupational information from newspapers, periodicals,
magazines, journals, websites etc.
5) Combination of two or three strategies indicated above may be employed
for deriving better results.
Check Your Progress
1) State whether the following statements are true or false.
i) Occupational Information includes the study of abilities, aptitudes
and other characteristics of individual workers, job seekers or
students. (T/F)
ii) Occupational Information includes pertinent and usable facts about
occupational trends and supply of and demand for labour. (T/F)
iii) Information relating to employment opportunities forms part of
quantitative type of occupational information. (T/F)
iv) Occupational Information is immensely useful in counseling
process. (T/F)
32
Occupational Information
2) Match the following under ‘A’ with that of items under ‘B’.
A B
i) Occupational Monograph a) Covers various specialization in
an occupation
ii) Occupational Brief b) General information about
various phases of an occupation.
iii) Occupational Abstract c) A phase of an occupation.
iv) Occupational Guide d) A concise summary of a job.
v) Article or Reprint e) Extensive coverage of all phases
of an occupation.
10.4 CLASSIFICATION AND FILING

You would have understood by this time the modus operandi involved in
collecting occupational information. We shall now try to understand the well-
defined mechanism of classification and filing of occupational information.
10.4.1 Classifying Occupational Information

Jobs may be classified according to the activities involved such as : selling,
teaching, typing etc.
Jobs may be classified according to their function such as : research, finance,
manufacturing, distribution, education.
Jobs may be classified according to the product which they produce such as:
automobiles, chemicals.
Jobs may be classified according to the employer such as : GEC, Bosch, TATA,
Railways, etc.
Jobs may be classified according to the expressed interest patterns and measured
interest patterns such as: artistic, computational, etc.
Jobs may be classified according to school subjects such as Mathematics,
Languages, etc.
Jobs may be classified based on International Standard classification of
Occupations published by International Labour Organisation.
Jobs may be classified based on National Classification of Occupations, a
document published by DGET, Ministry of Labour, New Delhi. You will know
more about the same in the coming section.
Jobs may be classified based on International Standard Industrial classification
published by the United Nations.
Jobs may be classified based on National Industrial classification published by
Ministry of Statistics.
Advertisements relating to broad fields of occupation, training, apprenticeship,
job oriented courses etc. are classified based on Guidance Code Numbers (GCOs)
which comprise two components namely interest area and educational level.
33
Career Development 10.4.2 Characteristics of a Good Filing System
1) It should provide sufficient space for keeping written and printed documents,
clippings from newspapers and magazines, posters, pictures, films, tape-
recordings, pamphlets, books and anything else that may contain useful
occupational information.
2) It should provide one and only one designated location for each item to be
filed so that there may be no confusion about where to file an item or where
to find it.
3) It should be easy to use so that all those who use it can find what they want
with a minimum of time and effort.
4) It should bring together as many as possible of the materials on any one
occupation or industry or employer.
5) It should bring together related occupations or industries or employers.
6) It should provide some means of quickly finding material in books and
other publications which describe several different occupations.
7) It should be expandable so that it can grow as collection grows.
8) It should provide for filing and finding related materials such as the results
of follow-up studies and community occupation surveys.
9) It should extend its scope by evolving novel methods for collection of
occupational information.
10.4.3 International Standard Classification of Occupations

(ISCO-08)
The International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08) is a revision
of ISCO – 88. The framework and concepts used in ISCO-08 are essentially the
same as those used in ISCO-88. In ISCO-08 the definitions of these concepts
were updated and guidelines for the design of the classification were strengthened
and clarified. The classification of occupations provided by ISCO-08 serves as a
reference for countries developing or revising their national occupational
information and classifications.
Conceptual framework
ISCO – 08 is designed on the basis of two main concepts: the concept of job, and
the concept of skill. ISCO -08 has defined these terms as follows.
A job is defined as “a set of tasks and duties performed, or meant to be performed,
by one person, including for an employer or in self employment”.
Occupation is defined as a “set of jobs whose main tasks and duties are
characterized by a high degree of similarity”.
Skill is defined as the ability to carry out the tasks and duties of a given job.
ISCO-08, has used two dimensions of skill to arrange occupations into groups.
These are skill level and skill specialization.
Skill level is defined as function of the complexity and range of tasks and duties
to be performed in an occupation. Only four broad skill levels are defined in
ISCO-08.
34
Skill specialization is considered in terms of four concepts: Occupational Information
• The field of knowledge required;

• The tools and machinery used;
• The materials worked on or with; and
• The kinds of goods and services produced.
Within each major group, occupations are arranged into unit groups, minor groups
and sub-major groups, primarily on the basis of aspects of skill specialization.
Skill level 1
Occupations classified at Skill Level 1 include office cleaners, freight handlers,
garden labourers and kitchen assistants.
Skill level 2
Occupations classified at Skill Level 2 include butchers, bus drivers, secretaries,
accounts clerks, sewing machinists, dressmakers, shop sales assistants, police
officers, hairdressers, building electricians and motor vehicle mechanics.
Skill level 3
Occupations classified at Skill Level 3 include shop managers, medical laboratory
technicians, legal secretaries, commercial sales representatives, diagnostic medical
radiographers, computer support technicians, and broadcasting and recording
technicians.
Skill level 4
Occupations classified at Skill Level 4 include sales and marketing managers,
civil engineers, secondary school teachers, medical practitioners, musicians,
operating theatre nurses and computer systems analysts.
Table 10.1: Mapping of ISCO-08 major groups to skill levels
ISCO-08 major groups Skill level

Managers 3+4
Professionals 4
Technicians and Associate Professionals 3
Clerical Support Workers 2
Services and Sales Workers
Skilled Agricultural, Forestry and Fishery Workers
Craft and Related Trades Workers
Plant and Machine Operators, and Assemblers
Elementary Occupations 1
Armed Forces Occupations 1+2+4
Where formal education and training requirements are used as part of the
measurement of the skill level of an occupation, these requirements are defined
in terms of ISCED-97.
35
Career Development Table 10.2: Mapping of the four ISCO-08 skill levels to ISCED-97 levels
of education
ISCO-08 Skill ISCED-97 groups
Level
4 6 Second stage of tertiary education (leading to an
advanced research qualification)
3 5a First stage of tertiary education, 1st degree (medium
duration)
2 5b First stage of tertiary education, (short or medium
duration)
4 Post-secondary non-tertiary education
3 Upper Secondary level of education
2 Lower Secondary level of education
1 1 Primary level of education
Classification Structure
ISCO-08 has arranged occupations into one of 436 unit groups. Each unit group
is made up of several ‘occupations’ which have similarity in skill level and skill
specialization. Unit groups are arranged into minor groups, minor groups into
sub-major groups, and sub-major groups into major groups based on skill level
and skill specialization.
Table 10.3: Numbers of groups at each level of ISCO-08

Major group Sub-Major Minor Unit
Groups Groups Groups
Managers 4 11 31
Professionals 6 27 92
Technicians and Associate Professionals 5 20 84
Clerical Support Workers 4 8 29
Services and Sales Workers 4 13 40
Skilled Agricultural, Forestry and 3 9 18
Fishery Workers
Craft and Related Trades Workers 5 14 66
Plant and Machine Operators, and 3 14 40
Assemblers
Elementary Occupations 6 11 33
Armed Forces Occupations 3 3 3
Total 1SC0-08 43 130 436
36
Code Scheme Occupational Information
ISCO-08 provides a code number, a title and brief description for each group
classified at the four skill levels. The code number for each group is denoted as
follows:
a) Major group - One digit
b) Sub- major group - two digit (comprising the major group code plus
one digit)
c) Minor group - three digit (comprising the higher level code plus
one digit)
d) Unit group - four digit (comprising the higher level code plus
one digit)
Let us take major group 2: professionals as an example from table: 3 to illustrate
the code scheme. This major group is divided into six sub-major groups, twenty
seven minor groups and 92 unit groups each with a title and description as
mentioned earlier.
The following are the six sub-major groups in major group 2 with their code
number.
21. Science and Engineering Professionals
22. Health Professionals
23. Teaching Professionals
24. Business and Administration Professionals
25. Information and Communication Technology Professionals
26. Legal, Social and Cultural Professionals
You may have noticed that in the sub-major group, ‘Teaching Professionals’ is
given the code number 23 (2 digit) in which 2 indicates the major group and 3
indicates the serial order in the sub-major group.
The sub-major group is further divided into minor groups (3 digit) and unit groups
(4 digit) as given below.
23 Teaching professionals
231 University and Higher Education Teachers
2310 University and Higher Education Teachers
232 Vocational Education Teachers
2320 Vocational Education Teachers
233 Secondary Education Teachers
2330 Secondary Education Teachers
234 Primary School and Early Childhood Teachers
2341 Primary School Teachers
2342 Early Childhood Educators
235 Other Teaching Professionals
37
Career Development 2351 Education Methods Specialists
2352 Special Needs Teachers
2353 Other Language Teachers
2354 Other Music Teachers
2355 Other Arts Teachers
2356 Information Technology Trainers
2357 Teaching professionals Not Elsewhere Classified
This is a comprehensive classification of the sub-major group 23: Teaching
Professionals. In this classification you have seen that the sub-major group 23:
Teaching Professionals is divided into five minor groups and each minor group
is further divided into one or more unit groups. As you can see, there are twelve
occupations listed at the four digit level unit groups. Now let us see the description
of the tasks of one of the occupations at the unit group level.
Let us take the example of 2330 Secondary Education Teachers.

Unit Group 2330
Secondary Education Teachers
Secondary education teachers teach one or more subjects at secondary
education level, excluding subjects intended to prepare students for
employment in specific occupational areas.
Tasks include –
a) designing and modifying curricula and preparing educational courses
of study in accordance with curriculum guidelines;
b) establishing and enforcing rules for behaviour and procedures for
maintaining order among students;
c) preparing and giving lessons, discussions and demonstrations in one
or more subjects;
d) establishing clear objectives for all lessons, units and projects and
communicating those objectives to students;
e) preparing materials and classrooms for class activities;
f) adapting teaching methods and instructional materials to meet students’
varying needs and interests;
g) observing and evaluating students’ performance and behaviour;
h) preparing, administering and marking test, assignments and
examinations to evaluate pupils’ progress;
i) preparing reports about pupils’ work and conferring with other teachers
and parents;
j) participating in meetings concerning the school’s educational or
organizational policies;
k) planning, organizing and participating in school activities such as
excursions sporting events and concerts.
Source: ISCO-08 Vol.1.ILO. pp 11-140.
38
10.4.4 National Classification of Occupations–2015 (NCO-2015) Occupational Information
National Classification of Occupations – 2015 (NCO-2015) is a revised version

of NCO – 2004 in line with ISCO -08 and National Industrial Classification
2008 (NIC 2008). The NCO-2015 is a comprehensive repository of national
occupations. The main objectives of updating the NCO 2004 were:
• To create a useful model of the development of National Classifications of
Occupations (NCO)
• To make NCO – 2015 compatible to ISCO – 2008 so that it is relevant for
international reporting, comparisons, and exchange of statistical and
administrative information about occupations.
Design and Structure
In NCO 2015, the skill level of the occupation is defined as follows:
Table 10.4: Skill level and educational requirements –
ISCO-08 & NCO -2015
Skill ISCO -08 Educational NCO – 2015 Educational
Level Requirements Requirements
I Primary Education Upto 10 years of formal education and
/ or informal skills
II Secondary Education 11-13 years of formal education
III First University Degree 14-15 years of formal education
IV Post – Graduate University More than 15 years of formal
Degree education
The NCO 2015 has classified occupations into nine divisions in tune with skill
levels as defined in Table 10.4.
Table 11.5: NCO -2015 Division, Title, Skill Level

NCO-2015 Title Skill Level
Divisions
1 Legislators, Senior Officials, and Managers Not Defined
2 Professionals IV
3 Associate Professionals III
4 Clerks II
5 Service Workers and Shop & Market Sales II
Workers
6 Skilled Agricultural and Fishery Workers II
7 Craft and Related Trades Workers II
8 Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers II
9 Elementary Occupations I
You may have noticed that skill level is not defined for Division 1 comprising of
Legislators, Senior Officials, and Managers.
39
Career Development Coding Structure
Based on the ISCO-08 and the factors impacting skill and labour environment in
India, the NCO 2015 coding framework was created.
The coding structure of NCO – 2015 is as follows:
Table 10.6: Coding structure NCO – 2015

Coding Structure Representation Corresponding
NCO -2015 Digits Mapping to
ISCO – 2008
The first digit Division Major Group
The first two digits Sub-Division Sub-Major Group
The first three digits Group Minor Group
The first four digits Family Unit Group
The first two digits after the decimal Occupation
The last two digits after the decimal QP NOS
• The first digit of NCO-2015 represents the Division (Major Group in ISCO)
• The first two digits of NCO-2015 represent the Sub-Division (Sub-Major
Group in ISCO)
• The first three digits of NCO-2015 represent the Group (Minor Group in
ISCO)
• The first four digits of NCO-2015 represent the Family (Unit Group in
ISCO)
• A decimal is introduced after the first four digits in order to create a
distinction between the Families and individual Occupations.
• The first two digits after the decimal of NCO-2015 represent the different
occupations that can be combined under the given Family.
• The last two digits after the decimal of NCO-2015 represent the availability
of a QP NOS for the job role (QP means Qualification Pack or sector specific
competency framework. NOS means National Occupational Standards)
• The value of the last two digits would depend on two scenarios:
i) If QP NOS is available, then the value of the last 2 digits after the
decimal will be between 1-99 (arranged sequentially).
ii) If QP NOS is unavailable, then the value of the last two digits after
decimal will remain 00. Coding structure is illustrated in Table – 7
below.
40
Table 10.7: Coding Structure Occupational Information
Code : 2330.0100Job Title: Senior secondary and secondary school

teacher, Arts
2 Division Professionals
23 Sub-Division Teaching Professionals
233 Group Secondary Education Teachers
2330 Family Secondary Education Teachers
2330.0100 Occupation Senior secondary and secondary school
teacher, Arts
Here, the first digit ‘2’ in the code stands for Division (Professionals), ‘23’ stands
for sub-division (Teaching professionals), ‘233’ stands for Group (Secondary
Education Teachers), and ‘2330’ denotes Family. Therefore, the occupation code
for the job title: Senior Secondary and Secondary School Teacher, Arts is
‘2330.0100’ (8 digits). The first two digits after the decimal in the occupation
code represent the different occupations under the same Family. The last two
digits (00) after the decimal in the occupation code indicate that QP NOS is not
available for the given occupation title (senior secondary and secondary school
teacher, Arts).
Occupation codes for other job titles under the same family (2330) are given
below:
2330.0200 Senior Secondary and Secondary School Teacher, Science
2330.0300 Senior Secondary and Secondary School Teacher, Commerce
2330.0400 Language Teacher, Senior Secondary and Secondary School
2330.9900 Senior Secondary and Secondary School Teachers, Other
Source: NCO-2015, Vol. 1, PP. 15-65 GOI, www. ncs.gov.in
10.4.5 Industrial Classification

In this section you will study the classification of economic activities by industry.
In this category, occupational information is available at the international and
national level.
International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC Rev.4)

The International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities
is published by the Department of Economic and Social Affairs (Statistic Division)
of the United Nations.
Structure and Codification

The ISIC Rev. 4 structure consists of 21 ‘sections’ identified by letters A-U, 99
‘Divisions’ represented by two digits, 990 ‘Groups’ represented by three digits
and 9900 ‘Classes’ represented by four digits.
41
Career Development Table 10.8: ISIC Rev. 4 Sections, Divisions, Descriptions
Section Division Description
A 01-03 Agriculture, forestry and fishing
B 05-09 Mining and quarrying
C 10-33 Manufacturing
D 35 Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning
supply
E 36-39 Water supply; sewerage, waste management and
remediation activities
F 41-43 Construction
G 45-47 Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor
vehicles and motorcycles
H 49-53 Transportation and storage
I 55-56 Accommodation and food service activities
J 58-63 Information and communication
K 64-66 Financial and insurance activities
L 68 Real estate activities
M 69-75 Professional, scientific and technical activities
N 77-82 Administrative and support service activities
O 84 Public administration and defence; compulsory
social security
P 85 Education
Q 86-88 Human health and social work activities
R 90-93 Arts, entertainment and recreation
S 94-96 Other service activities
T 97-98 Activities of households as employers;
undifferentiated goods- and services-producing
activities of households for own use
U 99 Activities of extraterritorial organizations and
bodies
As you can see from table -8 , Education comes under ‘Division 85’ in ‘Section
P’. Let us examine the detailed structure and coding scheme for the ‘Description’
Education.
Table 10.9: Section P Education

Division Group Class Description
Division 85 Education
851 8510 Pre-primary and primary education
852 Secondary education
42
8521 General secondary education
8522 Technical and vocational secondary
education
853 8530 Higher education
854 Other education
8541 Sports and recreation education
8542 Cultural education
8549 Other education
855 8550 Educational support activities
The ‘Group’ code is a three digits number. For example, the ‘Group’ code for
secondary education is 852, the first two digits represent the ‘Division’ 85
Education, the third digit represents the hierarchical order in the ‘Group’. There
are two classes under Group 852. General secondary education is represented by
the numerical code 8521 and Technical and vocational secondary education is
represented by the numerical code 8522. In both cases the fourth digit represents
the class in the hierarchical order.
Source: ISIC Rev. 4.pp 11-61. un. unstats.un.org.

National Industrial Classification 2008 (NIC-2008)
National Industrial Classification 2008 (NIC-2008) is the revised version of NIC-
2004 in line with the ISIC Rev. 4. The NIC-2008 provides a basis for the
standardized collection, analysis and dissemination of industry wise economic
data for India.
Structure and Codification

All the activities are grouped into several “activity groups” or “tabulation
categories” in a hierarchical manner. Activities are first grouped into ‘section’
alphabetically coded from A through U, every section is divided into ‘division’
with 2-digit numeric code, every numeric code, every division into ‘group’ with
3-digit numeric code, every group into ‘class’ with 4-digit numeric code and
every 4-digit class into 5-digit ‘sub-class’. The structure is illustrated below.
Table 10.10:
Level Description
Section P Education
Division 85 Education
Group 852 Secondary Education
Class 8521 General Secondary Education
Sub-Class 85211 General School Education in the first stage of the
secondary level (upto Xth standard) without any special
subject pre-requisite.
The structure of NIC-2008 is identical to the structure of ISIC Rev. 4 up to 4-
digit level ‘class’.
43
Career Development Classes were then divided into 5 digit ‘sub classes’ according to national
requirements. NIC-2008 has 21 sections, 88 divisions, 238 groups, 403 classes
and 1304 sub-classes.
Source: NIC-2008.pp 9-121.GOI.www.mospi.nic.in
Uses
Having gone through the different types of Occupational Classifications, let us
examine the uses of such classifications:
– ISCO and ISIC serve as model for countries developing or revising their
national classifications of occupations.
– ISCO and ISIC provide an understanding of occupation/job descriptions
and economic activities prevalent at an international level.
– NCO and NIC provide a national picture of occupational classifications
and economic activities in alignment with the ISCO and ISIC.
– Employment exchanges use these data for registering employment seekers
– NCO and NIC provide data for international comparison. These data can
be used for studying the socio-economic development taking place in the
country.
– NCO and NIC are used by the government agencies, industry associations
and researchers for administrative, analytical and research purposes.
– Counselors can use the classification of occupations for career counseling.
– Counselors can use the occupation descriptions to make the students aware
of the tasks and duties involved in an occupation.
– Counselors can make students aware of the skill level needed for various
occupations.
10.4.6 Guidance Code Number

Guidance code numbers are allotted to broad categories of occupations. Training,
apprenticeship and admission notifications are advertised, based on two-factors,
namely – interest area followed by educational level.
In the guidance code number, first interest area code is written, followed by the
educational level code. These codes are used in the case of educated freshers and
these are not used in the case of occupationally set or semi skilled categories of
students or unemployed youth.
The following educational levels are assigned code numbers indicated against
them.
Post-Graduate – 1
Graduate – 2
PUC/+2 – 3
Matric – 4
Middle – 5
Others – 6
44
The following codes are allotted to interest areas. Occupational Information
Interest Area Code

Technical 0
Health 1
Scientific 2
Welfare 3
Teaching 4
Clerical 5
Business Contact 6
Manual 7
Literary 8
Artistic 9
Protective 10
For e.g. ‘X’ showing interest in the area of teaching and is a graduate is assigned
Guidance Code Number 4.2.
‘Y’ showing interest in the area of Business Contact and is a matriculate is assigned
Guidance Code Number 6.4.
The assignment of Guidance Code Number to educated fresher’s is done with a
view to prepare a comprehensive programme from the view point of providing
systematic occupational information.
Check Your Progress
3) Fill in the blanks with at least two suitable answers.
i) Jobs may be classified according to the activities such as
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
ii) Jobs may be classified according to function such as
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
iii) Jobs may be classified according to the product which they produce
such as
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
iv) Jobs may be classified according to school subjects such as
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
45
Career Development
10.5 UPDATING OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
To keep pace with current trends it is desirable to update the already collected
information and collect latest information. You have to maintain a master copy
at your level wherein you effect changes in the same as and when you notice
change in the information either by way of collecting information from
individuals, institutions, associations, industries, employers or by way of
collecting from publications of different kinds including mass media like
Newspapers, Magazines, Radio, TV, etc.
Obsolete occupational information should be weeded out by conducting reviews

periodically and your master copy should be updated to provide latest information.
With the world wide web/internet available today, you can gather information
from any part of the country or the world at the click of a mouse. Another important
highlight that would emerge out of this is the need for professionals to develop
software in this regard . You need to develop yourself professionally in taking up
this challenge.
Activities
1) Collect 15 wanted advertisements from newspapers and attempt to
prepare a note in the context of updating available information.
2) Collect, compile and update any kind of data related to occupational
information from the world wide web.
10.6 DISSEMINATION OF OCCUPATIONAL

INFORMATION
You are now aware of the strategies that are involved in collection, compilation
and updating of occupational information. The modalities involved in
dissemination of occupational information are given in the following sections.
10.6.1 Tools
Occupational information is collected and updated using the following as tools:
a) Career Fiction
b) Biography
c) Occupational monographs
d) Occupational Brief
e) Occupational Abstract
f) Occupational Guide
g) Job Series
h) Business and Industrial Descriptive Literature
i) Occupational and Industrial Descriptive Literature
j) Recruitment Literature
k) Posters
46
l) Charts Occupational Information
m) Article of Reprint
n) Community Surveys, Economic Report or Job Analysis
o) Audio Visual Aids
p) Computer
10.6.2 Methods
You may employ any of the following methods to disseminate occupational
information.
1) Delivering class talk, career talk, address by Non-Governmental
Organizations, Parent Teacher Associations, Teachers Associations and
similar gatherings.
2) Display of career literature of different kinds for the benefit of students,
unemployed youth, non-governmental organizations, employer’s
associations, parents and community members at large.
3) Screening career films on need based topics for the benefit of different
target groups.
4) Arranging discussions so as to interact with different target groups in the
context of placing world of work before them.
5) Conducting Mock Interviews in order to prepare candidates either for
admission to specialized courses or for entry into different occupations.
10.6.3 Activities
You may conduct the following activities in order to disseminate occupational
information which you have studied in the unit titled: Group Guidance.
i) Class talk:A talk-addressed to students in school/colleges/universities
intending to apprise them about ‘Planning’.
ii) Career talk: A talk intended to place world of work before a group of
students in schools/colleges/universities or unemployed youth in
employment exchanges. These talks should be need-based and target
oriented.
iii) Career Conference: This is generally intended for students pursuing their
studies in classes like X, XII, Final Year Graduation or Final Year Post
Graduation.
iv) Career Exhibition: This involves display of career literature for the benefit
of students pursuing their studies in High School/Colleges/University.
v) Career Film Show: You may screen films relating to different career so as
to place before a group of students/unemployed youth realities prevailing
in a particular occupation or group of occupations.
There are a good number of video films on variety of topics in the context
of occupational information which are precise and at the same time provide
comprehensive information.
47
Career Development vi) Career Visit: You may arrange visits to nearby industrial establishments
for a group of students to enable them to access information of variety of
occupation, making them observe while employees are on their jobs and at
the end seek clarifications from the authorities concerned. You should
carefully plan and monitor the entire range of activities starting from student
leaving the school for visit till such time they return home safely.
10.6.4 Emerging Trends

You should equip yourself with the strategies which have emerged in the recent
past and which would help you to keep pace with current trends
Some of the strategies are listed below and explained briefly:
a) Screening of career oriented film, to inform the target groups.
b) Organization of career fairs where, apart from display of career literature,
experts are available to clarify doubts on the part of those who participate
in the fairs.
Of late these fairs have gained immense importance in view of their relevance
to the present day context. They are attracting the attention of different
strata of society. Many Corporate Houses are coming forward to sponsor
such fairs.
c) Conducting Rozgar Bazar/Rozgar Mela implies arranging face-to-face meet
between employers and potential employment seekers to provide opportunity
to clarify each other’s point in arriving at consensus about the extent of
suitability or otherwise on the part of employment seekers.
d) Organization of Entrepreneurial Awareness Campus in order to apprise the
potential employment seekers about the existing realities prevailing in the
wage-paid labour market and to enable them to have exposure to avenues
available in launching their own enterprises in terms of Governmental
Schemes, Financial assistance available, Traits that are required to take up
self-employment, Managerial inputs that are required and so on.
Check Your Progress

4) List any four activities that are conducted to disseminate occupational
information
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...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
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48
10.7 EVALUATION OF OCCUPATIONAL
INFORMATION MATERIAL
Evaluation of occupational information material is a continuous process and
you should undertake the same periodically so as to improve upon the quality of
the material.
This can be done by raising relevant issues in terms of When? Where? Who?
Why? and How? which have direct bearing upon copy-right date of book/material,
geographical limitation, quality of authorship, purpose and modus operandi of
collection and presentation of factual information respectively.
The following criteria may be kept in mind while evaluating occupational

literature:
Criteria
Occupational literature can be evaluated in terms of the comprehensiveness of
the content, presentation of textual and tabular material and availability of the
latest data in tune with the international and national level data. Tabular and
graphic materials should be accompanied by a well integrated discussion. Tabular
material should be set up-in proper form.
Text or footnotes should indicate the source of quoted or paraphrased material.

Transition between parts of the text should make clear interpretations. Occupations
should be presented in their social and economic setting.
Methods Used for Collecting Data

You have to evaluate in terms of what organization, group or individual sponsored
it. Indication of data when material was gathered, bear evidence of methods
used in gathering the data, bear evidence to prove findings are validated and
tryout with consumers or target groups.
Style and Format

You should see that data of publication is always given and style should be clear,
concise and interesting but not too verbose.
Format should be pleasing, attractive and typography reader friendly. A table of

contents, index and bibliography should invariably find a place in the publication.
Provision for revision should be made when original publication is issued.
10.8 MOBILISING RESOURCES FOR SETTING UP

OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION SERVICE
PROGRAMME
The resources that are required to organize occupational information service can
be broadly classified under three categories namely manpower, material and
money.
1) Manpower: Apart from harnessing your potentialities as vital manpower

resource, you need to mobilize other appropriate individuals and institutions
49
Career Development as manpower resources. Community members should be harnessed as
resources for conducting different activities under occupational information
service programme. Trained guidance personnel, teachers, community
members specialized in different areas can also be utilized in the conduct
of various activities of occupational information service.
2) Material: To set up occupational information service programme, lot of

materials are required in the form of publications like Newspapers,
Magazines, Periodicals, Journals, Annual Reports, Video Films, Audio
Tapes, Television, Video Cassette Recorder, Tape Recorder, Projector,
Computers etc. These materials have to be mobilized for effective
dissemination of information.
3) Money: This is a crucial input for the effective conduct of various activities
in the context of any endeavour and more so in the case of occupational
information service programme. In order to mobilize this input you need to
bring about awareness among all those who are in a position to make
contributions financially. Apart from this you need to make them appreciate
the importance of the activities in the context of their own professional
development so that the programme becomes need based and sustainable.
Community members with philanthropic mind and non-governmental

organizations can come to your rescue in a big way as far as mobilizing of this
input is concerned.
Target groups like student, youth, parents, teacher, teacher-educators, social

workers can be involved in the process of generation of this input.
Publicity measures through Mass Media have to be initiated so that financial,

material and manpower contributors on one hand and different target groups on
the other hand would effectively involve in the endeavour of development of
well articulated occupational information service programme.
10.9 LET US SUM UP

Informational need occupies a significant place in the hierarchy of needs. There
are four phases involved in occupational information service namely collection,
compilation, updating and dissemination.
Collection of occupational information involves approaching sources such as

personal contacts, writing letters, telephonic contacts, etc.
There are two kinds of sources:
1) Primary Sources - Employer, Employee and Government that regulates
2) Secondary Sources- Publications in different forms.
Compilation of occupational information involves systematic filling of
information based on activities, functions, products, employers, expressed interest
patterns, measured interest patterns, school subjects, occupations, etc.
Updating of occupational information implies weeding out obsolete information

and effecting changes as and when change results in information in a designated
50
document called master copy which is required to be maintained by every guidance Occupational Information
personnel so as to provide current information to those who seek latest
information.
Dissemination of occupational information to different target groups like students,

parents, unemployed youth and community members is organized in the form of
Class-talk, Career-talk, Career Exhibition, Career Film show, Career Fair, Rozgar
Mela, Rozgar Bazar, Career Visit, Radio Broadcast, TV Telecast, contributing
articles in Newspapers, Magazines, Journals, and Periodicals. Schools, Colleges,
Universities, Non-Governmental Organizations and Community Centres have
to be harnessed as resources so as to reach the target groups.
Mobilising resources of both internal and external kinds have to be carried out in
a systematic and planned manner and it should be converted into a sort of
movement to the extent that resources get generated, organized and channelized
in the form of Human Resource Development. This is possibly achieved by
harnessing human, financial and material resources and deriving strategies for
the management of the same with governmental and non-governmental support,
resulting out of development of forward and backward linkages among guidance
personnel and schools, colleges, universities, non-governmental organizations
and community centres and community at large.
10.10 UNIT - END EXERCISES

1) Visit a library in your locality/school/place of work and collect information
on various sources of occupational information. Prepare a report.
2) Explain with the help of illustration any two methods of classification of
occupational information with relevant examples taken from a school or
library situation?
3) Observe a number of advertisements concerning occupational information
and also study the methods of updating occupational information. Discuss
in brief the method you would like to follow in these situations.
4) Visit a nearby Employment Exchange. Discuss with the employment officer
about various vocational guidance activities that he/she conducts for
dissemination of occupational information and prepare a report.
5) Collect two Employment News issues, one the current and the other a year
old. Analyse both the issues in tune with principles of evaluating occupational
information materials.
51
Career Development
UNIT 11 CAREER PATTERNS
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Understanding Career Patterns
11.3.1 Career Patterns and Other Related Terms
11.4 The Relationship of Career Patterns with Life Stages
11.5 Types of Career Patterns
11.6 Determinants of Career Patterns
11.7 Career Maturity
11.8 Vocational Success
11.8.1 Vocational Adaptation
11.9 Teacher’s Role in Career Planning
11.9.1 Facilitating Career Exploration
11.9.2 Providing Career Information
11.9.3 Providing Career Literature
11.9.4 Providing Role Models
11.9.5 Providing Individual Assistance
11.10 Role of Parents
11.11 Let Us Sum Up
11.1 INTRODUCTION
After going through the unit on Nature of Work and Career Development, you
are now aware of the concept, nature, approaches and theories of career
development and the role of work in our daily life. This Unit will deal with the
concept of career patterns, which refers to sequence of occupations in the life of
an individual or a group of individuals. This sequence will be analysed in order
to ascertain the major work periods which constitute a career. This sequence
may differ considerably, or it may be in the same field with or without vertical
movement. The word “career” is to be distinguished from other interchangeably
used words such as vocation, job, or profession. Career patterns are developmental
in nature. They must be understood in terms of life stages. Many genetic, social,
economic and environmental factors influence the determining of career patterns.
They take various shapes. These are called types of career patterns. With
experience, they start stabilizing and career maturity takes its shape. Gradually,
these career patterns lead to vocational success and vocational adjustment. Life
adjustment process, to a large extent, depends upon vocational adjustment.
Therefore, the career planning is very important for everybody, and sooner one
realizes this, better it is. Hence, the role of teachers is very important in the
planning of career of students.
52
Career Patterns
11.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
• describe the concept of career patterns;
• distinguish the term career patterns from other related terms such as vocation,
job, profession;
• classify the various career patterns;
• distinguish between career patterns and life stages;
• describe the determinants of career patterns;
• distinguish between career patterns and career maturity;
• identify different types of career patterns;
• differentiate between vocational success and vocational adjustment and their
relationship with career patterns;
• identify factors affecting career patterns, vocational success and vocational
adjustment; and
• describe the role of teachers in the planning of careers of students.
11.3 UNDERSTANDING CAREER PATTERNS

The term career pattern was originated in the field of sociology, in the context of
study of social mobility by means of occupational mobility. Career development
is part of all round development of the individual. Today, career has emerged as
one of the most significant areas of concern for those who advocate education
for national development. The dramatic increase in interest to develop this
potential through education and work among all sections is visible if you scan
the career literature publications.
11.3.1 Career Patterns and Other Related Terms

In order to understand the term career patterns, it is better to differentiate it from
other related words or terms being used inter-changeably. These words are
position, job, occupation, career, profession and vocation. Let us take an example
of an institution where people work in different ways. Let us assume there are
2000 staff members or workers in an organization at various levels, such as
peons, clerks, officers, skilled workers, executives, managers and so on. These
various levels technically are called positions. The number of same positions in
same category is termed as job. For example, stenos come in one type of job and
clerk’s job is different from peons etc. There may be ten peons, 15 clerks. All
peons do similar work and all clerks perform similar task. Hence, clerical is one
job. Occupation is a group of similar jobs in which people perform essentially
the same task, drawing on the same body of knowledge and using the same basic
skills independently of the person pursuing it. Career refers to all the activities in
which a person is involved throughout his/her life. Technically, a career is a
sequence of positions in jobs or occupations, which a person has followed during
the course of his/her life. Profession means the person fulfils the requisite
qualifications at the higher level. For example, the professional person called
doctor is MBBS or MS. She is technically qualified. Vocation is the choice of a
53
Career Development type of occupation or the choice of a career. The term vocation is used to denote
an occupation and to characterize an occupation, which has some of the personal
meaning of career. In the choice of a vocation, there are three broad factors;
• A clear understanding of one’s self, aptitude, abilities, interests, ambitions,
resource, limitations and their causes.
• Knowledge of the requirements and conditions of success, advantages and
disadvantages, compensation, opportunities and prospects in different lines
of work.
• True reasoning on the relationship of these two groups.
The differentiation may be clear from the following:
‘Thirty years ago, I wanted to make teaching as my career. I took up that vocation
and involved myself in the day-to-day job requirements and met the demands of
my occupation. My dedication has been rewarded with various promotions in
the last thirty years. People say that I have joined the best profession. My
professional experience has found use through my participation in workshops,
seminars, visiting professorship etc. Today, I am happy with such diversified
activities and my career development’.
Career patterns refer to sequence of occupations in the life of an individual or

group of individuals.
The above discussion would have made clear the minute differences among the
word career and the commonly inter-changeably used terms in this field.
11.4 THE RELATIONSHIP OF CAREER PATTERNS

WITH LIFE STAGES
Occupational choice is a lifelong process of decision making for those who seek
major satisfaction from their work. This leads them to reassess repeatedly how
they can improve the adjustment between their changing career goals and the
realities of the world of work, and lead a productive life in society. All these are
related to career pattern. The concept of Career Pattern is closely parallel to the
psychological concept of life stages, in which the major events and concerns
group themselves. It varies from one stage of life to another, justifying the
classification of life into a sequence of characteristic stages. In order to understand
this relationship, let us see how psychologists and sociologists have defined life
stages.
Super (1957) had defined five life stages. The stages are:
The Growth Stage - 0 – 14 years approximately
The Exploratory Stage- 14 – 25 years
The Establishment Stage - 25 – 45 years
The Maintenance Stage - 45 – 66 years
The Decline Stage - 65 – +years
Super views career development as a life long process that passes through a
series of developmental stages and that career choice decision is the cumulative
54
effect of a series of decisions rather than one decision taken at one point in time.
The Growth Stage (0-14): This stage is a base for career patterns. It is the Career Patterns
preparation for the selection of career in today’s time. Due to the wide exposure,
young generation is mentally more alert and their cognitive development is
positively affected by the exposure through variety of media. Children at this
stage are, to some extent, able to form ideas as to what they would like to be as
adults. At this stage, the child is normally in the middle school. In schools, they
are exposed to various possibilities of different areas of the world of work they
may enter into, with a hope to make appropriate decision in selecting suitable
subjects at 10 + 2 level. With the exposure of general information about various
subjects, students develop certain liking and disliking towards different subject
areas. Their aptitudes and interests also start manifesting in terms of their
achievements in various school subjects. In this stage career pattern process helps
the person to become aware of his/her interests and skills, so that these can be
matched with a suitable job. The person is thus expected to concretize his/her
choice. Self-concept develops through identification with important figures in
family. School needs are dominant. Role playing in fantasy is important until the
age of ten years. Interests are major determinants of aspirations and activities
during 11-12 years of age. Interest and capacity become more important with
increasing social participation and reality testing. At the age of 13-14 years abilities
are given more weight and job requirements are considered.
The Exploratory Stage (14-25): Adolescent exploration includes developing

an understanding of the self, trying out the role of budding adult, finding a mate,
finding an occupation, and finding one’s place in the community. This is the
stage when the students start exploring different fields. Students at this stage
have to take a decision about which stream of studies they would like to follow
– arts, commerce, science, fine arts etc. These subjects are, to some extent, career
oriented and they have to stick to the opted subjects. At present, a mix and match
pattern is also followed in many schools. Students can choose any five subjects.
For example, science students can take up Economics. Commerce students can
take up subjects like political science. Arts students can take up mathematics, if
they are interested, as it is an important subject in all fields.
Students at this stage also want to be self-sufficient, so they take up many side
jobs. The role of guidance and counselling is very important at this stage. The
adolescent starts exploring different vocations to decide which occupation s/he
would like to follow. S/he even works as apprentice to learn about the area in
which s/he is interested. Here the question arises that a person not only wants to
earn, but also likes to take up a job which is psychologically satisfying and is
also meeting parental status or ambitions. Hence social norms, personal and
psychological needs are related to the selection of an occupation. An individual’s
career does not exist in a vacuum. The various spheres are interrelated and a full
understanding of careers must be seen in the context of individual’s other
activities, beliefs, social status, intellectual level and so on. Self-examination,
role tryout and occupational exploration take place in school, in leisure activities
and part time work. This stage has the following three sub stages:
i) Tentative – At the age of 15-17 years, needs, interests, capacities, values

and opportunities are considered. Tentative choices are made, tried out in
fantasy, discussion, courses, work, and so on.
ii) Transition – At the age of 18-21 years, reality considerations are given
55
Career Development more weight as the youth enters the labour market or professional training
and attempts to implement a self-concept.
iii) Trial – This starts approximately at the age of 22-24 years. A seemingly
appropriate field having been located, a beginning job in it is found and
tried out as a life role.
The Establishment Stage (25-45): As the career pattern becomes clear, effort is
put forth to stabilize it to make a secure place in the world of work. For most
persons these are the creative years. Establishment includes establishing a family,
a home and a role in the community as well as making a place in the world of
work by establishing a practice, building a business or developing a work history.
At this stage a person wants to make a name for oneself. He tries to become an
important part of the world of work to get recognition and to serve and contribute
meaningfully to the society at large. In this process of self-adjustment, he moves
toward self-actualization by getting professional maturity, and in addition,
contributes towards cultural and moral heritage. At domestic front too, he plays
an important role of fulfilling his responsibilities to initiate his wards towards
the world of work and social life.
The Maintenance Stage (45-65): Having made a place in the world of work,
the concern now is to hold on. Maintenance is the process of holding one’s own
place in the family, keeping the home intact, keeping up appearances in the
community, and seeing that the business/profession continues to flourish. At this
stage, it has generally been seen that a person has gained a lot of experience in
one’s profession. Therefore, the individuals attempt to maintain what they have
achieved for which they would try to innovate, acquire new skills or look for
new challenges. Though, it is difficult to achieve anything spectacular at this
stage. An individual actively moves toward the goal of self-actualization as all
other needs are more or less fulfilled. Money is used as a means towards the
process of self-realization.
The Decline Stage (65 plus): As physical and mental powers decline, work
activity changes, and in due course ceases. New roles must be developed, first
that of selective participant, and then that of observer rather than of participant.
Decline manifests itself not only physically (in decreased energy and stamina)
and vocationally, but also in other respects, as in the lessening of family
responsibilities and restriction of roles in the community. Decline stage has two
main sub stages:
i) Deceleration (65-70): The pace of work slackens, duties are shifted and
the nature of work is changed to suit declining capacities. Many find part-
time jobs to replace their full time occupations.
ii) Retirement (70- +): As with all specified age limits, there are great variations
from person to person. But complete cessation of occupation comes for all
in due course; to some easily and pleasantly, to others with difficulty and
disappointment, and to some only with death, (Super, et. al. 1957).
• Life Stages and Work Periods

Miller and Form (1951) defined sociological life stages centering around work.
56
During the career period, individuals pass through different phases of holding
permanent or temporary jobs. Based on the various phases of the career journey, Career Patterns
Miller and Form formulated five life stages or work periods.
Preparatory work period: In this period, there is an orientation to the world of

work through home, neighbourhood and school activities. This stage is just like
a growth stage, as described earlier.
Initial work period: This period begins with the first part-time or summer work
experience at about the age of 14. The adolescent is introduced directly to the
world of work as a part-time participant. This period matches with the exploratory
stage.
The trial work period: This period is a replica of the stage of establishment. It
is just like an entry into the regular labour market. It happens during the age 16-
25 years. It continues until a suitable work position is attained, usually after
considerable changing of jobs. The person finds a type of work, where he feels
satisfied and provides for success ahead.
The stable work period (35-60/5): At this stage individuals find a work position
which is more or less permanent in nature. If they change the work for better
prospects, in rare cases, they once again enter the trial period.
The retirement period (60-65+): The retirement period is a replica of the decline
stage.
11.5 TYPES OF CAREER PATTERNS

The types of career patterns are different from the concept of life stages. It is in
terms of the nature of the chosen career in terms of time period. Davidson and
Anderson (1937) found four types of career patterns in this regard. They are:
i) The Stable Career Pattern: This pattern is applicable on those persons
who have gone directly from school or college into a type of work that they
have consistently followed, i.e., they have skipped the trial work period. A
person chooses a career and sticks to that till he retires. A few examples of
people having stable career patterns can be Defence Services, Banking,
Civil Services, Central Services, Income-tax, Teaching, Secretarial Services,
Chartered Accountancy and so on.
ii) The Conventional Career Pattern: In this case the typical progression is
from initial through trial to stable employment as Managerial, Clerical,
MBA, Computer Engineering, Executives and so on. The person has not
taken up a stable career. He tries his fortunes in different careers, before he
finally takes up any stable or enduring one, which is satisfying to him.
iii) The Unstable Career Pattern: Here, the sequence trial-stable-trial is
followed. In this category, we may consider careers related to various crafts
as career in fashion technology, dance, music, etc. The person moves from
one to another career or business or part-time job, as Consultant, Property
Dealer etc.
iv) The Multiple-Trial Career Pattern: In this pattern frequent change of
employment takes place with no one type sufficiently prolonged or dominant
to justify calling the person established in a career. Examples may be quoted
from Consultant, Technical Assistants’ etc.
57
Career Development
Check Your Progress
1) Answer the following questions in 2-3 lines.
i) Distinguish between Vocation and Career
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ii) Name the life stages given by Super
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iii) What are the Work Period as described by Miller and Form?
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iv) What are the types of career patterns?
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11.6 DETERMINANTS OF CAREER PATTERNS

As discussed earlier the pattern emerging in the job movement of a group of
individuals, is termed as career pattern. The sequence, frequency and duration of
the trial and stable jobs are determined by many factors. Among them the
following are important:
• individual parental socio-economic level;
• mental ability;
• skills;
• personality characteristics (needs, values, interests, traits and self-concept);
• career maturity; and
• the opportunities to which one is exposed.
Self-concept and socio-economic status, however, are the most important factors
as the determinants of career patterns because they:
i) tend to open or close opportunities; and
ii) help to shape occupational concepts.
58
Krumboltz (1989) describes the decision process in the choice of an occupation Career Patterns
being determined by the following four factors:
• Environmental conditions and events (number and nature of jobs, training
opportunities, social policies and procedure of selecting trainees and workers,
technological developments and change in social organizations).
• Genetic endowments and special abilities (race, sex, physical appearances
and characteristics, intelligence, computing ability, muscular co-ordination).
• Learning experiences (instrumental learning experiences in which
antecedent, covert and overt behavioural responses and consequences are
present).
• Task approach skills (attitudes, knowledge, skills, performance standards
and values, work habits, perceptual and cognitive processes, mental sets
and emotional response an individual brings to new situations and tasks).
These skills develop readiness to cope with the development tasks.
Above mentioned factors are all determinants and not the processes. The process
is the interaction among the determinants. The interaction between the individual
and society results in self-observation generalizations. These are self-precepts.
In self-concept theory these precepts are viewed as organized self-observations
or self-concepts (Super and others, 1953). Social learning, experiential learning
and interactive learning are the processes involved in the formation of self-concept
in general and occupational self-concept in particular.
Socio-economic status, intelligence and academic achievement affect the career

patterns. The wards of the poor are likely to have unstable or multiple career
patterns than others. On the other hand, the wards of rich are more likely to have
stable careers.
11.7 CAREER MATURITY

Career maturity is a constellation of physical, psychological and social
characteristics. It is both cognitive and affective. It includes the degree of success
in coping with the demands of earlier stages and sub-stages of career development.
Career maturity is, however, a hypothetical construct. Its operational definition
is perhaps as difficult to formulate as is that of intelligence. Career maturity is
the first dimension depicted by the Life Career Rainbow. It is longitudinal and
covers the life span of an individual.
Career maturity is generally defined as the individual’s readiness to cope with

the developmental tasks with which he or she is confronted because of his/her
biological and social developments, and because of society’s expectations of
people who have reached that stage of development. This readiness is both
affective and cognitive as shown by research with the Career Development
Inventory (CDI). The CDI assesses two affective variables, namely Career
Planning (or planfulness), and Career Exploration (or curiosity). It also assesses
three cognitive characteristics including:
• Knowledge of the principles of career decision-making and ability to apply
them to actual choices;
59
Career Development • Knowledge of the nature of careers, occupations, and the world of work;
and
• Knowledge of the field of work in which one’s occupational preference
falls.
A component of career maturity, identified in the Career Pattern Study (CPS)
monographs by Super and others (1957) and in Crites (1978) adaptation is
Realism.
Realism is a mixed affective and cognitive entity. It is assessed by combining

personal, self report and objective data and comparing the aptitude of the
individual with the aptitudes typical of people in the occupation to which he/she
aspires.
Realism is a “Trait” It can be assessed through Career Development Inventory

(CDI) or Career Maturity Inventory (CMI). However, no single measure can be
called maturity, as any test or inventory score is at best an assessment of one or
more aspects of a complex whole.
11.8 VOCATIONAL SUCCESS

Vocational success leads to feelings of autonomy, of being somewhat in control
of one’s present and even of one’s future. It also leads to the development of
interest in the things in which one has been successful. Finding that one can, to
some extent, control one’s activities helps in the development of self-esteem. At
the same time, it leads to an understanding that one can plan for future events
and have success in their shaping. Thus develops the ability to plan, to identify
and solve problems, and to make decisions.
11.8.1 Vocational Adaptation

When a person is relatively unaffected by the job and its challenge it is termed as
vocational adaptation. It is also called as vocational adjustment. If you glance
through your job from the date of joining or compare your roles and
responsibilities as a progressive teacher with the teachers taught you in students’
days, you can certainly discriminate the expectations from teachers at that time
with that of present teachers. At that time teachers were the only source of
information. Today, you have been using other sources like TV programmes,
Newspapers, Computers, CD, ICT, etc. as information providers and you as a
teacher had adapted yourself as per the requirement of the job.
11.8.2 Criteria of Vocational Adjustment

Vocational adjustment is a function of the degree to which an individual is able
to implement his/her self-concept, to play the kind of role s/he wants to play, to
meet his/her important needs in his/her work and career. This means self-
realization.
To what extent the improvement in vocational adjustment can lead to

improvement in other aspects of adjustment. Logically, it should do so, since
general adjustment is a synthesis of specific adjustments. By relieving tension,
clarifying feelings, gaining insights, achieving success, an individual develops a
feeling of competence which is one important area of vocational adjustment. It
60
is possible to realize the individual’s ability to cope more adequately with other Career Patterns
aspects of living, thus bringing about improvement in general adjustment will
bring about improvement in others.
Assisting a client to use his/her assets to make a better vocational adjustment

will result in his/her being able to make a better adjustment in other areas of
living.
Maladapted individual who has genuine problems of vocational adjustment, can

be helped by counsellors. It has been found that improvement in vocational
adjustment has brought about improvement in the overall adjustment of such
persons.
The client’s readiness to work on the vocational adjustment problem is one

criterion of the wisdom of working on it. Nevertheless, this alone is not enough,
the maladjusted client must also be willing to work at least occasionally in his
related emotional problems in other areas. This may be a prerequisite to a
programme in vocational adjustment.
Check Your Progress
2) Answer the following in brief.
i) Define career maturity.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
ii) Identify five important determinants of career patterns.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
iii) Define vocational success
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
iv) What is vocational adaptation?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
v) What are the criteria of vocational adjustment?
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
61
Career Development
11.9 TEACHER’S ROLE IN CAREER PLANNING
Choosing a course that will qualify for one’s chosen career is a difficult task.
The choice depends on a number of factors such as stream, subject, duration,
location and financial expense and aligning two or more of these specifications
are not that simple. In today’s complicated technology world, the window to
success lies in deep thinking. One has to think a lot before one chooses any
career. Many new careers are emerging like production director, TV journalist,
video editor, sound recorder, web-engineer and so on. It is difficult for students
to keep track. In this complicated situation, teachers can play an important role
in determining the career patterns of students. Teachers need not have a separate
degree in this area, but they will have to take a little interest in this field. Today,
most of the leading dailies, both national and state, cater to the career related
needs of youth. Each of the leading newspapers has reserved a day of the week
to include a supplement on career information; usually it covers all the major
aspects of career patterns. It covers articles on a particular career, or an institution.
It deals with career information queries, current career fairs, admission in foreign
universities etc. It provides guidelines for the preparation for entrance tests for
various courses, interviews with heads/directors of the institutes. In addition to
this it deals with happenings in educational circles or university campuses and
articles on development of qualities, skills and attitudes for better performance
in various professions.
11.9.1 Facilitating Career Exploration

The teacher should try to help students to develop career plans. While organizing
effective career exploration, he should consider learning objectives, learning styles
of students, available resources, available staff and compatibility of techniques
within the existing programme.
Career exploration includes self-exploration, development of decision-making

skills, exploration of educational, and career possibilities and contact with the
world of work. It accomplishes several goals including the following:
• Increase the students’ knowledge about themselves, their interest, abilities,
needs and values.
• Develop positive work attitudes.
• Increase their knowledge of occupational possibilities, the structure of the
world of work, job duties and requirements.
• Point out the implication of occupational and self-knowledge for educational
and vocational choice.
• Help them in developing decision-making, problem-solving and planning
skills.
• Improve skills in seeking, creating, evaluating and communicating
vocational information.
• Develop job seeking skills.
• Motivate the students to attend schools regularly.
• Group setting provides an opportunity to use simulation in career
exploration.
62
11.9.2 Providing Career Information Career Patterns
The young boys and girls are in great need for career related information. Besides
opening their eyes to the world of work, information motivates them in choosing
and preparing for the work also. The dissemination of career information should
begin at the elementary school stage. Here the teacher should integrate career
information inputs into teaching of subject matter. He/she can explain the
relationship of various subject contents with variety of work as well as the career
options in his/her teaching subject. The school teacher at all stages should promote
the development of positive attitudes towards education as preparation to careers
and decision-making. They should also help them develop values appropriate to
future careers.
11.9.3 Providing Career Literature

Reading about occupations is highly stimulating. It helps to develop understanding
about various occupations, the nature of work, qualifications required, method
of entry, salary and other benefits and scope for further advancement. The teacher
should look for career books, admission notices, magazines and periodicals on
careers and other material and expose their students to the latest career
information. He/she can recommend to the library to procure the career literature.
The career literature helps a lot in motivating students to plan for a career and
make related decisions.
11.9.4 Providing Role Models

As stated earlier, adolescents lack suitable role models to identify with, and to
develop work-related identity. They need people as role model who are achievers,
career oriented and successful. The role models should be selected from a variety
of careers, traditional as well as non-traditional who are satisfied with their career
and life style. Only these types of role models can help students to improve their
self-image, instill in them confidence to choose suitable career and experience
self-fulfillment in the chosen career path. The role models can be presented in a
number of ways:
1) Ideally, guest speakers selected as role models should be invited to the school
to interact with students about their achievements, work and how they
achieved and established themselves.
2) Teacher can talk about successful workers in traditional and non-traditional
occupations.
3) The files on achievements of persons in various fields, such as, toppers in
academic and co-curricular activities, award recipients, leaders, social
workers, writers, eminent researchers, defence and police services, etc. could
be maintained and displayed. Even students could be asked to collect and
file this type of material.
4) Pictures of successful alumni with their achievements could be displayed.
5) Special achievements of staff member may be highlighted through display
or in school assembly.
6) Mention may be made about local achievers and achievers from
disadvantaged sections of the society.
63
Career Development The role models can be provided at all stages of school education and are effective
in promoting career development.
11.9.5 Providing Individual Assistance

The above-mentioned strategies may not be sufficient for some of the students
who need special help. Such students include girls and other disadvantaged and
deprived sections of students. Such students need special attention. Teachers
through their support and care can help them to enhance their self-esteem. But as
the teachers also have limited time to work individually on each student, they
should identify such students and refer them to school counsellor. But as teachers
they should facilitate their social and emotional development and encourage
them to continue their education.
11.10 ROLE OF PARENTS

Role of parents in the career development of their children is very important.
They provide opportunities, facilities and environment conducive to career
development. The parents can do the following in order to promote career
development.
i) They should consider them as individuals who have the right to develop
and enjoy in this world. They should bring them up in such a way that they
are equipped with positive qualities.
ii) Specially in the case of girls the parents should understand the importance
of education. They should change their mind-set of educating girls only for
acquiring suitable grooms or procuring employment in case of eventuality.
11.11 LET US SUM UP

The analysis of career patterns has revealed that professional workers typically
like varied initial work experience and tend to proceed immediately from college
to stable professional employment. In our country, generally we find professional
workers like engineers, medical practitioners, defence personnel etc. following
this type of career patterns.
White-collar workers generally have secure type of career patterns as compared

to the blue-collar workers. Secretaries, Office Superintendents, Clerks, come in
this profession. The prevalence of unstable and multiple trial career pattern in
blue-collar jobs, and conventional and stable pattern in white-collar jobs is
generally found.
The career patterns in India are changing. New careers are merging with new
developments on the rise. New services are coming up. Things, which were not
heard earlier, are becoming popular, especially in the urban sectors.
These days, careers which were side business earlier, have become full-fledged
professions of educated persons. For example, art-craft, clay modeling, flower
arrangement, interior decoration, coaching centres or private tuition. Opening
private or so called public schools, textile designing, opening computer
institutions, fast food joints, super markets, running chartered buses, property
64
dealing, magazine publishing, private firms, making films, cassettes, jewellery Career Patterns
crafting etc. have become career choices for many people.
11.12 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1) Define career patterns, vocation, occupation and job.
2) What are the determinants of career patterns?
3) What are the different classifications of career patterns?
4) How is the concept of life stages related with the concept of career pattern?
5) Distinguish between career pattern and career maturity.
6) What are the criteria of vocational success and vocational adjustment?
7) What is the role of teachers in the career planning of their students?
65
Career Development
UNIT 12 CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF
GIRLS IN INDIA
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Career Development of Girls: Salient Features
12.3.1 Home Maker Role for Women
12.3.2 Work Role Perceptions
12.3.3 Women’s Participation in Work
12.3.4 Factors Influencing the Work Participation of Women
12.3.5 Educational Participation of Women
12.3.6 Values and Motivation
12.3.7 Intelligence, Academic Achievements and Occupational Aspirations
12.3.8 Cultural and Environmental Factors
12.3.9 Career versus Non-career Women
12.4 Theories of Career Development of Women
12.5 Career Patterns of Women
12.6 Career Problems of Girls
12.7 Role of Teachers
12.8 Role of Parents
12.9 Let Us Sum Up
12.11 References and Suggested Readings
12.12 Answers to Check Your Progress
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Today, careers for women have emerged as one of the most significant areas of
concern for those who advocate education for women, equality and nurturing
human resources for national goal. Woman is a case of underdeveloped human
potential in our country. The dramatic increase in interest to develop this potential
through education and work has taken place since the declaration of the year
1975 as the International Women’s Year, United Nations Decade for Woman
(1975-1985) and 1990’s as SAARC Decade of the Girl Child (1991-2000) A.D.
and submission of National Perspective Plan for Women 1988-2000 A.D. to
Government of India. Still in India fewer women are working. Only 27% of
working age women are working in paid jobs in 2015-16 when compared to
43% in 2004-05. According to Global Gender Report 2015, India was ranked
136 among 144 countries on the economic participation and opportunities index
(Varma,2017).
12.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
66
• understand the career development of women; Career Development of
Girls in India
• list out the salient features of the career development of girls;
• identify the different types of career patterns of women;
• understand career problems of women; and
• visualize your role as a teacher and parent in promoting career development
of girls.
12.3 CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF GIRLS:

SALIENT FEATURES
The career development is a part of all round development of an individual. It
has always been studied with reference to men, ignoring its concern for women,
even in the developed countries where participation of women in labour force is
significant. One reason may be that it is difficult to study career development in
women. Traditional theories of career development have not taken into
consideration the important elements in women’s life such as marriage, family,
spouse’ attitude towards wife’s work, etc. in their career development. The
vocational and career studies have also largely been focused on male population,
ignoring the female population, or just assuming that they “fit” the male behaviour
patterns. With women opting for higher education and exhibiting varied career
ambitions, perhaps more research is required to study what they are, what they
want from life as individuals, and as women.
The gender affects career development in numerous ways as discussed below:
12.3.1 Home Maker Role for Women

Traditionally, women have been home makers and not the bread winners. Even
today, most women are home makers and this role is exclusive. In career planning
women are supposed to think of marriage and home making along with career,
which is not demanded of men. The home maker roles affect women’s interest in
joining the labour force, performance at work, and even stay in it. Thus career
does not occupy a major position in the lives of women as it is in the case of
men. That is why the career development processes in both the sexes differ.
There may not be significant gender differences in abilities and interests but
differences are there in career aspirations and goals.
12.3.2 Work Role Perceptions

In our society both the boys and girls perceive occupations in a sex-stereotyped
fashion. The development of these occupational biases is the result of role learning
process which starts in early childhood. According to cognitive development
theorists, after the ‘sex-assignment’ which occurs after birth, the next major event
of sex-typed development occurs at the age of two or three years when the child
develops self-categorization as girl or as boy. Not only that children look to
other people to try to understand what it means to have the label “girl” or “boy”
they strive for competence in being what they think they are supposed to be
because of the label. Hence the “sexual-identity” becomes more and more “sex-
role identify”. The result is that boys at all ages show strong preference for the
male role and identify with work. So a boy develops his identity through work.
His academic, vocational and external achievements are expected and rewarded.
67
Career Development For the girls it is different. At the earlier stages (3-6 years) they may show
preference for masculine role in contrast with the feminine role as the children
find masculine role more rewarding and stronger, but later on they adapt to
feminine role for which they are rewarded. Thus, a girl’s self-concept is not what
she is or she ‘should’ be, but what the society wants her to be. Importance of
work in case of women is hardly visualized. A working mother is not visualized
as working for satisfaction, she is perceived as earning for buying comfort for
the family. Similarly, a single working woman is not appreciated as the society
wants women to be married at the “right” age and have children too at the right
age. This also makes girls more inclined towards marriage than towards work-
role orientation. Today, some of the women have started exploring beyond the
traditional home making role. The learning process in role perception in women
is undergoing change and influencing the role expectations for women, which
are becoming less definite.
Today, women are in conflict with traditional thinking and learning, and with
their new interests, aspirations and explorations. The resulting changes further
influence to a considerable extent the career patterns of women.
12.3.3 Women’s Participation in Work

Our constitution guarantees the right of equal opportunity with regard to
employment to men and women without distinction. However, a large number
of women are still without work. According to census data, the work participation
of women has improved during the past.
The type of work performed by women workers is one of the most important
aspects to be considered from the point of view of their career development.
The following could be said about women’s work participation:
i) Women are behind men in work participation.
ii) Participation of rural women in work is more in comparison to urban women.
iii) Women are generally engaged in unskilled work as agricultural or other
labour. Their percentage is, however, more than men. Some of them are
also engaged in home based industries, small business activities and services.
iv) Public sector employs more women than private sector.
v) Women are concentrated in community, social and personal services, which
is the direct extension of their feminine role at home.
Check Your Progress

1) Tick mark (√) the correct option ( ‘T’ for True ‘F’ for False) in the given
statements.
i) Women’s participation in work has improved during the past decades.
(T/F)
ii) Work participation of urban women is more than rural women. (T/F)
68
Career Development of
iii) Percentage of women as agricultural labour is higher than percentage Girls in India
of men. (T/F)
iv) Percentage of women workers in community, social and personal
services is highest in comparison to other industries in organized sector.
(T/F)
12.3.4 Factors Influencing the Work Participation of Women

By tradition and necessity, men have been bread winners and women have tended
to attend to their household duties including care of all the family members. The
small numbers of women who participate in the work do so because of the
following reasons:
1) To Meet Domestic Needs: Generally women work outside the home to

earn money to meet the domestic needs. These women belong to the lower
class and lower middle class categories. They are generally employed in
unskilled and semi-skilled occupations or traditional occupations like
clerical, teaching, nursing etc.
2) To Utilize the Higher Education: Some of the educated women in the

cities, who belong to middle class, do not like to waste their education and,
therefore, join the white-collar jobs. Among these women some become
career conscious and continue working. Moreover, rising aspirations towards
a higher standard of living and a higher level of education also motivate
women to take up some job.
3) To Prove Self-worth: There are a few women who have the desire to achieve
and prove their worth. They pursue higher education, excel in performance,
have increased occupational aspirations and join the careers not the jobs.
Most of these women are found in non-traditional careers. They also work
hard to reach the top positions in hierarchy.
4) Status and Empowerment: In any society work is rewarded with money

and is recognized as important means of status and empowerment. A
housewife may not be economically in need of work but she undermines
her status as unpaid person, holds low esteem in household work and
therefore prefers to work outside home. These women, many a times, begin
their careers quite late in life.
5) Dissatisfaction with Home Making Role: Most of the middle class and
upper middle class women suffer from isolation. It is not possible for most
of them to participate in social-recreational or other outside home activities.
Husband and children, away at place of work or study, do not provide
sufficient emotional satisfaction when they are at home. Emergence of
household gadgets has made household chores easy and time saving. Thus,
in order to fulfill their needs, these women take up work outside their homes.
6) Small Family Size: In a small family with one or two children, after the
children leave school for higher education, women find more leisure time.
Some of them engage themselves with some earning activities at home
while others look for paid employment. However, employment at this stage
is sometimes difficult due to high and ever increasing unemployment rate.
69
Career Development 7) Increased Job Opportunities for Women: With government’s conscious
efforts towards women’s development, educational and job opportunities
for women have expanded rapidly in the recent past. These opportunities
exist mainly in clerical, sales and service occupations, where a large segment
of educated women get employed.
8) Change in Social Attitudes and Values: There has been a gradual change
in social attitudes and values towards women’s development in the country
since independence. This evolution has encouraged women to develop their
potential in education and career.
Check Your Progress

2) Why women work? List below any two reasons:
i) .......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
ii) .......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
12.3.5 Educational Participation of Women

The formal education is known to influence the work participation of women
and it continues to facilitate women’s development of their potential. Since
independence, literacy rate of women has continuously improved although it is
still low in comparison to men. The number of women enrolled in the institutions
of higher education has also increased considerably.
The participation of women in technical and professional stream has shown a

marked increase. There has also been an increase in the number of women students
in Engineering and Technology streams.
12.3.6 Values and Motivation

The level of education attained is directly related to occupational opportunity in
case of boys, but not for the girls. Mostly girls are not motivated for higher
studies. They go to college but not motivated enough to compete with boys on
choice of subject or to develop themselves. Perhaps major importance of college
education is marriage than long term occupational choice and career
commitments.
Meaning of college education is an end to itself. That is, education promises a

better life, greater capacity to meet the challenges of adulthood or eventualities,
to find a better match, to be a better mother and not as a preparation for career.
This kind of value attached to education leaves hardly any scope for motivation
among girls to reach at higher level of education or career.
70
12.3.7 Intelligence, Academic Achievements and Occupational Career Development of
Girls in India
Aspirations
Women’s attitudes towards career and their career aspirations are likely to be
shaped in the early years of development. It is presumed that higher education,
intelligence and better achievements stimulate the individual occupationally.
However, studies have shown that the women’s attitudes towards career could
not be linked with their intelligence, academic achievement and history of
achievements in other school activities as is the case with the men. Men during
their school/college days verbalize about their vocational goals and are found to
be concerned with the extrinsic rewards of the work. They are also concerned
about the future and prestige in careers while girls pursuing school education or
even higher education hardly speak out their concerns for careers. At the most
they talk about non-career type work which hardly speaks about their interests or
aspirations. Even the achievers don’t seem to be planning for higher level
occupations. The situation is still worse for the girls from lower socio-economic
background and other disadvantaged sections of the society. For these girls, the
chances of pursuing higher education or career goals are much reduced even if
they are highly intelligent or can excel educationally. In brief, it is the higher
need for self-approval which is related to social approval in the role of wife and
mother which determines women’s concern for marriage and family and not the
career.
12.3.8 Cultural and Environmental Factors

The career development of girls is also largely determined by parental attitudes,
economic conditions at home and the cultural environment. It has been found in
various research studies that girls from the better socio-economic backgrounds
and especially having educated parents (at least father) relatively opt for higher
education. Working mothers who derive satisfaction from their work and home
are also known to be acting as source of inspiration for their daughters. The girls
who are exposed to strong role models at home or in their near environment
have positive attitude towards their career.
12.3.9 Career versus Non-career Women

With respect to career development, women can be broadly classified into career
women and non-career women, the latter being either totally devoted to marriage
and family life, or holding some non-career type jobs as and when required. The
career women could be further divided into two categories: one who plans to
work but in feminine occupations and the other who aspire to enter traditionally
masculine occupations. The first type of career women work outside their homes
but in the female dominated occupations or in accepted work settings. They
seem to have favourable attitude towards home and family and integrate home,
family and career. This group is generally successful and characterized by feminine
personality traits. The women opting for non-traditional role model have
personality traits usually identified as masculine and have interests different from
non-career or traditional career type women. These women are also known as
“pioneer career women”. Studies indicate that career development among women
who have orientation towards career is a function of their achievement motivation
and satisfaction of mastery in the field of work than only the economic rewards.
71
Career Development
12.4 THEORIES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF
WOMEN
We have discussed different career development theories in Unit 9. Researchers
formulated these theories based on studies conducted on the work experience of
men. Attempts to formulate theories of women’s career development began in
the 1980’s. Hackett & Betz (1981), Gottfredson (1981), and Astin (1984)
improvised earlier career theories to accommodate factors that influence the career
development of women. We would briefly discuss each of these theories here.
Self-efficacy theory (Hackett & Betz 1981)

Hackett & Betz used Bandura’s self-efficacy theory to formulate a career
development model for women. They studied, if there is any, gender differences
in access and exposure to the four sources of information crucial to the
development of efficacy expectations. They postulated that career related self-
efficacy expectations are lower, weaker, and less generalized among women than
among men. A brief review of the four sources of information pertinent to the
development of self-efficacy expectations ( Bandura & Adams 1977) is presented
here.
a) Performance accomplishments
Information about successful performance of a task tends to increase efficacy
expectations regarding the specific task. Studies have shown gender
differences in access to information (i.e. if a task has been successfully
accomplished) and the interpretation of successful task accomplishments.
Women are more likely to attribute the successful accomplishment of a
task to external factors such as task difficulty (low level of difficulty) or
luck rather than internal factors such as ability or effort. Increase in efficacy
level is not likely to happen if successful performance accomplishments
are attributed to external factors (difficulty level of the task or luck).
b) Vicarious learning
The second source of information relevant for developing self-efficacy
expectations is observing other people succeeding in their tasks. In general,
men have more opportunities for vicarious learning experiences related to
career tasks. For women, the vicarious learning experiences relevant to career
tasks are fewer as the availability of women role models in non-traditional
jobs is comparatively less. Therefore, we can say in general, vicarious
learning experiences as a source of information pertinent to increasing
efficacy expectations is less available to women.
c) Emotional arousal
Task performance of individuals can be affected by high levels of anxiety
and stress (emotional/physiological arousal). According to Bandura, anxiety
is induced when individuals perceive themselves as lacking in efficacy
expectations regarding a given task performance. Studies indicate that
anxiety responses in women are likely to reduce their perception of self-
efficacy regarding a specific task.
72
d) Verbal persuasion Career Development of
Girls in India
When individuals are persuaded or encouraged to do a specific task, it
facilitates the development of efficacy expectations. In other words, lack of
encouragement or discouragement regarding a specific task functions to
decrease or fails to increase efficacy expectations. In traditional gender-
role socialization women are often discouraged from pursuing non-
traditional career path that are considered masculine and not gender
appropriate task behavior. Therefore, verbal persuasion as a source of
information relevant to developing self-efficacy expectation is less available
to women.
Hackett & Betz proposed a model depicting the postulated effects of traditional
female socialization on career related self-efficacy expectations (p.333), which
is given below.
Sources of Examples of Socialization Effects on Career-

Efficacy Experiences Typical Among Related Self-
Information Females Efficacy
Greater involvement in domestic and Higher self-efficacy with regard to

Performance nurturance activites, but less involvement domestic activities, lower self-
Accomplishments in sports, mechanical activities, and other efficacy in most other behavioral
traditional “masculine’ domains domains
Lack of exposure to female role models Higher self-efficacy with regard

Vicarious representing the full range of career to traditionally female roles and
Learning options. Female models largely represent occupations, lower self-efficacy
traditional roles and occupations in nontraditional occupations
Further decreases in both

Emotional Higher levels of anxiety are reported by
feminine sex-typed individuals generalized and specific self
Arousal
efficacy
Lack of encouragement toward and/or

Verbal Lowered self-efficacy expecta-
active discouragement from nontradi-
Persuasion tions in relationship to a variety
tional pursuits and activities, e.g. math,
of career options
science
Fig. 1: A model depicting the postulated effects of traditional female socialization on career-related
self-efficacy expectations.
The theory has implications for career development of women. The theory implies
that career counselors should help women design interventions to work on the
four sources of information to develop their self-efficacy expectations.
Circumscription theory (Gottfredson 1981)

Gottfredson’s theory is an expansion of Super’s theory which suggests that
individuals take up jobs that match with their self-concept. According to
Gottfredson, self-concept (impacted by factors such as gender, class, intelligence
etc.) is an important determinant in the occupational aspirations and career choices
of individuals. She postulates that when individuals (women) are faced with
career compromises, they readily forgo their interests rather than being in an
occupation that is not gender ‘appropriate’, which means not matching with
their self-conceived notions of gender stereotype. So, women tend to reject
occupations that are not matching with their self-concept. Career development
of women also depends on their perception about career and training opportunities
available to them. Mostly occupational choices for women are limited.
73
Career Development Sociopsychological model (Astin 1984)
According to Astin, the psychological and sociological (culture and environment)
factors interact and thus influence the choice of career and work behavior of
individuals. Astin’s model has the following four factors which are inter-related:
a) work motivation
b) work expectations
c) sex-role socialization and
d) structure of opportunity
Work motivation: Work is important for individuals as it fulfils the basic needs
of survival, pleasure (pursuing one’s interests through work) and contribution
(need to be useful to family and society and the recognition it brings to the
individual). Astin found that both men and women shared same basic needs
(survival, pleasure and contribution) that motivated them to work.
Work expectations: This refers to the individual’s perception about his/her (i)
ability to perform a job, (ii) the availability of the job and (iii) the kind of job that
fulfils his/her needs.
Sex-role socialization: Astin’s view is that work expectations are different for
men and women. This is because of the differences in the gender socialization
experiences of girls and boys. Gender stereotypical roles are reinforced in boys
and girls through play, family orientations and schooling process. Such
internalized gender- appropriate role and behavior can be expanding (choosing
from a wide range of work options) or restricting( choosing from the gender
stereotypical work options). In case of women, gender socialization experiences
restrict their work options.
Structure of opportunity: According to Astin, men and women differ in their

perception of the structure of opportunity, therefore have different work
expectations. Astin suggests that the structure of opportunity is not static it changes
as society diversify its economic activities in transforming sociopolitical climate.
Thus, according to her the structure of opportunity has to be seen in terms of
distribution of jobs, gender stereotyping of jobs, discrimination, job requirements,
economy, family structures and emerging reproductive technology. As society
changes, men and women confront new environmental challenges (social, cultural,
economic and political) and modify their career options and work behaviours.
The theories discussed here, point out that gender socialization experiences create
strong internal barriers to the career development of women. Gender stereotypical
notions restrict their work options. The findings of these studies have implications
for career counselling of girls. Career counselors should help girls to expand
their career options through suitable interventional strategies.
12.5 CAREER PATTERNS OF WOMEN

As the career development of women is different and complex than those of
men, their career patterns or sequences too are different. Numerous studies have
classified women into two main groups – pioneer women, or those engaged
seriously in career activities, and the traditional women who participate in full-
74
time home making activities. They are also known as non-traditional or career Career Development of
Girls in India
women versus traditional women or home makers respectively. One of the
classification system given by Super (1957) is based on western culture. He uses
the following seven categories to describe the career patterns of women:
i) The stable home making career pattern: It describes predominantly
married women without significant work experience.
ii) The conventional career pattern: It describes women who work several
years after completing general education and then leave the work to become
full-time home makers.
iii) The stable working career pattern: It describes those women for whom
career becomes their life work.
iv) The double-track career pattern: It describes those women who combine
career and marriage.
v) The interrupted career pattern: This pattern describes those women who
begin work, leave for marriage and family and then again return to work.
vi) The unstable career pattern: It describes those women who fluctuate back
and forth from work to home making due to usually irregular economic
conditions.
vii) The multiple trial career patterns: In this pattern, the women hold a
succession of unrelated jobs stability in none, and have no genuine life
work.
The above patterns show one thing clearly that the women’s career orientations
and career motivations are different from those of men and are based on their
needs, aspirations and attitude towards career and marriage. In fact, the career
patterns of women are determined by their cultural and educational backgrounds.
Check Your Progress

3) List any two types of career patterns of women.
i) .......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
ii) .......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
12.6 CAREER PROBLEMS OF GIRLS

There are many problems that women have to face for developing their career.
Some of the serious problems are as follows:
Gender – biases
Gender-bias is common everywhere whether it is at home, educational institutions,
place of work or society in general. These biases create barriers both structural
and attitudinal in women’s career development.
75
Career Development i) Gender-biases at Home: The feeling of difference between the boy and
the girl is introduced first in the family. Here the gender-bias begins from
conception of a child. The uninvited and unwanted girl child who is deprived
of proper food, love and care in comparison to the male child; whose
education is of secondary importance and who is not allowed to play or
participate in any activity except the household chores and sibling care,
grows into a female adolescent with expected feminine behaviour and
marriage goals. Hence her physical, personal, social and emotional
development is restricted. Her bringing up does not prepare her for higher
education or vocational training or employment.
ii) Educational Institutions: After home, the place which affects children’s
behaviour is school. Here children face gender-bias in almost all the aspects,
for example, gender-bias in textbooks, curriculum transaction, allocation
of subjects, SUPW activities; participation in some of the co-curricular
activities etc. Once inculcated, these behaviours become part of children’s
lives. In colleges and universities also, the biases are further propagated. In
this way, the quality of girls education does not match with that of
educational, vocational and personal development. Even the teacher training
programmes both in-service and pre-service seemed to ignore desensitization
of teacher against gender-biased behaviour till recently. The revised curricula
of teacher education of different universities have introduced a new course
‘Gender School and Society’ recently.
iii) Place of Work: Employers often don’t accept women as workers like men.
They even hesitate to employ women. A woman seeking employment is
viewed as a future wife and mother who will have primary responsibility
towards her home and family and not work. In comparison to a man she is
less preferred in employment and is paid less. She is also not given required
leave for homemaking and child rearing by employers other than public
sector. Above all she may sometimes face sexual harassment at work.
iv) In-society: Many societies are strongly gender-biased. The expectations of

family, neighbours and other social groups from a girl is of ‘traditional
woman’ who has no sense of Me. She is expected to be subservient,
committed home maker, obedient wife and daughter-in-law, and a sacrificing
mother. She is expected to be submissive, soft spoken, reserved, shy, docile,
tolerating and not protesting against atrocities towards her by the husband
and his family. If otherwise, then she is labeled as home breaker and
uncultured. All these biases severely hinder the process of career
development of girls as the girls prefer to be obedient home makers rather
than decision makers and career oriented.
Poor Self-image or Self-esteem

As mentioned earlier, the girls are treated in many societies with specific
behaviours, attitudes and expectations. The discriminatory treatment which a
girl receives prior to her birth through her childhood and till her death is the best
indicator of formation of self-image in case of girls. Often, a girl is not preferred
even prior to her birth, treated as unwanted after birth; neglected in nutrition,
health and education; treated as a helping hand at home and outside; suppressed,
neglected throughout her life and treated as sex-object. Thus, she develops a
poor image of herself. The discrimination against girls is prevalent across all
76
cultures, castes and socio-economic strata. Development of poor self-image or Career Development of
Girls in India
low self-esteem is a strong psychological barrier in individual development.
Check Your Progress
4) List three gender-biased behaviours in school situations.
i)
ii)
iii)
5) Mention how the girls develop poor self-image
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
Girl’s Access to Education

Some of the prominent problems in girls’ education are:
i) Social Problem: Social attitude towards education of girls is generally not

positive. Education for the girl is considered as unimportant. Practice of
early marriage, parental illiteracy, lack of educational facilities at home,
male teachers in the schools and girls’ responsibilities at home etc. are some
of the hindrances in girls’ access to education.
ii) Economic Problems: When there is no one to feed the family and educate
the male ‘sought after’ child, how can the parent afford to enroll the girl
child in a school? Who will take care of siblings, perform household chores,
earn and contribute to family income? In the families where they can afford
education, it is the boys who get this benefit.
iii) Educational problems: The major educational problem is lack of

educational institutions especially beyond elementary level areas. The
schools lack in physical facilities such as furniture, water, blackboard, toilets
etc. The unattractive textbooks, male teachers, lack of sports and
extracurricular activities, unsuitable school timings are discouraging factors
for girls to attend schools. The girls who can reach the high school level are
very few, and they have no access to further education or training in rural
areas. There are some institutions for men but they too are far away from
the villages. Moreover, they lack in hostel facilities for girls. The problem
is both ways. On the one hand, the girls are not prepared (socially) to join
further education or training and on the other hand there are no institutions
and facilities available to them.
At places where the institution or training facilities for girls are available, the
courses offered to girls are traditional which lack in market value. Sometimes 77
Career Development the girls have to opt for such courses due to their earlier educational preparation.
It has been found that due to the universalization of elementary education policy,
more and more girls are crossing 8th standard and reaching high school. But
these girls are weak in science and mathematics, therefore, they go for softer
options, which don’t require science and mathematics, that is, joining home
science courses such as tailoring, cooking, bakery, etc. and not the technical and
engineering courses.
As the educational status is directly related to career development, the above

mentioned educational problems severely restrict the educational development
of girls and hence hinder their career development.
Dual Role
When a woman decides to take up a career she has to do so while performing all
the duties of housewife, mother and daughter-in-law, etc. In fact, she is taught
from the beginning that her career is of secondary importance and her first priority
is to look after her home.
Role Conflict
Most of the working women, especially well educated, suffer from role conflict.
Like her family and society, she considers her role of housewife and mother
equally important to her career. Neglecting one at the cost of other or feeling of
neglecting one at the cost of other adds strains in women’s relationship with her
husband and family. The result is many women feel compelled to leave the job
to get rid of this painful situation. This not only stops their career development
but sets a bad example for young girls.
Fear of Success
It is seen that women generally prefer the occupations which are extension of
their household duties such as teaching, nursing, secretary, personal assistant,
social worker, etc. This is also the reason that the work which women do is not
held in high esteem as the work which men do. The occupational preference of
women for ‘typical’ women’s fields suggests two motives operating behind:
Firstly, girls think of marriage and societal approval before they plan for career.
Secondly, the women are highly conditioned to avoid success. They perhaps feel
secure if they opt for more traditional occupations than for non-traditional ones.
It is generally believed that the more successful a man is in his job, he will make
a desirable husband, the more successful a woman is, most people are afraid she
may not be a successful wife.
Problems in Making Vocational Choice

Unexpected personal events such as death of significant one, divorce or financial
crisis may influence a woman’s decision to take up work but it is not necessary
that she gets the work for which she is qualified or the type of work she desires.
Thus, she may not have career involvement.
However, there are other contingency factors and difficulties which women face
in making career choices. These are:
i) The girls receive very little orientation towards career choice while the
question of career choice is emphasized for boys.
78
ii) Parents, teachers and significant others are more likely to emphasize salary Career Development of
Girls in India
and status in boy’s career choice while for girl’s emphasis on career is even
missing. Also, the jobs available to them are of poor status and remuneration.
iii) The options open to girls are considerably more restricted than for men and
they are forced to consider their role as a home maker before making career
selection.
iv) Women are more influenced by what they think men and society in general
will accept as a woman’s job and vice-versa.
v) The girls have fewer opportunities for vocational training and higher
education.
vi) Very often girls wait for marriage before choosing or joining any job as
marriage and husband’s home takes priority over career.
vii) Although, approximately all types of courses and occupations are open to
women, they frequently lack awareness of these opportunities and the
financial support for their education and training.
viii) Above all, girls also lack information about their abilities and interests, and
awareness of skills in them which are the motivating factors to make career
decisions. Most of the girls, still believe that girls are weak in science and
mathematics and they are better in social sciences and home science subject.
ix) The girls also lack positive role models to identify with and develop their
career potential. The above influences though come from a variety of sources
both internal and external but sometimes decidedly create problems in girls’
career development.
Check Your Progress

6) Write any three problems in career development of girls.
i) .......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
ii) .......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
iii) .......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
7) Mention major difficulties faced by girls in making vocational choice
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
79
Career Development
12.7 ROLE OF TEACHERS
The above discussion is a clear indication that women are a case of
underdeveloped human potential. Since schools are looked on as an agency of
society for developing the students’ potential, suggested below are some
interventions, the teachers can take up to promote career development of girls.
Approach to Girls’ Education

The approach of the teachers to girls’ education should be to develop a human
resource. They should help girls to develop as individuals through encouragement
and assistance in identification and nurturing of their talents. Teachers should
examine their own biases and gender-stereotyped behaviours which cause
hindrance in realization of career potential in girls. They should also discourage
segregation of subjects, skills, activities, hobbies and behaviours etc. by gender
which is a major hurdle in the way of girls’ development as individuals and their
adoption of new roles.
Favourable Environment of Learning

The teacher should try to create favourable environment or conditions for learning.
He/she should not encourage the prevalent stereotyped appropriate or
inappropriate behaviours for girls. He/she should not encourage girls to be timid,
anxious, fearful, passive, dependent, compliant, and incompetent in technical
ability etc. Rather he/she should help the girls to overcome these pressures and
develop positive attitude and respect for their worth. The teacher should also
challenge the adult-imposed biases which the girls often face and help the girls
to improve their self-image.
Providing Career Information and Literature

Girls often do not have access to information. Besides opening their eyes to the
world of work, information also motivates them in choosing and preparing for
the work. The dissemination of career information should begin at the elementary
school stage. Here the teacher should integrate career information inputs into
teaching of subject matter. He/she can recommend to the library to procure the
career literature. The career literature helps a lot in motivating the girls to plan
for a career and make career related decisions.
Providing Role Models

As pointed out earlier, the girls lack suitable role models to identify with and
develop work related identity. They need women role models who are achievers,
career oriented and successful. If a woman works only for economic necessity
and not for personal gain, she suffers from role-conflict and lack of self-worth.
Therefore, they are not suitable role models. The role models for girls should be
selected from a variety of careers, traditional as well as non-traditional, who are
satisfied with their career and life style while respecting themselves as women.
Only these type of role models can help girls in improving their self-image,
instill in them confidence to choose suitable career and experience self-fulfillment
in the chosen career path.
80
The role models can be presented in many ways: Career Development of
Girls in India
1) Ideally, women guest speakers selected as role models should be invited to
the school to talk to the girls about their work achievement and how they
established themselves. There is no comparison to presentation of live role
models with other methods as the girls can interact with them and may
clarify their personal doubts and difficulties.
2) Teacher can talk about successful women workers in traditional and non-
traditional occupations.
3) The files on achievements of girls and women in various fields, such as,
toppers in academic and co-curricular activities, award recipients, leaders,
social workers, writers, eminent researchers, defence and police services,
etc. could be maintained and displayed. Even the girls could be asked to
collect and file such type of material.
4) Pictures of successful alumni with their achievements could be displayed.
These women could also be invited to the school to interact with the students.
5) Special achievements of women staff members may be highlighted through
display or in school assembly.
6) Mention may be made about local women achievers and achievers from
disadvantaged sections of the society.
The role models can be presented at all stages of school and college education
and are effective in promoting career development among girls.
Providing Individual Assistance

The above-mentioned strategies are not sufficient for some of the girls who need
special help. These are girls who have become strongly gender stereotype due to
their traditional development, home and community environment. They find it
difficult to perceive themselves as individuals and improve their self-esteem.
They don’t feel the necessity of education for them and generally drop-out at
early school stages. Such girls need special attention. If the teacher through her
interest, support and care can help them to come out of their shells and develop
self-respect and useful life style, there is nothing like it. But as the teachers also
have limited time to work individually on each student, they should better identify
such girls and refer them to a trained counsellor.
Check Your Progress
8) Mention any three things a teacher can do to promote career development
of girls.
i) .......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
ii) .......................................................................................................
iii) .......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
81
Career Development
9) List the ways a teacher can provide career information.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
12.8 ROLE OF PARENTS

Role of parents in girl’s career development is very important. It is they who not
only have to provide opportunities and facilities but also an environment
conducive to their daughter’s development. The parents can do the following to
promote career development of girls:
i) They should consider their daughters as individuals who have also the right
to develop and enjoy in this world. They should bring up their daughters in
such a way that they are equipped with positive qualities of both the gender.
ii) It is urgently required that the parents should understand the importance of
education for their daughters. They should change their attitude of educating
girls only for acquiring suitable grooms or procuring employment in case
of eventuality. The parents’ interest in daughter’s development is very crucial
for her career development.
iii) Parents should change the traditional belief of great economic value of male
children in comparison to female children who are considered as economic
burden or ‘Parayadhan’. Instead of early marriage they should educate their
daughters. Now the girls are given free education, uniform, stipends and
other benefits by the government to promote their development. The parents
should avail detailed information about these schemes which are also
publicized on media and use the assistance for the benefit of their daughters.
iv) Rural parents and economically weaker parents are required to understand
that their daughters should not be used to subsidize their brother’s education
through work. Rather both boys and girls can pursue education through
distance and other alternative modes while earning for the family.
v) The government has initiated many schemes for girls and women for their
education, vocational training, skill development, self-employment etc. The
government also provides loans to women who want to start their own
economic activity. These programmes cover all types of women population,
rural/urban, illiterate/literate/highly educated, tribal, scheduled castes and
backward classes. The parents should encourage their daughters to get benefit
from these schemes.
vi) The parents who favour their daughters’ education should go one step further
and should allow them to choose the courses and careers for which they are
suitable and are interested. They should not perpetuate the traditional gender
role based career engagement for their daughters.
82
vii) The child rearing in our culture is generally-recognized as mother’s privilege Career Development of
Girls in India
and responsibility. Mothers who themselves have been socialized in a
traditional way with all the gender biases perpetuate the same while rearing
their children. It is the mothers who need to change their attitudes and
outlook. They should not treat male and female children differentially to
teach them gender appropriate behaviour. Then only a girl child can realize
her potential as an individual.
12.9 LET US SUM UP

Career development is part of all round development of an individual, so far
career development has been studied with reference to men, as traditionally men
were career oriented and women were home oriented. Since the 1980’s there
have been a few attempts by researchers to study specifically the career
development of women. These studies have put forward the theories of career
development of women which we have discussed in this Unit. The career patterns
of women are different than those of men. There are a large number of problems
that block women’s career development. The teachers have a major role in
promoting the career development of girls. The parent’s role is equally important
in promoting career development of girls.
12.10 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1) What are the salient features of career development of girls?
2) How work-role perceptions develop in girls?
3) Why the girls are not able to receive education?
4) How a teacher can promote career development of girls?
12.11 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Astin, H.S. (1984). The meaning of work in women’s lives: A socio psychological
model of career choice and work behavior. The Counselling Psychologist, 12,
117-126.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, N J: Prentice-
Hall.
Bandura, A. & Adams, N.E. Analysis of self-efficacy theory of behavioural
change. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1977, 1, 287-310.
Brown, D. & Brooks, L. (eds.) (1984, 1990): Career Choice and Development:
Applying Contemporary Theories to Practice. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco.
Crites.J.O. (1978). Career Maturity Inventory. Montery, CTB/McGraw Hill,
California.
Dhoundiyal, V.R., Doundiyal, N.C., and Shukla, A. (eds.) (1994): The Indian
Girls, Shri Almora Book Depot, Almora (U.P.).
Ginzberg, E., Ginsburg, S.W., Axelrad, S., & Herma, J.C. et.al (1951).
Occupational Choice: An Approach to a General Theory. New York: Columbia
University Press.
83
Career Development Gottfredson, L.S. (1981). Circumscription and compromise: A developmental
theory of career aspiration. Journalof Counselling Psychology, 28, 416-427.
GOI. National Classification of Occupations-2015.Vol.1. Ministry of Labour
and Employment. Directorate General of Employment. www. Ncs.gov.in
(retrieved on 7/7/17).
GOI. National Industrial Classification-2008. Central Statistical Organization.
MOSPI. www.mospi.nic.in (retrieved on 7/7/17).
Hackett, G. Betz, N. (1981). A self-efficacy approach to the career development
of women. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 18, 326-339.
Holland, J.L. (1973). Making vocational Choices: A Theory of Careers.
Engelwood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall Inc.
Hoi, M. M. & Hiebert, B. (2005), Career development of First – Year University
students: A Test of Astin’s Career Development Model. Canadian Journal of
Career Development. Vol 4, No. 2, 22-31.
ILO (2012). International Standard Classification of Occupations – 08.Vol.1.
www.ilo.org (retrieved on 2/7/17).
Joneja, G.K. (1994): Career Informaion Needs of Girls, pp. 146-149, In
Dhoundiyal et. al.
Joneja, G.K. (1997): Occupational Information in Guidance, NCERT, New Delhi.
Holland, J.L.(1985). Making Vocational Choices: A theory of Vocational
Personalities and Work Environment, Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey.
Krumboltz, J.D., & Nichols, C.W. (1990). Integrating the social learning theory
of career decision making. In W.B. Walsh & S.H. Osipow (Eds.), Career
counselling: Contemporary topics in vocational psychology. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Kulshrashta, Indira (1992): Indian Women – Images and Replicas, Blaza
Publishers, New Delhi.
Lent, R.W., Brown, S.O. & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive
theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of
Vocational Behaviour, 45, 79-122.
Pietrofesa, J. Biana Bernstein, J.A. Minor and Susan Stanford (1980): Guidance
– An Introduction, Rand McNally College Publishing Company; Chicago.
Rao, D.B. and Rao, K.R.S.S. (eds.) (1996): Current Trends in Indian Education,
Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi.
Roe, A. (1956): The Psychology of Occupation. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New
York.
Roe, A. & Klos, D. (1972). Classification of Occupations. In Whitely, J.M. &
Resmikoff, A. (eds.). Perspectives on Vocational Development. Washington:
American Personnel and Guidance Association, 199-221.
84
Samuel H. Osipoco (1983): Theories of Career Development, The Ohio State Career Development of
Girls in India
University, Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Super, D.E. (1957): The Psychology of Careers, Harper, New York.
Super, D. (1953): A theory of vocational development, American Psychologist
(8), 185-90.
UN (2008). International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic
Activities Revision Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Unstats.un.org
(retrieved on 2/7/17).
Varma,S(2017) Why Fewer Indian Women are working. Delhi: Sunday Times of
India, 17thSeptember, 2017p.24.
12.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Unit 9
1) i) Because people have different aspirations.
ii) Self-esteem, identity, self-expression of skills and competence and
commitment and self-worth.
iii) If the job denies individuals the freedom they would like to have in
execution of their duties, they feel uncomfortable and subsequently
loose interest.
2) i) Because the satisfaction attached with the present income level is
affected by the level of the aspiration of the person and the parity
between his income, and that of others who are similar to him in
education, income and experience.
ii) The occupational status of different occupations vary in many ways.
The jobs could be classified in a hierarchical manner according to
prestige, the income, skill or training required, educational level,
interests and the ability. One such classification divides occupation
into following categories; professional, proprietary and managerial,
clerical and sales, skilled and supervisory, semi-skilled and unskilled.
iii) The occupation influences the time structuring of a person. The white
collar worker normally finish work in regular office hours while the
professional people (like professors, advocates, tax consultants) work
beyond office hours also. Either they may have to spend time in
improving their technical skills or they are working for their
professional development. Since, the time spent on the job is different,
the time a person will be able to devote for leisure, family and other
hobbies will be automatically structured according to the occupational
demands.
3) Growth, Exploration, Establishment, Maintenance and Decline

4) i) Service – Social Workers, Police personnel, Therapists
ii) Business contact – Salesman, Brokers, Insurance Agents
iii) Organization – Industrialist, Bankers, Cashiers
85
Career Development iv) Technology – Chief engineer, Applied scientists.
v) Science – Research scientists, Medical specialists.
vi) Outdoor – Farmers, Landscape artists.
vii) General Culture – Teachers, Lawyers, Judges
viii) Art and Entertainment – athletes, designers, creative artists, performing
artists
5) Its focal point is personality and its typology; he contends that each
individual, to some extend, resembles one of six basic personality types.
Just as there are six types of personalities, there are six types of environments,
which, like personalities, can be described according to certain
characteristics. Environments are characterized by the people who occupy
them.
6) It means that it provides explicit links among various personality

characteristics and corresponding job titles.
7) i) Realistic – Oriented to the present, deal, with concrete, possesses
mechanical ability, predictable
ii) Enterprising – Risk taking, work intensive, innovative
iii) Conventional – Practical, organized, attention to detail
8) i) Reality factor
ii) Influence of the amount and quality of education
iii) Personality and emotional make up of the individual
iv) Personal values
9) In the crystallization stage the student is sure about the vocational choice
he is going to commit to. In the specification stage he makes the active final
commitment e.g. by taking up a job in the said occupation.
10) Work oriented can delay gratification in the interest of vocational pursuit.
Pleasure oriented can be easily distracted from the pursuit of his career.
Unit 10
1) i) F ii) T iii) T iv) T
2) i) e ii) a iii) d iv) b v) c

3) i) Selling, Teaching
ii) Research, Finance
iii) Automobiles, Chemicals
iv) Mathematics, Science
4) i) Career Talk
ii) Career Conference
iii) Career Film Show
iv) Career Visit
86
v) Career Fair Career Development of
Girls in India
vi) Career Exhibition
Unit 11
1) i) Career refers to all the activities in which a person is involved
throughout his/her life while vocation is the choice of a type of
occupation or the choice of a career.
ii) The growth stage; the exploratory stage; the establishment stage, the
maintenance stage and the decline stage.
iii) Preparatory work period, initial work period, the trial work period,
the stable work period and the retirement period.
iv) The stable career pattern, the conventional career pattern, the unstable
career pattern and the multiple-trial career pattern.
2) i) Career maturity is generally defined as the individual’s readiness to
cope with the developmental tasks with which he or she is confronted
because of his/her biological and social developments, and because
of society’s expectations of people who have reached that stage of
development.
ii) Individual parental socio-economic level, mental ability, skills,
personality characteristics, career maturity and the opportunities to
which one is exposed.
iii) Vocational success leads to feelings of autonomy, of being somewhat
is control of one’s present and even of one’s future. It also leads to the
development of interest in the things in which one has been successful.
iv) When a person is relatively unaffected by the job and its challenge it
is termed as vocational adaptation. It is also called as vocational
adjustment.
v) The client’s readiness to work on the vocational adjustment problem
is one criterion of the wisdom of working on it. Nevertheless, this
alone is not enough, the maladjusted client must also be willing to
work at least occasionally in his related emotional problems in other
areas. This may be a prerequisite to a programme in vocational
adjustment.
Unit 12
1) i) T ii) F iii) T iv) T
2) Refer to section 12.4.
3) Refer to 12.5.
4) Refer to 12.6.1.
5) Refer 12.6.2.
6) Refer 12.6
7) Refer 12.8.
8) i) Refer to 12.8.3.
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COURSE TEAM (PRE-REVISED)

COURSE TEAM (REVISED)

BLOCK 1 Introduction to Guidance and Counselling

Block 2 Techniques and Procedures

Unit 10 is titled, Occupational Information. This Unit focuses on the importance

Career patterns refer to the sequence of occupations in the life of an individual

Career development is a lifelong process of getting ready to choose, and generally

9.3 MOTIVATION TO WORK

9.3.1 Psychological Needs

Self-expression of Skills and Competence: Work offers opportunities to express

9.3.2 Social Needs

Provision for emergencies/welfare activities: Workers expect to be treated fairly

9.4 WORK AFFECTS WAY OF LIFE

Occupation and the Status

Work Routines and Occupation

Work Influences Attitudes and Values

Dress and Language

9.6 SUPER’S THEORYOF CAREER

9.7 ROE’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY

1) Service: These occupations are primarily concerned with serving and

2) Business Contact: These occupations are primarily concerned with the

4) Technology: This group includes occupations concerned with the

5) Outdoor: This group includes the occupations primarily concerned with

6) Science: These are the occupations primarily concerned with scientific

7) General Culture: These occupations are primarily concerned with the

9.7.2 Levels of Each Group

6) Unskilled: These occupations require no special training or education and

9.7.3 Roe’s Proposition on the Origin of Needs and Interests

2) Whether these inherited characteristics will achieve, surpass or under achieve

3) The direction of development of interests, attitudes and other personality

The following are possible variations:

• Needs for which even minimum satisfaction is rarely achieved will, if of a

• Need for which satisfaction is delayed, but eventually accomplished, will

• The eventual pattern of psychic energies, in terms of attention directedness,

• Ann Roe then suggested that individual’s genetic background underlines

b) Avoidance of the child expressed either as emotional deprivation or

c) Acceptance of the child, either casually or lovingly. The accepting type

9.7 HOLLAND’S THEORY OF VOCATIONAL

9.7.1 Six Model Environment

The above key assumptions are supplemented by several secondary assumptions

a) Consistency - Consistency is the degree of relatedness or homogeneity

b) Differentiation - Some persons or environments are more clearly defined

c) Identity - Personal identity is defined as the possession of a clear and stable

d) Congruence - Different types require different environments. For example,

9.7.2 Vocational Choice as an Integration between Major and

Implications for Counselling

9.8 GINZBERG’S THEORY

9.8.1 The Major Periods of the Vocational Development Process

Finally, two significant developments concerning time awareness take place

– Exploration Stage: The important task of this stage is the selection of a

Variation in the Pattern

9.8.2 General Concept of the Theory

Implications for Counselling

9.10 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF CAREER

2) Environmental conditions and events

4) Task approach skills

Krumboltz and associates place a lot of importance on unplanned and chance

9.11 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF CAREER

a) self-efficacy( refers to a person’s beliefs about his/her abilities to organize