BSW126

BSW-126
Social Work in Family Setting
Block
1
FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION
UNIT 1
Concept of Family Life
UNIT 2
Family Life Education - Concept and Meaning
UNIT 3
Importance of Family Life Education
UNIT 4
Role of Home, School and Religion in Imparting Family
Life Education
UNIT 5
Development of Personality and Moral Values in Life
Expert Committee (Original)
Prof. P.K. Gandhi Dr. Ranjana Sehgal Prof. K.K. Mukhopadhyay
Jamia Millia Islamia Indore School of Social Work, University of Delhi
New Delhi Indore New Delhi
Dr. D.K. Lal Das Dr. Rama V. Baru Prof. A.A. Khan
R.M. College of Social JNU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Work, Hyderabad
Dr. P. D. Mathew Dr. Jerry Thomas Dr. R.P. Singh

Indian Social Institute Don Bosco IGNOU, New Delhi
New Delhi Guwahati
Dr. Alex Vadakumthal Prof. Surendra Singh Dr. Richa Chaudhary

CBCI Centre, New Delhi Vice Chancellor B.R. Ambedkar
M.G. Kashi Vidyapeeth University of Delhi
Varanasi Delhi
Prof. Gracious Thomas Prof. A.B. Bose (Retd.) Prof. Prabha Chawla
IGNOU, New Delhi SOCE, IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. A.P. Barnabas (Retd.)

IIPA, New Delhi
Expert Committee (Revision)

Prof Sushma Batra, Dr. Sangeeta Sharma Dhaor, Dr. Saumya,
Department of Social Work, Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar College, School of Social Work,
University of Delhi University of Delhi IGNOU
Dr. R.R. Patil, Prof. Gracious Thomas, Dr. G. Mahesh,

Department of Social Work, Jamia School of Social Work, School of Social Work,
Millia Islamia IGNOU IGNOU
Dr. Beena Anthony Reji, Dr. Rose Nembiakkim, Dr. Sayantani Guin,
Aditi Mahavidyalaya, School of Social Work, School of Social Work,
University of Delhi IGNOU IGNOU
Course Preparation Team (Original)

Unit Writers
1. Dr. Subhakanta Mohapatra, NOS, New Delhi
3. Prof. Teresa Chacko, Kalloor House, Cochin
4. Prof. Mary Mathew, Santosh Nagar, Trivandrum
5. Dr. Rama V. Baru, JNU, Delhi
Content Editor Language Editor Block & Course Editor

Prof. Thomas Kalam Prof. Kusum Chopra, Prof. Gracious Thomas
St. John National Academy of JNU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Health Science, Bangalore
Programme Coordinator
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Preparation Team (Revised)

Unit Writers
3. Prof. Teresa Chacko, Kalloor House, Cochin
Content Editor Language & Block Editor Programme & Course

Dr. Nita Kumari, Dr. Sayantani Guin, Coordinator
Ambedkar College, School of Social Work, IGNOU Dr. Sayantani Guin,
University Delhi School of Social Work, IGNOU
PRINT PRODUCTION
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the course on, ‘Social Work in Family Setting’. Family is the basic unit of a society.
It is in the family that children are born, cared, reared and provided education for life. Family life
education existed in society as part of social life. The popular concept of family life education as
an area of education gained momentum based on the felt need and public demand arising out of
the fast changing social scenario.
There are four blocks in this course. Block 1 is on ‘Family Life Education’. This block provides
a comprehensive view of the concept, meaning and importance of family life education along
with the role of various agencies in imparting family life education. Besides identifying the role
of different agencies in family life education, this block also explains the methods adopted in
imparting family life education. The theories of personality development, nature of personality,
meaning of moral values and the relationship between personality and moral values have been
discussed.
Block 2 is on ‘Sexual Health Education’. This block will introduce you to the concepts of sexual
health education. The difference between a man and a woman; biological difference and cultural
stereo types; uniqueness and differences of both sexes; and appreciation of the equality of a man
and a woman in spite of differences is also explained in this block. The importance of sexual
health education and the role of school as well as media in creating awareness about sexual
health education have also been discussed in this block.
Block 3 deals with ‘Programmes for Family Welfare’. In this block, you will understand
important concepts like family structure, functions and relationships, family dynamics, social
changes affecting Indian family, problems encountered in family and intervention strategies,
policies and programmes related to Indian families. The family planning methods and the
medical termination of pregnancy have also been discussed in this block.
Block 4 is on ‘Major Problems in Marital Life’. This block discusses the psycho-social effects of
divorce, separation and migration. The legal issues involving marriage, dowry and dowry deaths
have been explained in this block. The causes and impact of domestic violence have also been
discussed in this block.
This course will give you a comprehensive understanding of family life education and social
work in the family setting.
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the course on Social Work in Family Setting. The first block of this course deals
with the concept, meaning and importance of family life education. It also talks about the role of
home, school and religion in imparting family education and the development of moral values in
life. There are five units in this block. Unit 1 deals with ‘Concept of Family Life’. Unit 2 is
on ‘Family Life Education – Concept and Meaning’. This unit also analyses the relationship
between different types of values in family life education. Unit 3 explains the ‘Importance of
Family Life Education’. This unit explains the broad objectives of family life education and
describes the role of an individual, family and community in family life education. Unit 4 deals
with the ‘Role of Home, School and Religion in Imparting Family Life Education’. Besides
identifying the role of different agencies in family life education, this unit also explains the
method adopted in imparting family life education. Unit 5 describes the ‘Development of
Personality and Moral Values in Life’. This unit deals with the theories of personality
development, nature of personality, meaning of moral values and the relationship between
personality and moral values.
The five units of this block provide a comprehensive view of the concept, meaning and
importance of family life education along with the role of various agencies in imparting family life
education. In short, this block clarifies the essentials of family life education.
UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF FAMILY LIFE
 Dr. Subhakanta Mohapatra
Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Social Institutions of Family and Marriage
1.3 Concept of Family in UN Declarations
1.4 Family Life in Indian Context
1.5 Relationship and Bonding in Family Life
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Suggested Readings
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit you are invited to read and learn about the basics of family life. One of the
expectations of the course on ‘Social Work in Family Setting’ is that certain basic concepts
pertaining to family are clarified. After reading this unit you will be able to:
 understand the concept to family as a basic unit of society;

 meaning of family, importance of marriage and relationships; and
 concept of family values and bonding.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Family has been regarded as the cornerstone of society by many social thinkers. Marriage
between an adult man and an adult woman is the basis of the formation of a family from time
immemorial. It is in the family that children are born, cared, reared and provided education on
life. Over the years, global societies have witnessed shifts in family patterns. Radical changes
are being brought into lifestyles through progress and reforms. The recent phenomenon of
globalisation and consumerism has created diversity of family and household forms. Along
with these changes, social problems and personal difficulties continue to increase and multiply.

Dr. Subhakanta Mohapatra, NOS, New Delhi
It would be unimaginable for earlier generations to understand the extent of changes taking
place in the areas of family life and life styles in many of our advanced countries. For people in
several countries, the world of family looks very different than it was before World War II.
However, the institutions of family and marriage continue to exist as basics of social
organisation. In this unit, we shall discuss in detail the concept and meaning of marriage and
family as primary institutions of social life in the Indian context. Although dramatic changes in
the character of family can be seen in several societies abroad, most Indians hold on to the
traditional family life, culture and traditions. It is bound to stay for a longer period for many
more generations to come. Therefore, it is apt that we examine the basics of family life and its
richness in forming responsible citizens of our society.
1.2 THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS OF FAMILY AND MARRIAGE
Family is the basic unit of any society. Family consists of father, mother and children. The
stability of family life with parents and children is fundamental to all human society and its
long-term survival. The sacredness of marriage, its permanence and its mutuality of love are
the major forces for preserving this basic unit in society everywhere across the globe. Much
discussion is taking place in many societies and cultures about the primacy of individual rights
that outweigh any other consideration. The initiatives to promote common good of society
based on mutual obligations and less emphasis on individual rights are slowly getting
diminished. The process is moving towards a total emphasis on individual freedom and choice
in this era of consumerism and globalisation without due consideration of the negative
consequences it can have on the traditional and oldest social institutions of marriage and
family. Such a process will also have negative consequences on community life and long term
survival of nations that depend on mutual obligations and responsibilities to ensure stability
and peace.
Basic Concepts
Before we proceed with further discussion on these important and essential social institutions,
it is apt that we define the basic concepts of family, kinship and marriage.
Family
Many sociologists have regarded the family as the bedrock of society. According to George
Peter Murdoc, ‘the family is a social group characterised by common residence, economic co-
operation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a
socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the
sexually co-habiting adults.” As per this definition, the family members live together, produce
offspring, work together, and pool resources together. The sexual relationships and
reproduction of the offsprings by the male and female adults take place as per the norms of
their particular society.
According to Anthony Giddens, ‘a family is a group of persons directly linked by kin

connections, the adult members of which assume responsibility of caring for children’. The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English describes family as a ‘set of parents and
children’ or ‘the members of a household, especially parents and their children’. The United
States Bureau of the Census defines a family as two or more people who are related by blood,
marriage, or adoption and who live together.
The Vanier Institute of the Family (2004) defines family in a way consistent with traditional
anthropological and sociological definitions of family. Family is ….any combination of two or
more persons who are bound together over time by ties of mutual consent, birth and/or
adoption or placement and who, together, assume responsibilities for variant combinations of
some of the following:
 Physical maintenance and care of member,
 Addition of new members through procreation or adoption,
 Socialisation of children,
 Social control of members,
 Production, consumption, distribution of goods and services, and
 Affective nurturance-love (Karraker, Meg Eilkes & Grochowski, Janet R., 2006).
Kinship
The dictionary meaning of kinship is ‘blood relationship’. Kinship can be of two types: (i)
through marriage relationships and (ii) through lines of descent that connect blood relatives
such as from the side of the father and mother, siblings, offsprings, etc. Therefore kinship
comprises either genetic lines or lines initiated through marriage. In short, family is a group of
kin.
The child may take the status of parents soon after its birth as it is in the case of caste or race. It
may acquire the parental status sometimes later as it is in the case of succession or inheritance.
The later one is often referred to as the process of “delayed ascription”. Further the child in its
later life may seek to acquire some achieved status that is different from those of parent. The
relative advantages or disadvantages that the child enjoys in securing these statuses are mostly
provided by his parents. For example, the son of an upper-class man has greater access in
academic field than the son of a poor- class man. This is also true in the case of open-class
occupational placement. This is often referred to as “fluid ascription”. Here the element of
achievement does not completely dismiss the element of ascription (Shankar Rao, C.N, 2001).
It is true that a number of important statuses of the child are dependent on the factor of kinship.
The ascription of citizenship, religious affiliation, and community membership in most cases
are a matter of identification with parents. The class or the caste position is transmitted from
parents to the child. Due to kinship ties the child acquires not only a status in larger society but
also a position in the family. The child acquires the status as a son or daughter. To his parents’
kinsmen he may be a grandson, nephew, a brother, a cousin or a son. Mutual rights and
obligations go along with kinship connections. Even in the modern society, if not extended
kinship ties, the immediate family ties remain socially important. In some societies much of
social life is governed by them (Shankar Rao, C.N, 2001).
MARRIAGE IS....
What is marriage? It’s a union, first of all. It’s a uniting, two hearts becoming one. Marriage is
companionship and friendship. It’s being together, acting together, doing things together, and
not wanting it any other way.
Marriage is understanding. It’s being blind to the fault of the other. It’s being considerate in
every way-considerate of the other’s time, feelings, and desires.
Marriage is caring. It’s being concerned. It’s going out of your way to make sure the other
person is well cared for. Marriage is kindness. It’s saying kid words and putting those words
into action.
Marriage is support. It’s supporting your mate in their endeavours, in their projects, in good
times and bad. It’s giving them moral support, physical support, prayer support, all around
support. It’s cheering them on and encouraging them when they feel down. Marriage is
stooping to lift the other. It’s being strong when the other is weak. Marriage is protecting your
mate from harm, physical and emotional.
Marriage is provision. It’s doing your part to make sure the other has their needs met. It’s
pulling your share of the load. Marriage is hard work day after day. It’s going out of your way
to meet the needs of your mate in whatever way you can, even if you don’t feel like it. Marriage
is lending a helping hand.
Marriage is sacrifice. It’s giving of yourself for the one you love. It’s being ready to give up
your own ideas or desires to make your mate happy. It’s giving and giving and giving again.
Marriage is yielding, bending, melting together. Marriage is going the extra mile. Marriage is
compassion. It’s preferring the happiness of another to your own.
Marriage is give and take. Marriage is taking turns; it’s not one sided. Marriage is
submission. It’s giving the other person a chance. Marriage is living and loving and helping
one another. Marriage is learning from one another. Marriage is humbling.
Marriage is being open-minded. Marriage is walking a mile in another’s shoes. Marriage is

listening and understanding.
Marriage is being there for the other in bad times as well as the good. Married love stands
through thick and thin, no matter how hot the trials or how hard the test. Married love never
loses hope. It’s always there, always dependable, always ready with outstretched hands and
open arms to take the other in- to love, to comfort, to hold, and to cherish. Marriage is
learning to let the little things pass.
Marriage is communicating honestly and openly. It’s being willing to humbly share your heart
and deepest thoughts. Marriage is talking, praying, discussing, and agreeing together.
Marriage does not let things build up between you by ignoring the other, but rather finds a
way; it creates solutions. Marriage is joining hand in hand, heart to heart.
Marriage is discovery. It’s discovering each other, learning about each other and all the funny
things you say and do. Marriage is a good sense of humour. It’s relaxing together, enjoying
each other.
Marriage is respect. Marriage is having faith in each other. Marriage is accepting another for
what they are. Marriage is coming to the realization that you are not complete without your
other half.
Marriage can be the most satisfying and strengthening experience you will ever have.
David Brandt Berg
Marriage
The Oxford Dictionary describes marriage as ‘the legal union of man and a woman in order to
live together and often to have children’. It is a legal union which has the sanction of the
society, the state and the religion (for those who believe and/or practice religion). Marriage is
between a man and a woman and not between a boy and a girl. Every society (nation) has
prescribed norms which define adulthood. In India the prescribed age for marriage is 18 years
and 21 years respectively for a female and a male. Marriage is a social institution which allows
the married man and woman to live together as husband and wife. It is expected that men and
women marry not only to live together, but also to have children. According to Anthony
Giddens, marriage can be defined as a socially acknowledged and approved sexual union
between two adult individuals.
Interrelationship between Family, Kinship and Marriage
The family, centered on marriage, is the basic unit of society. Healthy marriages and families
are the foundation of thriving communities.
When a man and a woman marry, they become kin to one another. This marriage bond
connects together a wider range of people. Parents, grandparents, brothers, sisters, uncles,
aunties and other blood relatives become relatives of the partner through marriage. Marriage is
a stable and healthy union of bonding between a man and a woman who become husband and
wife for the rest of their lives. This marital union guarantees the birth of children and a stable
and caring environment for them.
Family relationships are found within wider kinship groups. Usually we find two common
forms of families based on the number of members namely, (i) nuclear family and (ii) extended
family or joint family. Nuclear family comprises of the father, mother and children (own or
adopted). In extended or joint families we can find more members who are blood relatives such
as grandparents, parents, brothers and sister of parents, their spouses, children, grand children
and so on. There is a steady growth of old age homes in urban centers in India as a result of
two reasons : (i) tendency to have small family norm (of having less children) and (ii) due to
the migration of children (adults) to far-away places within and outside the country in search of
job or to live with the spouse.
Check Your Progress I
Note: a) Use the space provided for your answer.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this unit.
1) Define ‘family’.
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1.3 CONCEPT OF FAMILY IN UN DECLARATIONS
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations in 1948 was a conquest for
humanity. This declaration is based on the dignity of the person, and promotes and defends the
respect for people of various nations and for every one of their members. This Declaration of
Human Rights is the authoritative basis for all subsequent Human Rights Conventions and
documents. The right to marry for any man and woman of full age (adult) is defined as a
fundamental human right. The family is defined as the natural and fundamental group unit of
society and is entitled to protection by society and state. The opening sentence of the preamble
to the declaration states that these human rights are ‘inherent’ and ‘inalienable’, and stem from
our human dignity. It may be noted that:
 These human rights have human dignity as their basis.
 They cannot be changed by political will or majority decisions.
 They are natural laws, pre-political and apolitical.
 They supersede national laws and no nation can enact laws that change this.
 This UN declaration is the source of all human rights documents, and protects the
natural family based on biology.
 There is a right to marry for adult men and women, and to form a family (Art. 16).
 The family is the fundamental unit of society and is entitled to privileges and political
protection.
 The formulations on the family and children’s rights are repeated in legally binding
conventions such as European Court of Human Rights (ECHR1950), and the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966).
Family is the pre-eminent, most favorable and irreplaceable place for the recognition and
development of a person as the person evolves on his/her way to complete dignity. It is in the
family that the first steps in human development are initiated and the process of education and
promotion of human being starts. An individual who does not receive this initial orientation in
the family will be greatly hampered in achieving the human fullness which he/she is expected
to achieve as a person.
Family is the basis of society. Respect for human rights is necessary for human development of
persons in the society. These human development values include life itself, health, knowledge,
work, the community, religion and culture. Family is the smallest community of persons. The
values essential to the family can only be achieved when a man and a woman give themselves
to one another totally in marriage, accept a community of love and life, are willing to fully
accept the gift of new life in procreation and accept the responsibility of educating the
offspring.
Parents give the child a home in which the child can grow and develop. All the rights that are
necessary by nature for the development of the person in his/her wholeness become real in the
family in the most effective way. The family, by its very nature, is a subject of rights, the
foundational element of human society, and the most necessary force in the full development
of the human person. The importance of the family’s social mediation is undeniable. Family is
the ‘sanctuary of life’. It is more than any other human reality, a place where an individual can
exist for himself/herself through the gift of self.
If the family is protected and privileged by human rights, they are valid in all places and at all
times. The survival of a society depends on the strong institutions of marriage and family. If
the traditional family structure disappears slowly from the society, people will no longer know
what they mean when they talk about ‘family’. Therefore, the family should not in any way
lose its privileged political support. If it loses it, society will be eroded from within. The
historical concept of family should not be allowed to disappear. If it does, it would be difficult
to sustain this existing concept of society for longer.
There are attempts to redefine the concept of family at national and international levels. There
are also initiatives in the legal judicial as well as parliamentary arena. Such efforts also draw
power from public debate. It must be understood that political majorities cannot change human
rights. They are inalienable and inherent. These rights belong to the human being because of
his/her dignity and not because some political body granted them. Human rights are the rights
to which everyone is entitled irrespective of who they are or where they are.
Attempts to re-define family
In several countries, the concept of a ‘family’ is redefined to include (with equal legal status as
the traditional father-mother-children family) same-sex unions with or without adopted
children, single parent with own or adopted children, children born out of wedlock (and not
widow/widower), live -in couples or co-habitation and even to the extent of adoption of
animals.
Social legitimacy does not necessarily have anything to do with legal legitimacy. It should be
equally obvious that no political majority or minority can change the rights of the most
vulnerable in the society, i.e., the children. It is not appropriate to agree to the view of law in
some smaller countries, that law must reflect the reality of social practices and the will of the
majority on every issue. For example, it is estimated that over 50 per cent of Norwegian
children are born out of wedlock. Statistically this fact can become the norm. In fact, there are
arguments by pressure groups in some smaller nations that some of the international rights
contradict their national public opinion and practices.
Children and their ‘safe haven’, the family, must not be manipulated or compromised in
political and legal process for their own sake and for the sake of safeguarding international
human rights. There must be no confusion about what a family is, and about children’s rights.
Children have the rights that adults do not have and these rights precede the rights of adults. A
shift in political focus away from adult ‘rights’ to marry and form a family, to children’s rights
to parents and stable family life would also entail that the extreme individualist focus would
have to be toned down.
The importance of families
The individuals and their families adapt a multiple of structure to meet the emotional, financial,
and other needs of family members. Wald (2001:1) summarizes the significance of marriage
and family for individuals in the following statement:
Being able to marry can contribute significantly to the emotional and economic well being of
couples. Living with married parents provides a number of benefits and protections to children.
Society benefits when people choose to marry…..promoting the emotional and economic well
being of adults; enhancing the capacity of parents to promote the well being of children; and
promoting stable relationships (Karraker, Meg Eilkes & Grochowski, Janet R., 2006).
As a child steps in this world, the first individuals he comes across are his family members.
Family is the first place for an individual in this world. Starting from childhood until old age, a
child learns everything from its family. It is a place where moral values are taught and the
spiritual and cultural heritage of society is passed on. Family members are always available,
whenever one needs them. They always support each other in different ways whether it is
financial or moral.
Check Your Progress II

1) What are the major characteristics of the UN Declaration of Human Rights?
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1.4 FAMILY LIFE IN INDIAN CONTEXT
Society is an aggregation of small communities of families which live together and co-operate
with one another to ensure their own growth and survival. Family is the smallest community of
people consisting of an adult male and a female who make free agreement through the
institution of marriage to live together, have children, rearing and educating them. These are
also functions for which parents need the help of other families particularly from the kinship
circles and the society at large.
The traditional Indian family still continues to be a ‘joint family’. When sons and daughters
(matrilineal) get married, they do not leave their family. They continue to live in it with the
spouse and children. The joint family works as a clan in which each member knows his/her role
and counts on the solidarity and support of other members in times of need. The father/mother
(as the case may be) gets the respect and obedience from children and grandchildren. His/her
authority reigns supreme. Although majority of the families in India belong to the patrilineal
pattern, there are certain groups such as the Nairs in Kerala and the Khasi in Meghalaya who
traditionally follow the matrilineal pattern.
In most Indian homes, parents are responsible for finding a partner for their child. This is
usually seen as a sacred duty. In very few situations, do young people find their own partners.
Most often such marriages are found more among the educated urban dwellers than the less
educated ruralites. In arranged marriage, the parents take into consideration family background,
financial, social, religious and educational status of the ‘would-be’ son/daughter in law. Thus
the marriage involves the full participation of two families and children usually accept the
choice of their parents with trust.
With the influence of better education and job opportunities and exposure to electronic media,
youngsters do not accept blindly the authority of their parents. They are searching for more
freedom and independence. Regarding selection of partners, young people of today tend to
demand more freedom to express their desires and to make their own decisions.
With the fast changing social scenario as a result of industrialisation, urbanisation,
consumerism, exposure to electronic media and availability of better professional and
vocational education, the pattern of family life is also undergoing changes. Such changes are
also affecting towns and villages across the country. With these changes, a new type of family life
is emerging which is more independent and striving to become more self-sufficient.
More women are getting educated. More women are also taking up jobs outside than within
family set up. Many of them prefer to marry at an older age than in the past. Women are also
becoming more conscious of their dignity and want to be more independent and responsible in
the family and society. They want to have a say in the matters of the family and decision
making and often long for a career outside the family. In fact, a large number of legislations
are being enacted to improve the social conditions of women in India including their political
participation at local, state and national levels.
Value System
India has a rich value system. This traditional value system is still important and should not be
allowed to die out easily. Although there are pressure groups and issues associated with
consumerism and expansion of electronic media which influence the lifestyles of people, we
should not let ourselves be overtaken by such influences. Much havoc was done in the western
countries, America and Australia, by the liberation ideologies of 1960s and 1970s which
advocated freedom of sex, individual satisfaction over common good, feminism and the
challenges on the very existence of traditional family system. As a result, many societies across
the globe faced the breakdown of traditional family system. New models began to appear such
as single parent families, people living together without marital contracts, cohabitation, same
sex unions, divorced and re-married with children of previous marriage, grandparents living
with grant children, emergence of old age homes, orphanages and destitute homes, addiction
families, expansion of sex industry, sex shops, pornography and sex tourism. All these initiatives
have caused much damage to the rich old customs and practices, morality, principles of life,
character and value system.
New models of family life and relationships are necessary to meet the needs and expectations
of new generation. It may not be wise to confront the youth of today with ready-made
customs, practices and family patterns of the past. However, it is very important and necessary
to educate them about the positive aspects of decent life, morality, brotherhood, regard for
parents and elders, correct meaning and purpose of sex, marriage and family life. This will
enable them to find new ways to practice the traditional values in harmony with the modern
times.
Trends Challenging Values
Global society has been facing tremendous threats on its value system from certain groups,
events and developmental initiatives which have far reaching impact. It is a matter of pride
that by and large the Indian democracy has managed to withstand such threats and preserve its
rich values and culture and traditional practices. This huge democracy of over one thousand
million people is proving to be a model and hope for the rest of the world as far as preservation
of value system is concerned. More and more women are getting educated, taking up jobs, and
are involved in the political and socio-economic development of the country. Certainly the
women empowerment process also has brought about lot of positive and negative trends in the
country. Yet the overwhelming majority continues to remain stead fast in their lifestyle and
preserve the family values, moral values and religious practices.
The advancements in science, education, media technology and influence of the western life-
styles have made some impact on the Indian society. As a result, certain unethical practices
which challenge the age old value system also have crept into our society. This has increased the
percentage of pre-marital and extra marital sex, teenage pregnancies and abortion, prostitution,
mental illness, drug addiction, divorce, various sexual orientation, single parent households,
suicides and demand for euthanasia. Although all these are part of today’s society, the influence
it makes through the media tends to corrupt young people, which is thought to be disastrous
for the society. In order to counter this deteriorating trend, there is a need to educate people
about the consequences of such social problems. It is also necessary that we record some of the
fading values which will serve as a reminder for the younger generations to come.
Family is Universal
Family has been seen by sociologists as a universal social institution. It is an inevitable part of
human society. Generally, family has been regarded as a good thing for the individual as well as
for the society. For the individual, family life is a must for survival, growth and a meaningful life
in the society. Survival and sustainability of the society depends on the humans born and
brought up as good citizens in the family. Therefore, any consideration for evolving alternatives to
family would not be desirable. We have seen the women’s liberation movements which
began in the 1960s in Europe and America. Some of the feminist writers went to the extent of
condemning family as an institution. Although such initiatives shook the foundations of family
and its traditional view, hardly any positive outcome was noticed. In fact, the contribution of
such initiatives brought about much chaos in the society which witnessed the increase in
divorce rates, decline in moral values, destitution of the aged and children, sexual promiscuity
and ‘individual considerations’ over ‘common good’ of the society. To sum up, break down of
family leads to the breakdown of the society and continuation of human survival.
1.5 RELATIONSHIP AND BONDING IN FAMILY LIFE
Relationship and bonding are central to family life. Change in family and household
composition has brought about shift in expectations of people from their relationships. Today
relationship has become something active and not something which has been taken for granted.
One has to work it out. It depends on winning the trust of the other person. In fact sustainability
of most sexual relationships and marriages in developed countries depends on this shift in
expectations from the partner. Relationship depends on the extent of communication and
collaboration between people. Emotional communication is part and parcel of sexual
relationship; love between spouses and between parents and their children. Although much
transformation has taken place in developed nations, the traditional Indian society has not
changed much. There is much bonding and very healthy relationship existing within families
and between families both in urban and rural areas. However, one can also observe the influence
of the western culture or life style gaining momentum in the Indian sub-continent.
The most important recipe for the success and sustainability of marriage and family life is
healthy relationship and to be able to bond permanently. The ability to bond depends on the
early experience of reliable love. A child who has never doubted the commitment of both the
parents to each other and to himself/herself will naturally develop trust and openness.
In many parts of the world there are attempts to present sex as an activity with little regard to
the relationship. Such attempts offend the dignity of the human being. In fact it strikes at the
heart of marital relationship. In course of time, it will undermine the family and ultimately the
society.
Family life education is intended to help young people in exploring the meaning of human
person, expressing oneself through a unique body in its intrinsically masculine and feminine
form. Through one’s body a person can live out to the fullest his/her highest calling: “To love”.
A family cannot come into existence without biological union that results in offspring. Only a
female can conceive with the cooperation and sharing of a male. A child must necessarily have
a father and a mother and a home to grow. This is the fact and the experience of all societies
from time immemorial. This concept presents sexual union in marriage as an extraordinary act
of total giving of self that has the potential to co-create a new human being. A true relationship
leads to a meaningful and fruitful life.
Motherhood, Fatherhood and Parenthood
We know that natural law and divine nature assume the existence of a fixed human nature,
consisting of two sexes (eunuchs are exceptions), where family is a natural and constant
institution in human and social life. Motherhood and fatherhood are therefore constants and the
family cannot be re-defined. It exists as a norm in all societies except in cases which differ
from this norm due to widowhood or single parent families as a result of divorce or separation.
In fact, motherhood and fatherhood exist as archetypes of human existence with much more
than mere biological qualities.
There is no recognition of what a mother is unless one has personal experience of a ‘real
mother’ naturally in relation to her children. Similarly, fatherhood can be known only through
lived experience in a family setting.
Parenthood is different from motherhood and fatherhood. There are many child fathers and
child mothers. Human being is the only living creature that lacks built-in mechanism to guide
most aspects of one’s behaviour. One has to use relationships with others in order to develop
talents, skills and ideas. This is an essential condition for growth towards personal maturity.
Family is the first environment which helps a person to relate oneself to others with natural
love and cooperation. With the entry of a person of the opposite sex into one’s life, a new kind
of relationship and experience is developed which finds fulfillment in marriage. Together they
learn to leave behind the ‘I’ and ‘you’ and think of themselves as ‘we’. A trust and
understanding grows. They become more open to each other, revealing and sharing more of
their inner being, feelings, values and choices.
Every person is meant to be born in a family and called upon to build a new family. Only by
accepting family life and its responsibilities seriously a person can learn to reach out to others
in love, respect and with a sense of service. The joys and worries of planning, conceiving and
bringing up children and social tasks and duties of family, compel the couple to forget self and
become more involved with others. Therefore, we may say that a responsible parenthood is the
real parenthood. One has to be responsible to oneself, family, spouse, children and the society.
Culture of Life
There is a need for a strategy and rationale for promoting family life because of the new trend
which calls for greater ‘individual rights’. There is a demand for individual right based on
privacy, convenience and some even go to the extent of demanding the same under
fundamental rights. The call for ‘rights of individual’ overshadows concern for common good.
Denying the rights of the terminally ill to choose death over life is not inhuman. The Indian
constitution and legislations do not permit euthanasia. Similarly protecting the ‘right to life’ of
an unborn child should not be considered as violence against women. It is the duty and
responsibility of parents and young people to protect human life from conception to natural
death. In abortion a weak and defenseless child is brutally murdered by those who are
supposed to love and care for the child most: the parents and health care professionals.
Many young people are unaware that at conception a new life is formed. Conception takes
place at the moment of fertilization, i.e., the moment when the father’s sperm and mother’s egg
cell meet. People with vested interest may make various interpretations. Scientifically one
thing is clear: conception refers to fertilization and not implantation. Implantation takes place
about five days after fertilization. The zygote starts to grow as any other living being. It is
human because the chromosomes combined at fertilization are that of the human father and
human mother and not of any other living being. There are several anti-life forces at work in
the world who try to put forward justification for violation of human rights by them and
rationale for their struggle on preference for individual rights over common good.
It is therefore apt that we teach the young people a culture of life in the face of such public
opposition through false propaganda about individual freedom to abort or to take life
(euthanasia). Freedom is a divine gift and to live to its demands fully is our responsibility. It is
a fact that there are various sexual orientations among people of various cultures. We have to
understand how society perceives it. Also, due to change in family structure, there are less
number of children in families and an increase in aging population.
In order to preserve a value based society, there is a need to promote a ‘culture of life’ and not
a ‘culture of death’. We need to have a culture of life in which virtues are cultivated.
The ability to bond requires a culture which allows the young man and young woman to wait
until a commitment is made before embarking upon sexual intimacy. The wounds and
emotional scarring caused by the casual experimentation into which young people are led
deprives them, to a great extent, of the possibility of permanent bonding. Commitment and
waiting for the right person to whom to commit are at the base of a stable and happy sexuality,
marital life and strong family bonding.
In order to preserve the rich heritage and values of the traditional Indian family, there is a need to
collaborate with broader community for stable and healthy family life. There is also a need to
encourage governments and various social systems to have an open policy to promote stable
family life keeping in view the needs of the society.
Check Your Progress III
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this unit.
1) Name the section in the Indian Penal Code that deals with homosexuality.
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1.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed the concept of family life from various angles. The UN
Declaration of Human Rights 1948 and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 are
two international documents which reflect the thinking of the world community about the
concept and importance of family. The UN declaration has defined family as the natural and
fundamental group unit of society which is entitled to protection by society and state. We have
also examined some of the efforts by various pressure groups to re-define the concept of family
which may enable certain sections of society to enjoy the state benefits which are available to
natural and traditional family. One of the important areas of discussion in this unit is about the
social institutions of family and marriage and the inter-relationship between family, kinship
and marriage. Another area of discussion is on family life in the Indian context. The traditional
Indian family still continues to be a joint family where the children and the aged continue to
receive protection and care-a phenomenon which is declining in several nations. An attempt is
also made to discuss about family values and the changing trends in values as a result of the fast
changing social scenario across the globe. Relationship and boding have been described as a
recipe for the success and sustainability of marriage and family life. The discussion ends with an
examination of the balance between ‘a culture of life’ and ‘a culture of death’.
1.7 KEY WORDS
Euthanasia : The bringing about of a gentle and easy death in case of

incurable and painful disease often by removing life
support system.
Family : The members of a household, especially parents and their

children.
Kinship : Blood relationship through marital relationship or through
lines of descent that connect blood relatives.
Marriage : The legal union of a man and a woman recognised by the

society in order to live together and often to have children.
1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS
Familia Et Vita (2004), Vol VI, No. 3, 2001, Vol VII, No. 2-3, 2002, Vol VIII, No. 1-2, 2003 and
Vol IX, No. 1-2.
Fletcher, Ronald (1988), The Abolitionists: The Family and Marriage Under Attack,
Routledge, London.
Giddens, Anthony (2001), Sociology (fourth edition) Polity Press, Cambridge.
Grugni, Anthony (1997), Exercise in Education to Love, Tej Prasarani, Mumbai.

Haralambos, M and Heald, R.M. (1997 : Sixth impression), Sociology: Themes and Perspectives,
Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Karraker, Meg Eilkes & Grochowski, Janet R. (2006), Families with Futures: A Survey of
Family Studies For the 21st Century.
Shankar Rao, C.N (2001): Sociology: Primary Principles, S. Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi.
UN Declaration of Human Rights 1948.
UN Convention on Rights of Child 1989.

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) The family can be defined as a primary group which consists at least of two adults of
opposite sex along with children, natural and adopted.
1) Human rights are based on human dignity of the person and are inherent and inalienable.
They are natural and are applicable in all human situations. The family is seen as a
fundamental unit of society.

1) Sec. 377 of Indian Penal Code.
UNIT 2 FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION – CONCEPT AND MEANINNG
*Dr. Shubhankar Mahapatra
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Defining Family Life Education
2.3 Contents of Family Life Education
2.4 Traditional Indian Values Related to Family Life Education
2.5 Importance of Different Types of Values in Family Life Education
2.6 Advantages of Family Life Education
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Key Words
2.10 Answers to Check You Progress
2.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to acquaint you with the concept and meaning of family life
education. This will highlight how family life education is a value laden concept. This will also
highlight its importance and scope in the present day context.
After reading this unit you will be able to:
 conceptualise and explain the meaning of family life education;
 analyse the relationship between the value system and family life education;
 appreciate the traditional Indian values as related to family life education;
 understand the needs for importance of family life education in an Indian

household; and
 describe the scope of family life education.
*
Dr. Shubhankar Mahapatra, NOS, New Delhi
2.1 INTRODUCTION
India has a long tradition of closely bonded family system. Today, however, some people argue
that [modern] family as an institution is facing crisis. Let us take a more optimistic view.
Families cannot be isolated from the impact of rapid social and technological changes, yet, they
have ably demonstrated to turn difficulties into challenges by offering support and security to
each of its members in a fast changing society.
Each family is identified with a unique sense of shared family traditions, shared experiences and
continuity of behavioural patterns through generations. We believe that nurturing this quality of
family contact and interaction becomes even more important in a time like today when many
people feel lonely and rootless. Technological progress often contributes to development but
sometimes it generates a sense of depersonalisation and deprivation from one’s own identity.
That is why family life education is essential and relevant in the present day context.
Every society over time has evolved its own ways of preparing its younger members for
adulthood, primarily through an educational process. Traditionally, most elements of family life
education have been informal, taking place within the home, at place of worship, at work and in
day to day contacts with other people. In childhood, many values related to family life education
have been imparted through stories from folk tales, epics, religious scriptures, etc. The hidden
rationale behind these is to enable children to imbibe the right values for family life or to
inculcate these values in them so that these act as guidelines for the rest of their lives.
In tribal communities, initiation ceremonies are performed which symbolise the entry of a child
into adulthood. Thereafter, the child can have access to the knowledge and privileges that are
permitted only to adults. On a similar note, in Southern India and many other parts of India, a
ceremony is conducted at the age a girl enters puberty, which introduces her to all the intricacies
related to family life education. So, through the process of socialisation, by observing people’s
behaviour and through their own experience, children and adolescents become familiar with the
norms, customs and values of their own society. These experiences provide the guidelines for
their own behaviour.
In the present context, families in many parts of the world are finding the task of helping young
people to prepare for adult life increasingly difficult. Often it is found that they have as little
awareness as their children about the problems they are facing. It is here that the role of schools
and of voluntary organisations becomes important. These institutions replace traditional form of
education and offer guidance to people to enable them to adjust to changes. The development of
organised programs of family life education is one way of showing their willingness to work
together with families, to assist young people in their transition from childhood to adulthood.
Very often it is observed that family life education is treated synonymous with sex education. In
reality, however, family life education is a much broader concept. Sex education is only one of
the components of family life education which also covers economic aspects, social aspects like
marriage, responsible parenthood, besides aspects of sexual health. We will discuss all these
things in detail under section 2.3. Like sex education, family life study is different from family
life education.
2.2 DEFINING FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION
Various international organisations and eminent persons working in the area of family life
education have tried to define it in various ways. Some of the definitions are given below:
1) “Family life education refers to those educational concepts and experiences that influence
attitudes towards family living, personal relationships and sexual development”
(Department of Education, Virginia {USA}, 1978).
2) “One comprehensive and attractive approach perceives family life education as catering
for individual needs leading to personal growth and enabling the individual to function as
a responsible member of the family and society” (A curriculum on family education for
youth organisation prepared by Malaysia Federation of Family Planning Association,
1985).
3) Family life education includes a study of self awareness, understanding of others, of

sexuality, marriage and parenthood. The knowledge gained and skills developed will
contribute to the individual’s ability to cope both with social change and with relationships
in society as a citizen, spouse and parent. (Formal definitions adopted at International
Planned Parenthood Federation Seminar on Teachers and National Development with
special reference to Family Life Education, Lesotho, 1978).
4) Family life education may be defined as education for human development which seeks to
ensure that each individual approaching adulthood is equipped with the skills and personal
reserves to cope with the challenges of everyday life in society within acceptable societal
structure and to adapt to change with experience and equilibrium (Source: unknown)
But none of these definitions seem to cover the entire aspect of family life education. The
definition given by International Planned Parenthood Federation is closer to what we generally
consider as family life education. All these definitions, however, ignored the economic factors
involved in family life education.
Therefore, in this unit, we would like to describe family life education in the following way:
 The concept of family life education refers to a variety of formal and informal efforts by
which persons become ready for the roles and responsibilities of family life.
 Rapid technological and social changes of today’s world have increased the need for
individuals, families, and societies to enhance interpersonal and decision-making skills of
each member of the family, especially those of the husband and wife, and reinterpret the
meaning of mutual commitment, as well as maintain support for their economic self-
sufficiency and emotional stability.
 Rising rates of marital breakdowns, family violence, falling indices of marital satisfaction
and the time family members spend together suggest that people are either inadequately
prepared or lack support in facing the challenges of marriage and of family life. Yet the
sheer number of stable, satisfying, and growing marriages, especially, within the nuclear
families, in the midst of personal and social pressures, and in spite of limited preparation
and support, suggests that many are seeking to build strong families. Likewise, improved
relationship skills among the educated at high school, college, and in community setting,
perhaps signal a growing desire to invest for the success in marital life by trying to avoid
possible distrusts that are likely to arise within relationships.
Meaning of Family Life Education
Family life education is a broad and flexible field. Anything which contributes to the total
growth and well being of the family – physical, mental, emotional, economic, and spiritual – can
be included under the umbrella of family life education. That is why family life education has its
roots in many disciplines including sociology, social work, psychology, anthropology, biology,
education and history. The goals of the programme are often broad based. Over all its objectives
are to promote the freedom to choose parenthood and enrichment of human life.
Family life education is considered as a value related concept. Most of the values related to
family life education are deeply rooted into the socio-cultural milieu of the people. The values
are moral or ethical, cultural, religious, personal and social.

b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of unit.
1) Describe the meaning of family life education.
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2.3 CONTENTS OF FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION
The content of family life education are related to the needs of those for whom these are meant.
It is vital to ask young people while preparing them for adult life regarding the type of
educational input to be provided to them which will help them in taking decisions and
developing their skills. This brings us to analyse various sub-components of family life
education:
Family: Meaning, Types and Functions
Family is the basic unit of society. Although social scientists have studied a great deal about
various facets of family structures and organisation, they do encounter difficulties in
developing a broad, culture free generalisation that would be applicable to families in a wide
range of societies. One major difficulty arises from the problems of definitions associated with
the concept of “Family” itself. The important question of what constitutes a “Family” is not
easy to answer because by itself the term “family” is ambiguous. To describe more precisely
the concept of family, the types of families have to be examined.
Basically there are two types of families: the nuclear family and the extended family (joint
family).
In extended family, parents, grandparents and even great grand parents live in the same house
or in neighborhood. The family members of nuclear family, consists of a single family of
husband, wife and children. This type of family is mostly found in urban and industrial
societies. In some countries, young couples in a nuclear family setting are at a loss to whom to
turn for advice in the absence of parents and elder relatives. Behavioural scientists refer to
these as family discontinuities (e.g. first conception, birth of first child and so on.), family
crises and other difficulties.
In terms of functions, the strength and solidarity of a society are highly dependent on how the
family as a basic unit performs its basic functions. It is the responsibility of all members of a
family to fulfill family functions, although parents generally shoulder a larger share of these
functions. Failure on the part of the parents to perform their duties can lead to social problems
for many generations to come. Social problems among children often can be traced back to the
failure of parents/families to perform their functions. To have a truly happy family, the needs of
each and every member must be met. These include the provision for basic needs of a person,
which according to the Psychologist Abraham Maslow are: physiological, safety, love and
belonging, self-esteem and self actualisation.
Family Roles, Relationships and Responsibilities
People of other countries often express a surprise at the roles and relationship followed in an
Indian family. They are surprised that in Indian family set-up, children below ten years of age
too are expected to play important roles in socio-economic activities such as taking care of cows
and buffaloes, collecting cow manure, fetching drinking water, washing clothes, taking care of
their siblings and so on. It is also inconceivable to many of them that married children sometimes
remain dependent on their parents and that aged parents too are dependent on their children.
In Indian settings, traditional family relationships are generally quite extensive. In addition, there
are other types of family relationship, such as god-father god-son relationships and relationships
arising from a network of inter- marriages between families. For instance, family ties are quite
complicated as these are based not only on blood kinship but also on past associations as school
mates, co-workers and so on. In short, family relationships are governed by various customs and
traditions which are more binding than rules or laws.
A clear understanding of roles in the family is very important. Misinterpretation or lack of

understanding leads to problems and sometimes to chaos. For any family to exist, there are
certain tasks which must be performed by its members. The issue of roles within a family is
further complicated by changes in the family system, that is, a change from extended to
nuclear/conjugal families. The participation of women in economic activities outside the home,
the influence of western culture, access to higher education, opening up of the economy in
general and related activities are affecting these changes.
Family Life Cycle
A study of family life cycle provides a basis for the study of the composition, growth and
development of families. An understanding of the stress and strains experienced at each stage of
the cycle paves the way for better understanding and co-operation among family members. There
are basically eight stages in family life cycle. These include the following:
Stage I: Bearing families

At this stage, a couple learns to synchronize their ideas, habits, values and so on. The married
partners are learning to live with each other for the first time. Differences are found to appear
from time to time and it is important that a couple iron them out and establish a meaningful
marriage.
Stage II: Child bearing families

The couple enters this stage at the time of first conception. With the coming of a child, finance,
leisure time, entertainment and privacy will undergo changes. Proper child care becomes very
important at this stage. Attention is diverted or shared between the newcomer and the spouse.
Stage III: Families with pre-school children

At this stage, parents need to cater for the critical needs and interests of pre- school children to
stimulate their growth and development. By this time parents think about the question of having
or not having more children. The energy depletion in homes where domestic help or help from
relatives as in extended families is hard to come by is one major area of adjustment. It is
common for women to assess that the demands of housekeeping, wage earning, mothering and
being a wife are overwhelming on them. Husbands alone cannot afford any more to assume the
traditional role of wage earner. They need to share the household work, and some may find this
to be difficult. Misunderstanding between the couple can also result when too much attention is
given to the children.
Stage IV: Families with school children

Families with school going children have to pay attention to the child’s education and growth
needs. The parents are also expected to collaborate with the demands and expectations of the
school in helping the child in his/her studies and in development aspects.
Stage V: Families with adolescents

Adolescents have special problems that need the help of parents and this stage can be very
crucial for them and their children. As the teenagers approach adulthood, parents must ensure a
balance between freedom and responsibility by helping their children to plan and then to execute
the plans which will be beneficial and productive in various life situations.
Stage VI: Families as launching centers

After the young adults have gone into work or studies, parents begin to feel a certain sense of
loneliness. It is often referred to as ‘the empty nest syndrome’. At the same time they also have
the need to maintain a supportive home base for the children. Children need support and
guidance for various cultural, religious and traditional family based events like marriage,
birthday celebration and other ceremonies in the company of parents and relatives.
Stage VII: Families in the middle years

This is a trying time for a couple who have to adjust to a different life again away from the
children and away from work. It is important at this stage that hobbies are developed /or
developed earlier in life can keep them occupied during the time after retirement. The reduction
in the income makes it important to adopt a more modest standard of living.
Stage VIII: Families in the late years

The family members need to learn to cope with bereavement and living alone at this stage.
Society’s expectations will keep children away from the concerns of aged parents. Very often
helpers like home nurses may have to provide the required services to the parents.
Family Resources
Family needs are related to the basic human needs as described by Abraham Maslow in his
Hierarchy of Needs. According to this theory all human beings have five basic needs. They are:
— Physiological needs – food, drink, sex, clear air, and good health.
— Safety needs – to have a roof over one’s head, housing, clothing, etc.
— Love and belongingness need – to have a family or community to belong to, to have a
shoulder to lean on, the need for acceptance, giving and receiving love.
— Esteem – Self respect and respect for others.
— Self actualisation – Self fulfillment and reaching one’s potential, to become somebody in
life.
This need hierarchy theory can be graphically represented in the form of a pyramid. Needs at the
lower level are to be met before the higher level needs.
Self
actualization
Self esteem needs
Love and belonging needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

Family needs are unlimited and resources are limited. Family or individual will use human and
non-human resources to meet the unlimited needs. A family has to manage the use of its
resources in order to maximise satisfaction derived from them. Family resources are discussed
here in the context of various stages of family life cycle and family size. It should be borne in
mind that every event in different stages of family life drains family resources. The demand on
the family resources is heavy, especially when there is an overlap of different stages. It is
important, for any newly-wed couple to decide when to have the first baby, how many children
to have in all and how they should be spaced. Family size affects the need satisfaction of the
family members, as mentioned above. Every child has the right to have a balanced diet, adequate
clothing, safe shelter, proper education, attention and affection, and medical attention as well as
the right to meet all the basic physical, mental, psychological and spiritual requirements of a
healthy and happy life.
Marriage
Courtship and marriage are two issues which most adolescents begin to be preoccupied with. A
significant percentage of adolescent marriages usually end up in separation and divorce for
various reasons. Some adolescents are forced into marriage because of pregnancies; others marry
to escape family pressures, and a few others want to escape from schooling while some others
get married because of the prevailing custom. Appropriate educational programmes are needed
to prepare young people for marriage. After all, marriage in India is considered as a permanent
relationship.
While discussing marriage, the various questions regarding reasons for marrying are raised. For
example, what are the most common types of marriages? How do people meet their marriage
partner? How long does a couple usually know each other before marriage? What is the most
common age for marriage for a man and for a woman? Is dowry or bride payment a good thing?
What are the usual marriage ceremonies?
In India, marriages are usually classified as follows: Marriage by free choice of the partners or
love marriage, arranged marriage and forced/arranged marriage. They can further be classified
as monogamous or polygamous; civil, religious or customary.
Responsible Parenthood
Early marriage and parenthood have been the established pattern in many societies and remain
so, despite the efforts of a number of governments to raise the legal minimum age at marriage.
In India, minimum age at marriage is 21 and 18 for boys and girls respectively. Adolescents
need as much information as possible on what is expected of them when they marry and raise a
family. As mentioned earlier, social, economic and cultural changes are affecting many aspects
of family life including parenthood. As a result, young people today may have to wrap up issues
that were previously unnecessary to take into account before getting married. These include
discussions by both partners on the desirability of having children. If children are desired, will
the father help in caring for them? Will the mother be allowed to work outside the home? Who
will manage family funds? Becoming parents brings responsibilities which expand over the
years. Having children is considered to be a natural pattern of family life and some couples do
not seriously weigh the implications of parenthood. The implications are as follows:
1. To avoid the risks of hunger and financial insecurity, parents should plan the number of
children, based on their ability to support and rear them to full maturity.
2. To reassure themselves of the benefits of parenthood in their old age, parents should
provide their children with guidance and direction so that they may develop and inculcate
the right values as they approach adulthood.
3. To help in achieving an orderly society, parents should strive to bring up a family whose
members are cognizant of both their rights and duties, while recognising the benefits of
the society as well as the tasks of supporting it.
4. Parents who respond properly to their partners’ personal needs are, in effect, reducing (if
not, eliminating) the probability of their ever becoming estranged.
Responsible parenthood cannot be discussed without bringing up the issue of family planning.
Family planning is a means of enhancing the quality of life of families including regulating and
spacing child birth, helping fertile couples to beget children and providing counseling for both
parents and would be parents.

Note: a) Use the space provided for your answers.
1) Graphically illustrate the Need Hierarchy theory of Maslow.
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2) What are the various implications of responsible parenthood?
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2.4 TRADITIONAL INDIAN VALUES RELATED TO FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION
In India, like some other Asian and Pacific countries, where status of women is lower than
that of men, socio-cultural values like preference for son, early marriage, are quite evident.
Continuation of family lineage, social security that comes from a cohesive family cohesion,
performance of religious rights in accordance with certain religious traditions, making free
labour and economic benefits available to parents in the form of increased income and dowry,
are all important motivations related to family in our country. In rural areas, children help
parents in planting and harvesting of agricultural products, cooking, cleaning, fetching water
and looking after cattle and younger ones in the family. The phenomenon of child labour
(though illegal) prevalent in unorganised sector, supplements the income of poverty stricken
households. Still in rural areas the girls are encouraged to marry young and to have children
at a relatively tender age due to prevailing social customs, in spite of legal provisions
regarding the minimum age of marriage. Though child rearing at an early age is socially
acceptable, the practice may restrict women from educational, social and economic
opportunities. Early marriage and unplanned birth of children are found to be responsible for
ill health of both mother and the child. In this country child mortality due to various diseases
is very high.
Historically, the traditional and ideal family in India is the joint family. A joint family
generally includes three to four living generations, including uncles, aunts, nieces, nephews,
and grandparents living together in the same household. The family supports the old; takes care
of widows, never-married adults, and the disabled; assists during periods of unemployment;
and provides security and a sense of support and togetherness. The joint family has always
been the preferred family type in the Indian culture. However, the traditional joint families
with their numerous advantages are on the decline. In both urban and rural societies the birth of
a child is considered a blessing of God. Some of these values are deeply rooted in our culture
and it is difficult to change them in the near future.
Marriage is deeply rooted in socio- cultural ethics. The traditional value of an Indian family is
that a girl and a boy having somewhat similar social status bond better in a marriage. Level of
income, of education and the question of compatibility between the two are of a secondary
importance. Usually the boys are a couple of years older than the girls especially in the case of
arranged marriages.
In urban areas, the prime consideration in the marriage of a girl now-a-days is the income of
the boy and economic status of the parents of the boy. Traditionally it was taken for granted
that marriages should be arranged by the parents. In many middle and upper middle class
orthodox families, horoscope matching before marriage is conducted before performance of
any religious ceremony. In traditional Indian society, dowry system was not practiced, but the
system of dowry is increasingly practiced in the context of changing value system of middle
class and of high society. Though dowry has been legally abolished, it still does exist with
added vigour, making the life of the parents of girls and the life of the girls themselves
miserable. At times attempts are made to justify dowry as the right of the girl to the parents’
inheritance. In fact, very often dowry is surpasses what the parents own and they are
compelled to borrowed money.
India is an extremely pronatalistic society and male children have always been given
preferential treatment. Because male children are desired more than female children, they are
treated with more respect and given special privileges. Male children are raised to be assertive,
less tolerant, independent, self-reliant, demanding, and domineering. Females, in contrast, are
socialised from an early age to be self-sacrificing, docile, accommodating, nurturing, altruistic,
adaptive, tolerant, and to value family above all.
The wife is blamed if she could not deliver a male child. In a traditional Indian family, home
was considered as an ideal place for women and women were discouraged from working or
even looking for job outside the home. Child rearing was considered as the principal
responsibility of the wife. She is also entrusted with the responsibility of looking after the
home and caring for the elderly parents and relatives. Decisions in the family are the
prerogative of the father of the household. Education for girl children is discouraged. But
gradually, the scene is changing fast. In India, it is believed that if women were to take up a
job outside the family, the family would be neglected. Women from poor families are
engaged to do all types of work for others.
In traditional Indian society, inter-caste marriage is discouraged. Social changes are gradually
occurring but arranged marriages are still the norm. It may be noted that India has a
significant population of about hundred million tribals. Among almost all tribal groups,
marriage partners are the choice of the boys and girls and arranged marriages are very rare.
Traditional Indian society could be considered as a very reserved society so far as
dissemination of information regarding sex role/sex relationships and sex responsibilities are
concerned. Sex continues to be a taboo subject. Sex and sexuality issues are not openly
discussed. Sex education is not readily available.
In the traditional Indian family, communication between parents and children tends to be one-
sided. Children are expected to listen, respect, and obey their parents. Generally, adolescents
do not share their personal concerns with their parents because they believe their parents will
not listen and will not understand their problems.
2.5 IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF VALUES IN FAMILY LIFE

EDUCATION
By now you might have realised the important role that the value system plays in family life
education.
Values have been recognised as a theme in family life education and as a problem confronting
family life educators. Questions have been raised about the role of values in family life
education and about the appropriate responses of family life educators to various values,
issues and concerns. What values should be included or excluded from family life education
programs? Should educators share their personal values with participants? What is the best
way to handle controversial value questions? How should family life educators deal with
potentially differing values?
Types of Values
There are different types of values. Although it is not possible to provide an exhaustive list
here, let us try to examine some of the most important types of values which include: moral or
ethical, religious, aesthetic, health, economic, legal, cultural, educational, personal, and
prudential value. Most of these types of values are relevant to the purposes and subject matter
of family life education.
One of the major operating principles in family life education is to “respect differing
individual and family values”. Special attention needs to be given to moral or ethical values
and to the relationship of these values to cultural, religious and personal values. So here we
shall discuss only these four values, i.e., moral or ethical values, cultural values, religious
values and personal values. We will also study how they act as operating principles in family
life education.
Moral or Ethical Values
Many family life educators are often uncomfortable with the word moral because the word
‘moral’ seems to be a relative term. It varies from society to society, culture to culture, place to
place and from time to time. The words ethical and moral mean the same thing and can be used
inter changeable. In literal meaning, these terms pertain to human conduct and character, and
generally refer to moral rectitude of an action, whether they are good or bad.
Moral and ethical values are expressed in terms of principles or rules of right conduct. Values
such as personal integrity, tolerance for diversity and differences, social responsibility, respect
for persons, sense of justice have an important place in family life education.
The key point of ethics and morality is to go beyond the personal self interest and to consider,
equally and impartially, the rights and interest of all involved in a situation. The intention here is
to be able to overcome egoism and be able to see things from other people’s point of view too. A
second intention equally important is to consider whether or not potential harm to some people
can ever be justified. Within family life education, there are many opportunities to discuss issues
like violence within marriage, intolerance, caste complexes, etc.
Cultural Values
In one sense, every value is a cultural value, because the central way in which one acquires a
value is by acquiring a language. Language is a public cultural artifact. Among other things,
language is used to express commitment to certain values and it would be difficult to imagine a
culture that does not contain, for example, legal, economic, aesthetic, moral and intellectual
values.
Two important points about cultural values are significant to family life education. First, all
cultures have some commitment both to a set of dominant ideals and to a set of greatest fears. In
general, the relevance and purpose of moral principles in a particular culture is to facilitate the
attainment of the dominant ideals (e.g. to attain equality or familial continuity) and the avoidance
of the greatest fears (e.g. to avoid exploitation or loss of autonomy). Family life educators who
work with multicultural groups will need to be aware of and sensitive to not only expressions of
cultural differences but also how these differences represent cultural attempts to accomplish their
ideals and to avoid their fears.
The second point is that cultures do not remain stagnant. There are likely to be conflicts within
the culture about its dominant ideals and fears. Some of these conflicts will have to do with
topics central to family life education (e.g. which ideal is more important loyalty to family or
personal autonomy). Because these intra-cultural conflicts are sensitive issues and often
problematic for families, family life education programs prepare individuals to deal rationally
with these changing ideals.
Religious Values
Although there are many differences among religions, a number of features appear to be
common to many of them:(a) a belief in a supreme being or a set of beings (b) a set of concepts
(usually a very complex set) that refer to the postulated relationships between the supreme
being(s) and human beings; (c) a belief in some sort of existence after death. These features have
important implications for family life education.
First, it is clear that many moral concepts and religious concepts such as respect for persons will
overlap, leading at least some people to believe that moral/ ethical values and religious values
mean the same thing. Such a belief results in potential view of what counts as justification of
moral principles. Thus, some religions hold that moral principles have weight because they are
“commandments” of one or more supreme beings rather than because they are part of an
autonomous way of viewing human relations and human actions.
Obviously, family life educators will need to be sensitive to these potentially different beliefs,
but it need not result in an impasse where the educator can do nothing. What is crucial is a
willingness on the part of the educator to be open minded, and to be both willing and able to set
an example of careful and balanced consideration of issues that are central to family life
education.
Personal Values
Much of the attention to values in family life education appears to be directed towards what is
usually referred to as developing an understanding of one’s own personal values and of learning
to respect the personal values of others. Hamm (1985) has made an important distinction
between public or social morality and private or personal morality that has relevance for family
life education.
According to Hamm, social moral judgement has to do with inter-personal behaviours and
addresses itself to basic human needs and fears, wants and desires, which are either to be
satisfied or avoided and is a pre-condition for human beings to have a choice at pursuing quality
of life in its many forms. Some of the basic principles that are necessary for social morality
include (a) justice as fairness (impartiality/ non-discrimination); (b) non-maleficent (restraint
from harming or injuring others); (c) minimal beneficence (the moral risk in satisfying their basic
needs); (d) freedom (no right to interfere with others) and (e) honesty (truthfulness and non-
deception). In Hamm’s view, social morality refers to those things that are “good for all” and has
as its summary notion ‘respect for others’.
Hamm has suggested that although personal morality shares some of the same features as social
morality, personal moral judgements address those things that have to do with “my good” rather
than with “good for all”. The summary notion in personal morality is self-respect. Accordingly,
self-respect must give way to social morality. This has important implications for family life
educators who are concerned about the role of their personal values in family life education.
Hamm has claimed that this distinction is an important one because the subject matter and the
strategies required for teaching social morality and personal morality are different. In general
teaching social morality requires serious and systematic attention to the rules and the principles
of social morality while education for personal morality requires some value clarification.
Family and Social Work Values
Social work is rooted in humanitarianism and based on certain values. Social work thrives in its
belief in the basic worth and dignity of the individual. Hence, the ‘worth and dignity’ of all the
family members should be recognised and respected by everyone in the family. Family members
should be respected, accepted, cared and showed concern for them in a non-dominating way.
There should be honesty towards each other.
When distressful events occur with any member of the family, he should be encouraged and
motivated to move ahead in his life. Other members of the family should boost up his morale and
make him realise his inherent potentials. Values such as sense of responsibility, commitment,
hard work, and respect for others have very important place in family life education.
Family life education helps to ameliorate or reduce many family-related social problems and
improves family living and social well-being. It helps families across the life span in coping with
difficult situations such as trauma, suicide, and death, and prepares to assess needs of the family
and intervene appropriately. It is therefore appropriate to say that family life education makes an
important contribution towards strengthening families to fulfill their significant role as the basic
unit of society.

1) Explain the importance of moral or ethical values in family life education.
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2.6 ADVANTAGES OF FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION

Let us now discuss some of the needs which give birth to family life education.
1) The educational role of family life education: The family has always existed as a basic
social grouping among human beings irrespective of the difference in its structure and
functioning. There is of course no universal pattern. Families may be nuclear or
extended, monogamous or polygamous. But in most part of the world the structure or
functions of the family are in transition and its educational role is one which is dynamic in
nature. So everybody should acquire this knowledge.
2) Family life education acts as a crisis manager: Adolescents are growing up in a world in
which they will have to make more decisions for themselves compared to previous
generations. They tend to experiment more with their life, make choices and take risks, and
learn from their own experiences rather than from those of others. This can lead to
confusion, frustration, despair and risk taking of a kind which is ultimately self
destructive. So family life education has an important role to play in order to help people
avoid or deal with all sorts of crisis.
3) Family life education provides skills for preventive action and knowledge for decision
making particularly among adolescents: Each new generation of children face health
challenges, but those faced by today’s school age group seem particularly daunting.
Children are confronted at an early age by situations that require knowledge for decision
making and skills for preventive action. Very often adolescents find themselves under
strong peer pressure to engage in high risk behaviour like drug and alcohol abuse and
sometimes sexual abuse which can have serious implications on their lives. These issues
should be introduced to the young and adolescents through family life education and
guided on ways of dealing such situations.
4) Family life education helps in understanding one’s own role with the changing family
structure and functions: The rate of social change in most societies needs to redefine the
role of adult family members. Where tradition once established the norms for family
behaviour, parents are now being challenged to re-examine their roles and to
accommodate to the demands of changing family structure and functions.
5) Family life education helps in proper understanding of family life cycle: The impetus for
family life education programme is based on the pervasive nature of the family life cycle.
Each new phase of the cycle gives rise to new learning needs. In the past, these learning
needs were met through informal learning activities such as reading, seeking advice from
peers and professionals (doctors, religious leaders and priests) and reflecting on personal
experience. Some of these activities are now being offered as family life education through
formal learning programmes. National programmes of planned parenthood for example
have been established in a number of countries to curtail population growth and to
promote improved standard of living. The belief too, that parenting skills, knowledge
and attitudes can be learned through programmes of education as opposed to learning
through observation has given rise to a host of such programmes around the world.
Need of Family Life Education

It is clear that family life education is a new field and one that is moving towards the
“professional” end of the continuum. Some of the advantages of family life education are
mentioned below:
1) Family life education is necessary for each individual: Every individual needs to know
about family life education. Every individual spends eight to ten hours in work for earning
a living. For this we study a number of courses over many years. But there is no course for
the fourteen to sixteen hours which we spend every day with our family. This needs a
formal and compulsory orientation for each and every individual. So every individual
should be provided a family life education as a life enrichment programme.
There is a rapid change in the family structure all over the world from the extended family
to nuclear family. But there is nobody for guidance. So there is an urgent need for this type
of education to cope with the emerging trends.
2) Professionals working in this area and allied fields need training: People who are working
with NGOs in this area, paramedical professionals and teachers need an orientation or
training in family life education.
3) The activity becomes a full-time paid occupation: There are thousands of full time paid
people practicing as Family Life Educators with specific qualification in various settings
throughout the world and in India.
4) Training schools and curricula are established: Many departments and schools have been
established at undergraduate and graduate levels of family life education and family
studies. The first Ph.D programme in family life education and family studies was
established in 1962 at Columbia University in New York. There is a unit for Family
Studies at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Bombay.
5) Those who are trained have established professional associations: The established
professional associations are consistently supportive of the development of the knowledge
base and skills of the practitioners in family life education and that has played a key role
in its definitions.
Check Your Progress IV

1) Describe any three needs of Family Life Education.
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2.7 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we started our discussion by stating that India has a long tradition of closely
bonded family systems. Today, however, the society is in transition and many families find
it difficult to help young people preparing for adult life. So, there is a need for family life
education. We have enlisted various needs for family life education. It has various roles to
perform. The roles it performs varies from educational to crisis management specially among
adolescents. This is why family life education is a broad and amorphous field. Anything
which contributes to the total growth and well being of the family can be included under
the umbrella of family life education. So, family life education has various sub-components
like family, its types and functions, family roles, relationship and responsibilities, family
life cycles, family resources, marriage, and responsible parenthood.
As family life education is a value related concept, various types of values like moral or
ethical, cultural, religious, and personal and their implications in family life education were
discussed. At the end of the unit, various advantages of family life education have been
pointed out.
2.8 KEY WORDS
Nuclear Family : Family comprising parents and children only.
Joint Family : Family comprising parents, children and other close relatives
like grandparents, grandchildren, uncles, etc.
Areus, M.E. Schvaneveldt, J.D, Moss J.J. (eds) (1993), Handbook of Family Life Education
(Foundation of Family Life Education), Saga Publications Vol. 1, Vol. 2.
International Planned Parenthood Association (1985), Growing Up in Changing World, Part one,
Youth Organization and Family Life Education: An introduction, London, IPPF.
Seshadri, C. and Pandey, J.L. Population Education – A National Source Book, NCERT, New
Delhi.
Thomas, Gracious (1995), AIDS and Family Education, Rawat Publication, New Delhi.
UNESCO (1988), Family Life Education: Package One, PROAP, Bangkok.

1) Family Life Education is a broad and flexible field. Anything which contributes to the
total growth and well being of the family – physical, mental, emotional, economic, and
spiritual – can be included under the umbrella of family life education. That is why
family life education has its roots in many disciplines including sociology, social work,
psychology, anthropology, biology, education and history. The goals of the programme
are often broad based. Overall, its objectives are to promote the freedom to choose
parenthood and enrichment of human life.
Family Life Education is considered as a value related concept. Most of the values related
to family life education are deeply rooted into the socio-cultural milieu of the people. The
values are moral or ethical, cultural, religious, personal, etc.
1) The Need Hierarchy Theory of Maslow is graphically illustrated below:
Self
actualization
Self esteem needs
Love and belonging needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
2) The various implications of responsible parenthood include:

a. To avoid the risks of hunger and financial insecurity, parents should plan the
number of children, based on their ability to support and rear them to full
maturity.
b. To reassure themselves of the benefits of parenthood in their old age, parents
should provide their children with guidance and direction so that they may
develop and inculcate the right values as they approach adulthood.
c. To help in achieving an orderly society, parents should strive to bring up a family
whose members are cognizant of both their rights and duties, while recognising
the benefits of the society as well as the tasks of supporting it.
d. Parents who respond properly to their partners’ personal needs are, in effect,
reducing (if not, eliminating) the probability of their ever becoming estranged.
1) Many family life educators are often uncomfortable with the word moral because the
word ‘moral’ seems to be a relative term. It varies from society to society, culture to
culture, place to place and from time to time. The words ethical and moral mean the same
thing and can be used inter changeable. In literal meaning, these terms pertain to human
conduct and character, and generally refer to moral rectitude of an action, whether they
are good or bad. Actions which are likely to have helpful effects on the lives of the
others are described, for example, as moral. Moral and ethical values are expressed in
terms of principles or rules of right conduct. Values such as personal integrity, tolerance
for diversity and differences, social responsibility, respect for persons, sense of justice
have an important place in family life education.
The key point of ethics and morality is to go beyond the personal self interest and to
consider, equally and impartially, the rights and interest of all involved in a situation. The
intention here is to be able to overcome egoism and be able to see things from other
people’s point of view too. A second intention equally important is to consider whether
or not potential harm to some people can ever be justified. Within family life education,
there are many opportunities to discuss issues like violence within marriage, intolerance,
caste complexes, etc.
1) a) Family life education acts as a crisis manager: Adolescents are growing up in a world in
which they will have to make more decisions for themselves compared to previous
generations. They tend to experiment more with their life, make choices and take risks,
and learn from their own experiences rather than from those of others. This can lead to
confusion, frustration, despair and risk taking of a kind which is ultimately self
destructive. So family life education has an important role to play in order to help people
avoid and deal with all sorts of crisis.
b) Family life education provides skills for preventive action and knowledge for decision
making particularly among adolescents: Each new generation of children face health
challenges, but those faced by today’s school age group seem particularly daunting.
Children are confronted at an early age by situations that require knowledge for decision
making and skills for preventive action. Very often adolescents find themselves under
strong peer pressure to engage in high risk behaviour like drug and alcohol abuse and
sometimes sexual abuse which can have serious implications on their lives. These issues
should be addressed to the young and adolescents through family life education and
guided on ways of dealing such situations.
c) Family life education helps in understanding one’s own role with the changing family
structure and functions. The rate of social change in most societies needs to redefine the
role of adult family members. Where tradition once established the norms for family
behaviour, parents are now being challenged to re-examine their roles and to
accommodate to the demands of changing family structure and functions.
UNIT 3 IMPORTANCE OF FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION

Prof. Teresa Chacko
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives of Family Life Education
3.3 Importance of Family Life Education
3.4 Role of Individual, Family and Community in Family Life Education
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Key Words
3.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to acquaint you with the broad and specific objectives of family life
education. This lesson will highlight the importance of family life education from the point of
view of an individual, a family and a community. This lesson will also emphasise the need for
co-ordination between individuals, families and communities in the process of providing
family life education.
After reading this unit you will be able to:
 explain the broad objectives of family life education;
 describe the role of an Individual, a family and a community in family life education;
 appreciate the traditional Indian values as related to family life education;
 analyse the intricate relationship existing between individual, families, communities; and
 point out the need for strengthening these three institutions.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we discussed the concept, meaning and need of family life education. In the
concluding part of the lesson we also discussed the advantages of family life education. But the
question which arises is: What is family life education and for whom is it intended? Initially
family life education was started informally as people’s response to a felt need. Though

Prof. Teressa Chacko, Kalloor House, Cochin
informally, this education existed in society as part of social life. Ironically, family life
education is a field which came into being as a result of public demand although it still has to
fight for public acceptance as a field of education. Some people still hold the idea that families
are private and should not be intruded upon while others maintain an independent stance
arguing that they do not need to learn how to be better parents, partners or family members.
They claim to know it all instinctively. But there is a positive change in attitude practically
everywhere in the world, especially since the late nineteen seventies. People are finding it a
necessity due to rapid social change that has occurred within various sections of the society. So
there is a need for equal participation from family and community to make it more effective.
Before we discuss the broad objectives of family life education, we should know the operating
principles of family life education.
The Operational Principles of Family Life Education
Family life education has certain operational principles. Let us list them one by one.
1) Family life education is related to individuals in the families throughout the life span,
both as individuals and families.
2) Family life education should be based on the need of individuals in families.
3) Family life education is a multidisciplinary area of a study and practice.
4) Family life education takes an educational rather than therapeutic approach.
5) Family life education should present and respect differing family values.
3.2 OBJECTIVES OF FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION
Family life education is concerned with assisting prospective candidates for learning the process
of living in the family, continuing family life to the next generation and sustaining the social,
cultural, religious and traditional practices and values. The major objectives of family life
education are:
1) To develop knowledge regarding the concept of family, its roles and functions: Every
individual (both young and old) should have proper knowledge and understanding of the
concept of family, its roles and functions. This knowledge will help an individual to
recognise the various tasks that need to be undertaken for the well being and maintenance
of the family.
2) Family life education aims at developing the ability to deal with family relationship and
responsibility of family: Family life education helps in establishing and maintaining
satisfying relationships with members of the family, with friends and with others whom
they come into contact within the context of family life.
3) Family life education aims at developing life skills to cope with different situations:
Family life education develops the knowledge, values and skills necessary for adult life,
marriage, parenthood and participation in the social life of a community. It also helps in
communicating effectively with others and in making wise decisions about all matters
related to family life, personal relationships and dealing with various members of the
community.
4) Family life education aims at helping in understanding and coping with changes in one’s
own life and changes in the society: Family life education helps an individual to
understand and cope with changes in the adolescent life and cope with the society in
which one lives. Changes in society are occurring all the time and particularly the
breaking down of traditional social structures and the changing roles of men and women
due to marriage, education, employment undertaken by women and similar other
transitions through which the present society is evolving.
5) Family life education aims at developing knowledge about physiological processes in
one’s own body especially the process of human conception and birth. It also creates an
awareness regarding the consequences of adolescent pregnancies and parenting, and of
alternatives to pregnancies and contraception.
6) Family life education seeks to create responsible and useful young citizens. The ultimate
aim of family life education is to create responsible and productive young citizens by
helping them to achieve the above mentioned objectives.
Need for Family Life Education
The need to impart family life education is very important. As a person passes through the period
of adolescence to adulthood, one needs authentic knowledge that helps him to understand the
process of growing up. It helps one to cope with the problems which one confronts during the
transitional phases in one’s life. This becomes even more important when the school curriculum
does not include the important elements of reproductive health education which should be taught
during the period of adolescence.
 Sex being a taboo, there is lack of authentic sources available to the adolescents through
which they can get accurate and complete information. Such situation may create
anxieties and confusion among adolescents about various aspects of the process of
growing up. This may further lead to various myths and misconceptions which may
adversely affect their attitude and behaviour throughout their lives. Proper education can
facilitate them to have positive attitude towards sex and inculcate responsible behaviour.
 Reproductive and sexual health education is a major area of concern as the adolescents do
not have adequate awareness and knowledge about the topic. Some of the studies show
that the chances of contracting STIs, teenage pregnancy and unsafe abortions are much
higher among adolescents. In India, although traditional norms oppose premarital sex,
some studies indicate a growing trend towards premarital sexual activities among
adolescents (Nair, MKC, 2004). Pre-marital sex is common among several tribal groups.
It is therefore very important to provide sexual health education so that the adolescents
can develop a healthy attitude towards sex and sexuality.
 Humiliation, harassment, torture and exploitation of women are as old as the history.
Everyday newspaper highlights the growing incidences of sexual crimes which have
become a matter of serious concern. Such situations demand educational intervention.
Through family life education young children can be made aware of the implications of
sexual development in them. They can be taught how to they can channelise their minds
into creative things as well as safeguard themselves against such inhuman incidents.
 The family is the center of the personal affections that enable and enrich human life. It
ensures the care and education of children in stable environment. Children learn moral
values mainly within their families. However, due to urbanisation, the traditional family
values are deteriorating. In today’s world children are growing up with less and less
empathy, and less respect for their elders, law and order and civility. Children learn
values primarily from their parents. Therefore, it becomes very essential to provide
family life education for successful childrearing.
 Through family life education, knowledge, attitude, and skills of young people related to
reproductive health and HIV/AIDS/STDs, etc., can be enhanced. It may help them to
maintain or positively change their sexual behaviour for preventing STIs/UTIs, more
importantly HIV/AIDS. Since there is no vaccine or cure available for HIV/AIDS,
preventive education is the only means to promote behavioural changes which can
prevent HIV infection.
 Adolescence is a transitional period during which adolescents develop their abilities
experimenting with new types of behaviors. If they indulge in risky behaviours such as
tobacco and alcohol consumption, it can have bad impact on their health.
It has been felt for quite some time that the family which is the basic unit of society has been
under strains. Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation, demographic and socio-economic
changes, widespread migration, and poverty, are weakening the institution of marriage. Family
as an agent of social learning is sometimes constrained to perform its educational functions.
Family life education therefore is needed to enable family members to cope with the changing
demands of different stages of family life and to ensure wholesome relationships among family
members.

1) What are the operational principles of family life education?
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3.3 IMPORTANCE OF FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION
The following reasons can be offered to indicate the importance of family life education in
today’s world:
1) Expectations of marriage and family life are changing: When marriage was for
economic security and husbands rule the roost, the rules were more simple and
straightforward. Expectations for affection were minimal as were options outside
marriage. Today, love, companionship and equality are very important. Communication
and problem-solving skills have become even more valuable for happiness.
2) Terms of marriage and family are changing: At the turn of the century, the life span
was shorter. Marriage revolved around parenting, and couples often drew on the network
of family and friends for support. Today, with nuclear families being on the increase in
our country, couples are expected to meet their own needs, with minimal extended family
support, and coordinate adult growth and roles through 50-60 years.
3) Life doesn’t prepare most persons for new family roles: Couples face more demands
and fewer supports, but few persons learn to be mature and be equal partners in families.
Conflict resolution and problem-solving skills are part of many job-trainings and
volunteer groups, yet couple communication remains sorely neglected. Traditional
education prepares a person for 8 hours of his/her working life. A person is actually
functioning as a member of a family with an assigned role for a much longer part of the
day. What preparation does one receive for this formidable and important role?
4) Benefits of happy family life and adjustment: Research finds happy families have lower
rates of illness, depression, and conflict in and outside their marriage. Well-adjusted partners
make easier transitions to parenting and tend to be more supportive parents. For most
persons, marital satisfaction is the best index of family satisfaction; family satisfaction is
the best prediction of well-being.
5) Consequences of marital breakdowns: Whether divorced or living under the same roof
and being completely separated from each other emotionally, partners, their children, and
their relatives experience emotional and financial stress which may have long-term
effects. In particular, poverty, continued partner conflict, and isolation from old friends and
family can limit the horizon of couples in stress and of their children. Most persons would
choose to avoid families where there is no harmony or peace, or take advantage of this
situation.
6) Benefits of family life education: Researchers have successfully shown the benefits of
training programmes in relation to increased couples’ skills and satisfaction for long-term
and lowered marital conflict rates, and reduced family violence rates.
7) Starting early prevents breakdowns: Couples who are aware of the principles of family
dynamics, of problem solving methods, and of the support and skill resources, become
more aware and more capable of handling the challenges of family life. Proactive couples
tend to avoid relationship-treating crises and enjoy the benefits of life together.
8) The pandemic of HIV/AIDS: One of the salutary side effects the otherwise disastrous
pandemic of HIV/AIDS is that it helps us to turn our attention once again to the values of
love, marital fidelity, etc., which are the bedrock of the institution of family. Though HIV
spread is not only through unprotected sexual relations, it must be admitted that in a
majority of cases sexual contact is the main source of infection. Marital fidelity has, thus,
the added advantage of also preventing a lot of infection. It is to be noted, that it is not
HIV/AIDS pandemic that makes marital fidelity a value. It has been a value which was the
basis of the institution called family, and now in the context of HIV/AIDS we get the
motivation to reflect on this important value once again.
Society is the name for group of people who live together. A society is composed of many different
types of organisations and institutions and family is one of them. In fact the family is the primary
unit which constitutes society. Family, community and society are regarded as special dynamic
institutions which interact among themselves. It is the society which decides the quality and types
of family. It depends on the healthiness of the family to create a vibrant and progressive nation
and society. Again, family consists of individuals. So it is necessary to develop healthiness and
proper understanding among each individual to make a family vibrant and progressive. So the
individual is the basic entity in a family. Family, community and society are dynamic in the sense
that with the changes in outer world, the economics and history of these institutions are being
constantly redefined and the boundaries are being constantly readjusted. A healthy society or
community is one large cohesive family. Family is a microcosm of society or community
possessing all the culture and civilization it has acquired.
This can be best defined by the concentric diagram given below. This model shows
World
Community
Community
Individual
Family
Neighbourhood
that the individual is the cornerstone of the world community. This is because s/he is the essential
constituent part of family, neighbourhood, community, society, nation and world community at
large. So any change in the individual’s attitude and behaviour affects all these above
institutions. Simultaneously, any change in the large institutions like neighbourhood,
community, nation and world community will affect the individual too. So it is pertinent that roles
of all these institutions are crucial as far as family life education is concerned. Each institution
has to play specific roles to keep harmony among themselves and in the world community.
3.4 ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL, FAMILY AND COMMUNITY IN FAMILY LIFE

EDUCATION
Let us now turn our attention to understand the importance of an individual, family and of
community from the family education point of view.
Role of Individual in Family Life Education
Family life education focuses on how individuals as constituent parts and fruits of family life may
become physically healthy, emotionally mature, disciplined, responsible and tolerant human
beings. Its goal is to help individuals develop interpersonal skills and more enriching human
relationships by learning how to relate effectively within their families. As a whole it seeks to
improve the quality of their life throughout the entire range of human developments.
Human beings perform different roles (like that of husband, wife, parent, child, etc.) and functions
(like child care and development, family resource management, family planning). That is why the
same individual is supposed to know about all these aspects, their prospects and consequences.
All these needs can be categorised under different headings. An individual may have various types
of needs. Some needs may be the felt needs of an individual in a concrete situation in life. For
example, an individual may feel: “I need to be more assertive in my life relationships”. This is known
as the “felt need”. The second type of need is “developmental need” which is common to most
individuals as they grow and get matured (for example, dealing with one’s changing sexuality at
puberty, preparing for retirement as the age advances). These needs are generally identified
through empirical studies and through collective wisdom and experience of mankind.
In many cases there is an overlap between these two kinds of needs. The educational needs of
new parents, for example, may be both felt need expressed by the parents themselves and a
developmental need emerging from their new roles and responsibilities.
There is another category of needs that deserves special attention which is called “societal
needs”. These are needs which emerge from current and anticipated social, economic and
political conditions that impinge in important ways on the lives of all individuals. For example,
the pace of social change in most societies dictates a need to redefine the roles of adult family
members. Where traditions once established the norms for family behaviour, parents are now
being challenged to examine their role and to accommodate the demands of changing family
structures and functions. The state also has shown an increasing tendency to intervene in family
life for reasons of economic and social necessity. National programmes of planned parenthood,
for example, have been established in a number of countries to curtail population growth and to
promote improved standards of living. The belief, that parenting skills, knowledge, and attitude
can be learned through programmes of education as opposed to learning from one generation to
another has given rise to a host of such programmes around the world.

1) State the importance of family life education in the context of HIV/ AIDS.
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Role of Family in Family Life Education
Without the role of family, one cannot think of family life education. Individuals usually perform
certain functions within the family which is not possible for them to perform outside the family.
In other words, family promotes certain functions amongst individuals. These functions are
discussed below in relation to their role in family life education.
1) Biological Functions
The husband and wife have the right to sexual expression as a way of sharing or showing their
love for each other. This provides not only sexual gratification for the spouses but also
strengthens their interpersonal relation, love and unity as a result of the powerful and often
binding emotions which accompany sexual activities between a husband and wife. The sexual
functions also help to stabilise the society. The family provides opportunities in which sexual
drives find both expression as well as control. Parenting also has long term functions as a child is
extremely helpless and dependent on its parents for food and shelter for a number of years.
2) Cultural Functions
Family helps the child to acquire values, beliefs, customs and traditions of the society. It is in the
family that the child’s basic attitudes develop. If puja is performed in a family in the morning,
then children also learn and acquire this value of prayer and religiosity. What a child considers
right or wrong largely depends on what the family believes in and puts to practice. They may,
later on in their lives, question these values and family traditions. It is in the context of this
questioning that a child develops its own value system for life.
3) Economic Functions
There is a concept of optimum utilisation of income and labour. Families pool their resources so
that they can have maximum satisfaction by budgeting efficiently. This economic co-operation
within the family not only goes a long way towards fulfilling the economic function for society
as a whole, but provides “rewarding experiences” for the spouses working together which
cement their union to work towards family goals such as providing good education, health and
comforts to their children.
4) Emotional and psychological functions

Human beings are emotionally and psychologically sensitive and need the family to recharge
themselves for their struggle in the world. In times of crisis particularly, the family works as a
shock absorber, provides stability and anchors the members emotionally. The picture of a family
is one of inclusion and of caring. One can quit his/ her job, drop out of school, and move to
another city or village, but the family is always at the back to provide support. Adolescents,
children and unemployed youth are supported by the family so that they do not lose heart and go
astray. The family acts as a compensatory agency which offers comfort and esteem to the worker
who returns from the factory or office tired dissatisfied and without being able to exercise any
control. With the changing family values and norms, members sometimes do not find the required
support from it. Those who consider their own family as a “problem family” should learn to
understand the root cause of the problems in the family and to try to work on them to resolve
them, through shared feelings.
5) Educational Function
Beginning with toilet training, language skills, or socially acceptable behaviour, a family
performs the important functions of education of children and their socialisation. Vocational skills
of varying nature are also learnt at times within the family. Basic education is given by the family.
This training makes a child quick to learn in school and enables him/her to cope with the
demands of schooling along with his/her classmates. Within the family the child learns to
conform and to submit to authority. It also learns to negotiate with authority.
6) Cosmic Function
Man feels adrift in the large impersonal universe. He becomes largely alienated in the
industrialised and urban society. Living in a family helps to give him/her a place in the cosmos
that makes him feel connected to others and rooted to earth.

1) List the role of Family in Family Life Education.
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Role of Community in Family Life Education
Maclver defines community as “an area of social living marked by some degree of social
coherence”. We know that a person rarely exists alone. S/he is linked in many ways to his fellow
human beings who form a group. S/he can establish relations only with the people who reside
near him/her in a definite part of the territory. It is a fact that people who reside in a particular
locality over a length of time, develop social likeness, have common social ideas, common
traditions and a sense of belonging. This social interaction in a common specific area gives birth
to community. These above mentioned aspects of community help in providing and preserving
family life education.
Let us now examine the three specific roles performed by community which are very important
from the family life education point of view.
1) Community acts as preserver of values related to family life

Each older generation passes on values related to family life acquired from their previous
generation to each successive younger generation. That becomes a set pattern or tradition in the
communities. This way, age old traditions and values still prevail in communities and societies.
Sometimes we find that these values are little bit modified according to the changes taking place
in societies. It may be either in the form of parents or grandparents vis-a-vis their respective
children or grand children or in the form of sermons by religious or community leaders.
2) Community acts as a resistant

Not only does community preserve values related to family life but it also resists when there is
any violation of the norms or values. It imposes certain restrictions or takes action against the
individual who violates the norms and values. Other than this, a community may take strict
measures like non-cooperation and boycotting the individual and groups who tend to violate the
values and norms.
3) Community provides moral policing
Another significant point is that a community always tries to provide guidelines to the members
regarding what to do and what not to do. It keeps an eye on each member’s actions in the
community or outside the community. In this way it keeps checks and balances in the
community.
As far as a community is concerned, there are three major settings currently which offer family
life education for adults: religious, social and professional organisations, mass media; and
schools and universities.
i) Role of religious, social and professional organisations
The most comprehensive programs in educating for family living have been developed and
implemented by religious and secular organisations. Hundreds of diverse organisations and
agencies are involved in offering a wide array of courses, workshops, and services covering areas
such as parent education, marriage preparation, marriage enrichment and child development.
Traditionally invested with a belief in marriage and the family, the church is one institution in
western society which encompasses all families and whose clientele spans the entire life cycle
from birth to death. Many religious groups are involved in matters relevant to the well- being of
families. Besides religious denominations, there are community organisations such as the Young
Men’s Christians Association (YMCA) and Young Women’s Christians Association (YWCA)
and Service Association of America as well as voluntary organisations that include a focus on
family education in the form of courses and workshops offered to adults on issues related to
marriage and family living.
Most countries have developed organisations to deal with their particular concerns in family life
education. These often grow out of professional associations having a special interest in the
family or government agencies giving leadership to educational, social and health concerns of
the family. Some examples include the International Union of Family Organisations (France), the
National Council on Family Relations (USA), the Study commission on Family (UK) and the
Vanier Institute of the Family (Canada). Apart from these organisations, many international
agencies also sponsor this type of work. These organisations are UNESCO, International Red Cross
Organisations for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and Cooperative for
American Relief Everywhere (CARE).
ii) Role of mass media in promoting community attitude
There continues to be a great public influence exerted by television, radio, news paper and
magazines on moulding the values, ideas, attitudes and beliefs about marital and family living.
While the quality of input may be at times questioned, they nonetheless offer alternative
structures, role models and information, and advice on a wide range of family-related issues.
iii) Role of schools and universities in providing family life education as a part of
community education
Schools have for sometime been introducing more and more learning opportunities for students
on marriage and family issues. Many universities and colleges offer credit and non -credit continuing
education programmes on marriage and family for adults.
There is a need for an integrated effort or coherence between family and community. If there is a
difference between what is observed in the family and what is practiced in the community, then
there will be crisis in individual’s mental level or way of life. To avoid such situations, there is
need for orientation of community leaders. These leaders may be political leader from Panchayat
level up to the national level, religious leaders of all religions and social leaders. These are the
persons who plan and execute all the decisions which are relevant from the viewpoint of family life
education.

1) What are three major settings providing family life education for adults?
Explain.
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3.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have discussed various broad and specific objectives of family life education.
Major objectives are to develop good knowledge about family roles and functions, develop the
knowledge, values and skills necessary for adult life, marriage and parenthood. The ultimate aim
of family life education is to create responsible and useful young citizens by upgrading the
above mentioned skills. To develop all this knowledge, values and skills various institutions like
a family, a community and individuals have different roles and responsibilities to perform. An
individual has to perform different functions and roles and simultaneously has to satisfy different
needs. Like the individual, a family also performs various functions including biological,
cultural, economic, emotional, psychological, educational, and cosmic functions. The
community acts as a preserver and provider of family life education and provides resistance to those
persons who violate its values and norms. It provides moral policing. As far as a community is
concerned, there are three major settings which correctly offer family life education; religious,
social and professional organisations; mass media, and schools and universities.
3.6 KEY WORDS
Deprivation : In specific terms, a situation in which one cannot enjoy some or any
of the benefits offered by the society.
Ostracisation : Cutting someone off from a group or society.
Areus, M.E Schvaneveldt, J.D, Moss J.J. (eds) (1993), Handbook of Family Life Education
(Foundation of Family Life Education), Saga Publications Vol. 1, Vol. 2.
Seshadri.C. and Pandey J.L, Population Education – A National Source Book, NCERT, New
Delhi.
International Planned Parenthood Association (1985), Growing Up in a Changing World. Part One:
(Youth Organisation and Family Life Education), An introduction, IPPF, London.
Thomas, Gracious (1995), AIDS and Family Education, Rawat Publications, New Delhi.
UNESCO (1988), Family Life Education: Package One, PROAP, Bangkok

1) Family life education has certain operational principles. They are:
a. Family life education is related to individuals in the families throughout the life span,
both as individuals and families.
b. Family life education should be based on the need of individuals in families.
c. Family life education is a multidisciplinary area of a study and practice.
d. Family life education takes an educational rather than therapeutic approach.
e. Family life education should present and respect differing family values.
1) The pandemic of HIV/AIDS: One of the salutary side effects the otherwise disastrous
pandemic of HIV/AIDS is that it helps us to turn our attention once again to the values of
love, marital fidelity, etc., which are the bedrock of the institution of family. Though HIV
spread is not only through sexual relations, it must be admitted that in a majority of cases
sexual contact is the main source of infection. Marital fidelity has, thus, the added
advantage of also preventing a lot of infections. It is to be noted, that it is not HIV/AIDS
pandemic that makes marital fidelity a value. It has been a value which was the basis of
the institution called family, and now in the context of HIV/AIDS we get the motivation
to reflect on this important value once again.

1) Human beings are emotionally and psychologically sensitive and need the family to
recharge themselves for their struggle in the world. Particularly in times of crisis the
family works as a shock absorber and provides emotional stability to its members
emotionally. An ideal picture of a family is one of inclusion and of care. One can quit his/
her job, drop out of school, and move to another city or village, but the family will always
be there to provide support. Adolescents, children and unemployed youth are supported by
the family so that they do not lose heart and go astray. The family acts as a compensatory
agency which offers comfort and esteem to the worker who returns from the factory or
from office where he/she cannot exercise any control. With the changing values, norms, and
patterns of family, members sometimes may not find the required support from it. Those
who consider their own family full of problems should learn to understand problems and
try to resolve them by sharing and expressing feelings.
1) As far as a community is concerned, there are three major settings currently which offer
family life education for adults: religious, social and professional organisations, mass
media; and schools and universities.
i) Role of religious, social and professional organisations
The most comprehensive programs in educating for family living have been developed
and implemented by religious and secular organisations. Hundreds of diverse
organisations and agencies are involved in offering a wide array of courses, workshops,
and services covering areas such as parent education, marriage preparation, marriage
enrichment and child development. Traditionally invested with a belief in marriage and
the family, the church is one institution in western society which encompasses all families
and whose clientele spans the entire life cycle from birth to death. Many religious groups
are involved in matters relevant to the well- being of families. Besides religious
denominations, there are community organisations such as the Young Men’s Christians
Association (YMCA) and Young Women’s Christians Association (YWCA) and Service
Association of America as well as voluntary organisations that include a focus on family
education in the form of courses and workshops offered to adults on issues related to
marriage and family living.
Most countries have developed organisations to deal with their particular concerns in
family life education. These often grow out of professional associations having a special
interest in the family or government agencies giving leadership to educational, social and
health concerns of the family. Some examples include the International Union of Family
Organizations (France), the National Council on Family Relations (USA), the Study
Commission on Family (UK) and the Vanier Institute of the Family (Canada). Apart from
these organisations, many international agencies also sponsor this type of work. These
organisations are UNESCO, International Red Cross Organisations for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD), and Cooperative for American Relief Everywhere
(CARE).
ii) Role of mass media in promoting community attitude
There continues to be a great public influence exerted by television, radio, news paper and
magazines in moulding the values, ideas, attitudes and beliefs about marital and family
living. While the quality of input may be at times questioned, they nonetheless offer
alternative structures, role models and information, and advice on a wide range of family-
related issues.
iii) Role of schools and universities in providing family life education as a part of
community education
Schools have for sometime been introducing more and more learning opportunities for
students on marriage and family issues. Many universities and colleges offer credit and non -
credit continuing education programmes on marriage and family for adults.
UNIT 4 ROLE OF HOME, SCHOOL AND RELIGION IN IMPARTING
FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION

Prof. Mary Mathew
Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Role of Home in Imparting Family Life Education
4.3 Role of School in Imparting Family Life Education
4.4 Role of Religion in Imparting Family Life Education
4.5 Methods of Imparting Family Life Education
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Key Words
4.0 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to provide you with an understanding of the role of home, school and
religion in imparting family life education. The methods adopted for this education are also
discussed. After learning this unit you should be able to:
 identify the role of different agencies in family life education;

 explain the methods adopted in family life education;
 describe the role of the different agencies; and
 give suggestions to these agencies regarding their role in family life education.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already learned about the objectives and importance of family life education. In this
unit you will be learning about the role of home, school and religion in imparting family life
education. You are also told about the methods of family life education at different stages of
development.
When we think about the role and method of family life education, the questions that usually
arise are: “Who is to be assigned the responsibility of imparting family life education? What is to
be told? When is the appropriate time to impart this education? How and how much is it to be

Prof. Mary Mathew, Santosh Nagar, Trivandrum
imparted? We are trying here to answer these and a number of related questions that are usually
asked by parents, teachers and other people who are engaged in the field of family life education.
Social workers in the field of family life education describe the attitude of parents in imparting
family life educator to the children. According to them, fathers often want to pass on the buck to
mothers to train the children. Mothers feel that it is the teacher’s task. Teachers generally feel
that it is the job of an outside specialist, i.e., special teacher or religious leaders. In other words,
everybody wants to shift the responsibility to someone else. The fact, however, is that it is the
joint responsibilities of home, school and religion.
4.2 ROLE OF HOME IN IMPARTING FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION
Home is the ideal place to tell the story of life and to give training in family life. This is because
parents have a continuing relationship with their children over many years. This relationship is
crucial in developing attitudes as well as in sharing information. The way people act in adult life
is strongly influenced by their experience and training in the early childhood at home.
The basic attitudes established in the home during the early years will dominate later attitudes.
So the family has to take up the major role in imparting education at the various stages of a
child’s development, i.e., physical, emotional, intellectual, social and spiritual. These are the
basics for successful family life.
Parents as Educators
Home is the school of schools and parents are teachers ‘par excellence’. The child’s intimacy
with the parents during the formative years influences the personality of the child. Again the
personality of an adult individual is generally influenced by the childhood experiences at home.
John Locke, says that the child’s mind is a ‘Tabula Rasa’ (Latin, meaning ‘clean slate’). Parents
can write anything on this clean slate. All the knowledge about family is derived from the
experiences of the child’s early life. A home provides every life situation in which a child needs
training. It is the first socialising agency.
A family’s standards and values act as a guide in later family life. Examples of parents who
practice virtues of social justice, charity towards people of all classes and races, who cater to the
needs of others and make sacrifices for others, help children to shape their own family lives. A
home also provides opportunities for open expression of personal, emotional and social
behaviour.
Children without parents are at greater risk of being involved in drugs use and alcohol. Among
such children, there might be chances of developing suicidal tendencies at adulthood, due to
psychological disorders compared to teens living with their parents. Whenever possible, children
should be provided parental support.
Relevance of Social Work Values
The Code of Ethics for Social Workers in India (Thomas 2015) has highlighted twelve core
values of social work namely, service to humanity, social justice, respect for dignity and worth of
the person, importance of human relationships, competence, integrity, hard work, teachership,
loyalty to profession, cultural sensitivity, patriotism, and responsibility and commitment. These
social work values play a vital role in consistently improving one’s personality.
Service to humanity: Social workers render their service on the ideal of brotherhood of man
with an element of self-sacrifice. People should acknowledge that serving others is more
important than self-interest and therefore place the needs of others ahead of their own personal
interests.
Social justice: Like social workers everyone should challenge injustices in the society
particularly those against vulnerable, disadvantaged, oppressed, exploited and the poorest of the
poor.
Respect of dignity and worth of the person: All human beings have equal worth and dignity.
They are able to think, feel, plan, decide and act in relation to their own worth and dignity. Each
one should be treated with care and respect.
Importance of human relationship: Importance of the value of human relationship

communicates that social workers understand service user’s concerns and know how they feel
which will result in warm and healthy relationship.
Competence: People must practice within their areas of competence with responsibility and
commitment to the helping profession and clients. They must ensure that the services provided
are of highest quality, effective and aimed at the best interest of the client.
Integrity: An important sub-set of values consists of those with ethical or social dimensions,
such as honesty, integrity, compassion, fairness, charity and social responsibility. People must
adhere to the ethical principles of the profession by maintaining high code of behaviours with
honesty, trust worthiness, being respectful and having a sense of justice and fairness.
Hard Work: Hard work is said to be the stepping stone to success. There is no substitute for
hard work. Hard work paves the ways for self-development which lead to accomplishment of the
ambitions of one’s life. Being self-disciplined is the quality that makes one self-motivated. It
enables a person to do what is necessary and sensible.
Teachership: Social workers promote individual development and pursuit of clients just as a
teacher is involved in the development of each student entrusted by the school administration.
Social workers are expected to inspire and motivate the clients and service seekers to face
challenges, hurdles and problems.
Loyalty to profession: It is very much needed to develop a sense of loyalty and attachment
towards one’s organisation. One must refrain from unhealthy behaviours that affect the values of
the profession. Loyalty to profession expects the worker to carry out his/her professional duties
with maximum responsibility and commitment refraining from unhealthy behaviours.
Cultural sensitivity: Everyone must be culturally aware and sensitive to one’s own cultural
heritage, values and respect cultural differences. No one should impose his/her ideas, beliefs,
customs and life styles on the clients keeping in view the value of cultural sensitivity.
Patriotism: People have to be loyal and dedicated to the enrichment and enhancement of the
aspirations of one’s country and work towards its growth, development and perseverance of its
values and culture. One should be proud of one’s nation and make it evident during the practice
of social work.
Responsibility and commitment: People should have a sense of responsibility and commitment
towards one’s family, organisation and society. They should be committed to promote social
justice, bring about changes in social system and structures that are barriers to preserving
equality, human rights and natural environment.
Imbibing and inculcating social work values will facilitate one to be a morally upright person.
Role of Home in Character Building
How does character affect family life? The success of a family depends upon the character of the
main couple. Home has an important role in training the character of its members. Success or
failure, good or poor adjustment, happiness or unhappiness are much more a matter of character
than of intelligence.
Character impels a person to act on certain principles. A person of character can be trusted and
relied upon. Hence character training at home is important to lead a full life. In the modern
world, lack of good leadership is felt in all walks of life. This results from the inadequacy of
training at home, in the formative years of a child.
Parents must assume the responsibility of assisting their children to become socially competent
adolescents, mutually understanding spouse, parents and honorable citizens. Happy homes tend
to build happy people. If the parents are leading a harmonious life, children also can build similar
marital life relationships. A child who feels the love, security and sense of belonging, and who
was cared for in a secure happy home, makes a good start towards a responsible and matured
family life.
Family Life Education at Home
Who should start imparting education for marriage? As you have seen, home is the starting point
for all education. A child’s image of his role as a boy or girl, husband or wife, father or mother is
patterned very early in life by the emotional and social atmosphere enjoyed at home.
What does a child learn from his parents about marriage and family? From parents the children
learn the good or bad of family life. They learn the art of loving and being loved, giving and
receiving affection, adjusting and sacrificing from the family. The first lesson on the art of
human relations and adjustments are learned from the family. Parents have the moral
responsibility for preparing children for married life. Family life education at home inspires the
child to understand the nature and meaning of the home itself of which he/she is a part. It
prepares him/her for his/her own future family life.
Home and Personality Building
What is the role of home in building one’s personality? What a child becomes is more important
than what a child knows. A good personality is the most valuable gift that parents can give to
their children. For normal development of personality, child should have a satisfactory family
life. Homes in which parents and children share their joys and troubles, where they participate in
recreational activities with friends and relatives, where there is always peace and happiness, will
produce well adjusted and socially confident individuals. These children will have personal
adequacy and personal responsibility in their relationship with others.
Family living provides certain basic human needs, more directly, than is possible elsewhere.
Parents, who really love each other, give a sense of security to their children. These parents give
an unconscious model of human relationships. Children will understand that in spite of
disagreements and quarrels, the basic loyalty of the family group is never threatened. They will
be able to establish strong family relationships later. This experience can never be given by
books or study classes. It comes only through the day-to-day life in the family.
From where does one inherit habits and behaviour?
Certainly inherits most of one’s good or bad tendencies from one’s parents. These tendencies
take the shape of habits or behaviour by interacting with the environment, in which one grows.
The factors important in personality development are heredity, environment and training. All
these factors are contributed by home. The way the twig is bent, so inclines the tree. A thousand
mile walk starts with the first step.
Role of Home in Sex Education
Are sex education and family life education identical? Even though they are mutually related,
sex education cannot be equated with family life education. Of course, sex has a vital role to play
in family life. Today, researches show that intimacy, love and companionship are the most
important needs of couples. These needs are satisfied mostly from sex relations. This elevates
sex to a position of new importance in marriage. According to many people, the success or
failure of marriage depends upon satisfactory sex relations. This emphasises the importance of
sex education for a successful family life.
Unfortunately children are exposed to “too much too soon” and with little moral direction and
guidance. So home has a major role to give this direction and guidance in sex. But since there is
a separate section on sex education, this unit is not taking up a detailed study of that topic.
Difficulties in Exercising the Role Expectations of Home
Do all homes have the facilities and competence to provide training for family life?
Unfortunately, no they don’t. If so, what are the blocks?
a) Failure of parents
Many families today have only one or two children. So parents do not permit their children to
encounter any hardships or hazards or ordinary risks of life. There is a tendency of over –
protection and over-ambition. The over – protected children cannot face the normal risks of life
in their later family life. They have a very sheltered existence.
b) Over-expectations of parents
Parents expect too much from children. The education system is also highly competitive.
Children who cannot come up to parental expectations may develop many behavioural problems.
Nowadays, more and more students are taking the extreme step of attempted suicide in a bid to
end their misery after failing in their pursuit of professional excellence. It is due to the increasing
self and family expectations from youth and their failure of not coming up to such expectations.
When a student becomes hopeless and finds himself helpless to meet the expectations he is likely
to become depressed which may drive one to take the extreme step. Such situations demand the
need for social work intervention. The social workers can educate and motivate families to really
understand their ward and educate them to not put undue pressure on him/her which could lead
to depression. Parents could be advised to keep the communication lines open with their teenage
children so that the children can share their feeling or problems freely with their parents.
c) Rejected children
Parental rejection is another problem. A parent who neglects a child rejects it. Parents who do
not give their children attention, time, affection, companionship, supervision, discipline, religion,
etc., are depriving them of a cosy and secure home. This rejection results in attention seeking
behavior, hostility to family members, frustrations, anxieties or extreme independence. These
children may not be able to become good partners and parents in their own family lives.
In such scenario, the couple should decide who can sacrifice the dream/career for a few
formative years of the child or who in either’s family can be with the child so that the child is not
neglected. This must be decided before the couple starts planning for a baby. Again, this
planning and process requires certain level of maturity and wisdom.
d) Perfectionist parents
Some parents have unrealistic fantasies of model, spotless, scratchless, and perfectly regimented
homes. Their children may become extremely formal, rigid and unrelaxed. They may develop
distorted personalities which may end in marital breakdowns later.
e) The indulgent and domineering parents

An indulgent parent gives excessive privileges to children. This results in immaturity which later
leads to drugs, alcoholism and an irresponsible way of living. Domineering parents make all
decisions for their children. Also they never allow children to grow to maturity. These children
go through life with fear and disrespect for all authority. Children of both indulgent and
domineering parents develop distorted personalities and distorted ideas about marriage and
family.
Traits in Parents for Success
Raising a child for most parents is a challenge. It is at the same time a responsible and satisfying
task for parents. It is a full time commitment. Child rearing is a responsibility and not a sacrifice.
Parents should shower their children with love, happiness, and encouragement so they have the
confidence to reach goals and at the same time they should be aware of the limitations.
Qualities that help a parent in bringing up children
 Parents must meet the varying needs of children at different ages and stages of growth of
their children. They should provide a sense of emotional security and inculcate self-
reliance and self-confidence in children. Each child is endowed with some innate
potentialities. Parents should provide time and space for the free development of these
innate abilities. Over-supervision is not good. There should be discipline – firm- but not
harsh.
 Parents are the most influential role models for the children. Parents should show respect,
honesty, kindness, friendliness, and generosity to their children. This would further
encourage them to behave in a positive manner. Parents should set reasonable expectations
from their children and should convey to them what they expect from them from time to
time.
 Understand the child as he/she is from his/her viewpoint. Develop a sense of responsibility
in children by assigning manageable tasks. Proper communication is the key to settle most
of the problems between parents and children. By understanding the child, parents can
avoid the bitterness, anger and confusion that may arise among children.
 Discipline is very vital when bringing up a child. Through discipline children learn that
some kind of behaviour is acceptable and some are not. Parents should set some
boundaries for children, which helps them to learn how to behave and respect other’s
feelings.
 Parents should answer the questions asked by their children. If parents show that they are
too busy and does not answer them, the children may express frustration and stop wanting
to share their thoughts and feeling.
 Parents should understand their children well as undue pressure on them could lead to
depression. Some parents may over emphasise the extent of performance in board exams
by minimizing play time-and-leisure activities. Such increased pressures may negatively
impact students. A major sign of depression is when a child shows marked change in
everyday behaviour. Therefore, it is very necessary to maintain good relationship with the
children within family.
 Parents should not only bother about the future of their children but also should be worried
about their mental state. Many parents force their children to study all the time and scold
them excessively if they do not follow the instructions. Sometimes children are unable to
accept such rebuke.
 Parents should not consider children as race horses. They must help them develop their
intelligence and should not suddenly curtail their activities. Parents should avoid scolding
and threatening children in front of others and they should not be compared with other
children.
Today, the structure and function of home has changed a lot. Many of the functions of home are
taken over by other external agencies. Here comes the importance of school, peer group and
religion in family life education.

1) Why is home the ideal place to give training for life?
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4.3 ROLE OF SCHOOL IN IMPARTING FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION
Can the school do anything to impart family life education? Many people underestimate the role
of the school. Even though the family has the primary responsibility for family life education, the
school also has an important role. School is an extension of the family. Since the school has a
regular and continuous contact with all children, it has a unique opportunity to supplement
family training.
School age is the period at which a child’s world widens gradually, He/she comes into contact
with other socialising agents such as teachers, other adults and peers. So school can provide
more opportunities to learn about family life.
Why should the school interfere? Many parents do not have the technical knowledge to answer
all the questions their children may ask about sex and family. They are not able to help children
to develop healthy attitudes and to make correct decisions and choices as they grow up. The
informal education given by parents often fails to achieve the goals of family life education.
In many Indian homes the parents are illiterate and not competent enough to give training in
family life. Many of the old values and norms of family life are changing. In these
circumstances, the school is a more reliable agent than the home to impart family life education.
The school can give more detailed and systematic teaching than the parents.
Is there any barrier to family life education at school? Usually family life education is equated
with sex education courses. Many parents are frightened or suspicious of group teaching in this
area. Of course, sex education has an important place in these courses, but it is not the only-not
even the primary purpose of a course on family life. Parents should be conscientised about this.
A basic goal of education is to provide a background for choices in life. To make intelligent
decisions in the area of family living, children should get correct information about sex and
family life. A co-operative effort is needed between the parents and teachers in the matter of
family life education. In school, the information can be imparted in a much more impersonal way
without anxiety and tension.
Role of Teacher in Imparting Family Life Education
In school a teacher is the key person in imparting family life education to children. The teacher
should be competent, gifted and a prudent person. Every teacher in school can teach family
living. Every subject and every activity at school can contribute to a better understanding of life.
Experiences in school enhance the formation of ideals and values. This in turn helps to mould the
character of children. It also leads to personal and social adjustments.
As said earlier, sex education is one of the most important aspects of family life education. A
teacher can give this education without much inhibition and can impart a noble understanding to
this deepest personal mystery. Students tend to approach their teachers with personal and general
problems. Children prefer to discuss various issues with teachers than with parents. They believe
that teachers are better informed and better adjusted persons.
Teachers help children to understand themselves better, and to make better adjustments in life. A
teacher’s task is to impart information, clarify doubts, and give guidance – in short to be a
mentor. Armed with knowledge, rather than ignorance, the young generation can face the
challenges of growing up and can develop a better understanding of the values of sex and
marriage as well as its pitfalls.
The Role of the Peer Group

What is the contribution of the peer group to family life education? Once they begin to attend
school, children spend most of their time outside home, with members of the peer group. So
peers have a greater influence on the attitudes, interests and behaviour of a child than the family
has. The peer group helps the youth to get socialised, conforming to social patterns and norms.
The youth is more open and free with peer group. Again, the peer group serves as a laboratory for
developing variety of physical and social skills and social roles. It plays the role of teacher in this
process. It provides a sense of security and normal backing when the adolescent wants to be
independent.
In spite of the influences of the peer group for better adjustment, there are certain risks involved
in the experience and information gained from the peer group, especially regarding sex and
marriage. The information gathered may be wrong and dangerous. The peer group members
may be ill-motivated and inexperienced persons. Such inaccurate and inadequate and even
distorted information about sex and marriage creates unhealthy and wrong attitudes towards sex
and family life. It may also lead to serious mental disorders, complexes, and maladjustments in
behaviour. Many problems in married life like impotency, frigidity, guilt feelings, sex perversions,
excessive sex interest are the result of some of the negative influence of the peer group.
1) The teacher is the key person in the school in imparting family life
education. How?
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4.4 ROLE OF RELIGION IN IMPARTING FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION

Family life education was given through the families, in an informal way by all religions. In the
Indian context, a religion occupies an important place in the life of an individual. Marriage and
family are considered sacred and holy by all religions. Each religion has its own laws and
regulations for marriage and family.
The culture of a family in different religions is different. A strong religious background is

necessary for a successful family life. Today it has become a fashion among youth to disown God
and give importance only to the material world. Secularism is a wrongly understood word for the
youth. According to Sri. C Rajagopalachari, secularism does not mean that boys and girls will be
deprived of the advantage of the disciplines based on the religion professed by the families to
which they belong.
So far, a formal training for family life was not seriously thought of by religions. But due to the
high percentage of marital breakdown and problems in family life, all religions are now taking
up the matter seriously. Many religions, especially Christians have come out with some positive
steps in family life education. Attempts are made to give orientation in family life. Premarital
and post marital courses are offered. Family counseling facilities are organised. Church centered
programmes are gaining momentum and getting wide acceptance. Many couples come to these
centres for help and guidance.
All religions have the responsibility to provide family life education for its members. The youth
should be given opportunities to learn about marriage and family before they enter into them.
Religious values can reinforce the personality of an individual.
Religion can teach about religious values, which may include views on sex and sexuality as a
divine gift. Children and adolescents can be exposed to a diversity of cultural viewpoints on
abortion, birth control and gender roles. These issues may remain unaddressed in school
curriculum. Teachers may feel reluctant to explore these diverse opinions. They may fear that
such discussions will be perceived as endorsing or refuting specific religious and cultural values.
Since sex and related issues are viewed as taboo, it is natural for most teachers to abstain from
teaching such topics.

1) Should religion play a positive role in family life education?
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4.5 METHODS OF IMPARTING FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION

Family life education is a lifelong process. It includes the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
involved in maturing into men and women. This education should help the individual to find
his/her personal role as a member of one’s own sex in marriage, family life and the community.
How can we give this training? What are the methods to be adopted in imparting this education?
Marriage and family occupy a very important place in the life of a person. But very few couples
have any experience in the job which requires special knowledge and training. The importance of
this training is not properly understood. Usually, parents are expected to learn on the job. This may
lead to many mistakes. Most parents rely on what they received from their elders on their own
upbringing. They also depend upon the advice from their parents and friends.
Often commonsense knowledge and child care books provide the guidelines for young couples.
This is not good enough. For any other job, specified for example, teaching, nursing, driving or
any other profession, specialised special training is necessary before one enters the profession. In-
service training is also given for most of the professions. But for most people pre-marriage training
is not considered as a pre-requisite for marriage. It is not easily available also. But today the
importance of this training is widely accepted.
Since family life education is mainly given by the home and school, we shall discuss the
methods adopted by them at different stages of development-pre- school stage, primary stage
(age-6-9), pre adolescent stage and adolescent stage. Let us consider them one by one.
Pre-school Stage
This is the stage where the whole responsibility of family life education is on the family. The
school does not come into the picture. The basic attitude established in the home during early
years will dominate in the later attitudes. Children spend the early formative period with parents
and other family members. So the initiative in family life education should come from home.
During infancy and early childhood, mothers have to take the lead. The basic pattern of the
personality is formed during childhood. It is said that even ‘sex education’ is given by parents to
their young child, many years before they can begin to give him or her sex information.
To a growing girl, the mother is the role model. A little girl will try to identify with her mother in
many ways. But the girl should feel the warmth of her father, his voice, his touch which is
different from that of her mother. The father’s strength and confidence, his behaviour towards
the daughter stamp the image of an ideal man in her young mind. If she misses this influence, it
will be difficult for her to understand and appreciate boys and men in later life. This experience of
man – her father – will stand in good stead in adjusting and understanding her husband when she
gets married.
A growing boy learns from his father and mother. The mother’s concern, affection and care for
little things-tenderness, warmth, patience, all give him the image of an ideal woman and that is
what he is looking for in his wife. The father shows him that a man can be firm and strong, yet kind
and considerate.
It is not easy to perform the special tasks of a home. But the attitude of the parents and the spirit
in which the household duties are done will shape the child’s attitude towards masculine or
feminine roles later in life.
Pre-schoolers are always curious. For them everything around them is new and exciting.
According to Freud, the first six years are the formative years in the life of a person. Hence the
experiences received at this stage are very important.
We have already discussed the informal methods adopted by parents in training their children. It
is usually an informal and indirect process. Education includes not only what is taught, but
mostly what is caught by an individual from his/ her everyday experiences in the family.
The child learns from the examples set by the parents and elders. The physical and emotional
environment of home is very important for harmonious, peaceful and serene living. The most
crucial influence in a child’s development is the training given at home pertaining to orderliness,
system, punctuality, cleanliness, books, art, music, prayer, etc. These are vital factors in building
up a family.
Learning by doing should be the method adopted for giving training in family life. Give the child
enough opportunities to participate in all the activities of the home related to work, recreation,
social and religious activities. From day to day experiences of family life, children gradually
absorb the strength of character, intelligence, emotional and physical maturity, religious and
moral values of their parents.
Should there be a formal education for family life?

In addition to the informal and indirect methods of teaching, parents must be prepared to answer
the questions asked by the pre-schooler. Parents must be careful in providing answers to a child’s
queries. One should not resort to fairy tales to answer the questions. Intelligent answers to their
level of maturity and comprehension must be given. It is better to use scientific terms as far as
possible. Before, answering the question, the level of a child’s knowledge should be taken into
consideration. A parent should be a good listener too. If the parent refuses to answer, children
feel inhibited to ask further questions.
School years 6-9
How is the school age child different from the pre-schooler?
At this age, a child becomes aware of gender roles. Appropriate role models become necessary
too. At this stage also the most important guidance a child can get is from the way the parents act
as adult human beings. The attitude of the parents towards each other’s work and duties is
observed and absorbed by children. If the father looks down upon the mother’s work, or thinks
that he is the ‘provider and head’ of the family, children will develop similar attitudes later on.
Similarly, if the mother is always pressurising her husband or failing in her duties towards the
household, this adversely affects the child in future.
The mother’s attitude as a woman, wife and mother, her acceptance of her own family, and the
father’s attitude to his masculine role, his firmness, his sense of purpose are predominant factors
in the formation of the personality of a child. The tenderness and warmth between the parents,
the special bond between father and mother, and physical affection become good experiences for
the child. It makes children understand that affection is permissible, desirable and important.
When they later learn the facts of life they know it is an expression of love.
What about the questions asked by children?

Children ask too many questions about sex and family life during this period. Never assume that
‘they know’. This is the proper time to teach them about menstruation and puberty. There are
two things to be remembered in giving sex education to children at this stage. It should not be
“too little and too late” and “too much and too soon”. Don’t get embarrassed to answer the
questions. The answers given to the questions at this stage add to what has been gained earlier.
This will be the basic preparation for the time when sex begins to concern the child more
personally.
Give children confidence and encouragement. Repetition does not hurt. It provides more
opportunities for more questions. Allow them to play with their friends and get socialised. But
parents should always keep ‘an ear and eye’ on the children at this age.
What is the role of the mass media?

Mass media like T.V, radio, cinema, books, etc., help to widen the child’s knowledge about sex
and family at this stage. Whatever the source, the knowledge and value they gain will be part of
their foundation for life.
What can the school do?

In school, the curriculum and methods of teaching should be suited to the level of comprehension
and maturity of children. Sex information, which is a part of family life education, can be
imparted through biology lessons. Children can be taught about the concept of maleness and
femaleness, reproduction in plants and animals, the ideas of fertilisation etc. There is no need to
teach about human reproduction at this stage.
Pre-adolescent stage
This is the best stage for acquiring basic knowledge on family life. A growing child wants to
learn, to know. He/she observes everything that happens in the social setting of home, school and
neighbourhood. At this age he/she tries to understand and to work out the meaning of what
he/she observes. So the home and school should provide ample experiences for the child to
understand life around him/her.
As the child grows up, help him/her to feel proud and happy to be a male/ female. In the long
process of growing up to adulthood, children may have to face many challenges in life at one
time or other. Imparting love at home is absolutely necessary for the development of a child. A
home is a place where the child is needed, wanted, appreciated – where it is good to be. But love
should be expressed. Love between the parents and between the parents and children is the very
essence of good family life education. Loving his/her father and mother and other members of
the family, the child later learns to love his/ her partner in marriage, and his/her own children.
How can parents cater to good fatherhood and motherhood?

Parental influence is the most important factor in moulding a child’s attitude towards fatherhood
and motherhood. The examples the parents set throughout the years of their children’s growth is
the criterion in deciding whether the children will have a happy or unhappy family life. Children
should see the complete, dedicated relationship between their father and mother. Parents
themselves will have to grow in order to be wise parents. If parents want to do their best for the
children they must begin with themselves.
How does the peer group influence the pre-adolescent?

This is the time of peer group influence. Parents should be aware of their children/s friends. If
the friends have attitudes and values that are different from their own values, they should talk to
their children about it. Try to guide them towards friends who possess good moral values. There
is no harm in getting attracted to the opposite sex, but there should not be any sexual misconduct.
Should there be any limit to mingle with the peer group?

Parents have to set limits for their children and to guide them. Talk in a rational and loving
manner. While discussing these matters with children, be courageous and firm. Avoid a sex
lecture. The communication should be light and friendly, but always honest. Give information
about the child’s own sex as well as the opposite sex. Teach the child to respect the opposite sex.
What is the influence of the mass media?

The environment in which the present day child grows has changed radically. Sexual matters are
projected everywhere through different mass media. The living atmosphere is saturated with
sexual awareness. No one can be shielded from its impact. Issues like rape, abortion, teenage
pregnancies, S.T.D, homosexuality appears frequently in the mass media. This period is the
proper time to instruct children about these. At home, the father can take the responsibility of
educating the male children and the mother can reveal the facts of life to her daughter.
Grandparents and other elders at home prove quite helpful in this task.
What should the school do?

After the parents, the school should be taking up the main responsibility of educating the pre-
adolescent in family life. The school can give more detailed and systematic teaching than the
parents. Suitable curriculum should be drafted to cater to the needs of youth.
What type of sex education should be given at this stage at school level?
There is a strong need for sex education at this stage. It should equip one with correct scientific
information to face the challenging situations of adolescence. Before, one attains puberty, sex
education can be imparted without involving emotional reactions. The education preferably
should be given separately to girls and to boys. Classes of general hygiene, physiology and
programmes related to physical education and personality guidance can be utilised for this
purpose. There must be standard literature related to sex in school libraries. All the media can be
used positively for this purpose.
Adolescence
What is the special importance of this stage? This stage has a tremendous impact on the growing
youngsters. It is a transitional period in personality development bridging the years between
childhood and adulthood. Like any other period of transition, adolescence brings a number of
adjustment problems. Adolescent’s needs, interests and problems are different from those of
childhood and adulthood.
Who can help the adolescent?

Parents, teachers and other elders should recognise if adolescents are facing any problems.
Parents have a vital role to play in preparing the adolescent for his future family life. At the
home the adolescent learns what it means to be a man or to be a woman. Through his family
experience the boy is forming the concept of man, husband and father. The girl learns the role of
woman, wife and mother. Parents have to accept that the child is growing to be an adult. Parents
must modify their protective role and give more initiative and freedom to the youngsters.
Mothers have a tendency to prolong the dependence of the child. This will not help them to grow
into adulthood.
You may wonder why the interests of the adolescent move from his/her parental home. This is
only because up to this stage the child has everything in his/her home circle to meet his needs.
But with adolescence, sexual needs emerge and their interests move outside the family circle.
Life steers him/her away from his parental home towards a home of his/her own. He/she wants to
establish a home of his/her own with a partner of his/her own choice. Parents need not grow
anxious or unhappy about the youngsters’ need for getting married and founding his/her own
family. Special efforts must be made by parents to train and help the adolescent for choosing
his/her partner and establishing a family.
Should the adolescent learn through trial and error?

Some parents think that they need not interfere with the problems of their young boys and girls.
This should not be so. Of course, the role of the adult is not to protect him/her from all adversity
or every painful experience. Parents must let the adolescent do things for themselves. Then only
will they become responsible adults. The role of the parent is only to guide and assist the young
person when he/she has a real problem. They should enjoy the process of a child growing into a
young adult.
Adolescents need love and reassurance, recognition and praise from the parents to develop self-
confidence, belief and trust in themselves and to accept themselves as they are. At home he/she
experiences the way in which the two sexes complement each other, feminine gentleness and
masculine firmness. It is not formal learning, but he/she gradually acquires the philosophy of
living in a two sex world, by living in a family. The attitudes of the parents will influence his/her
relationship in marriage and family. It will make him/her a self-reliant man or a woman, a
confident husband or a wife.
How can the school help the adolescent?

At this stage the school can give a very systematic programme of family life education. The
educators and the people in authority should plan for a curriculum which includes the essential
information and learning experience in family life. This will give a formal recognition to the
importance of preparation and training for family life.
To make intelligent decisions in the area of family living, children, should get correct
information. They should also develop proper attitudes. Knowledge gives them a feeling of
security and protection. This in turn helps them to develop their potential to live in a responsible
and a constructive way.
Sex education is very important at this stage. Sex is not a “subject” like Arithmetic or History.
Hence it is not advisable to offer it as a subject. It is vitally important that young people should
receive honest and accurate answers to their questions regarding love and sex. But they should be
given in a simple way.
What should be taught?

Human reproductive system can be taught at this stage. Children can be introduced to concepts
relating to sexual maturity, conception, childbirth, illicit sex relations, STDs, HIV/AIDS, etc.
There should be healthy heterosexual relationship among boys and girls. The content should be
functional– that is directed at the specific problems young people face in their adjustments to the
opposite sex during the pre-marital period and in early years of marriage. But unfortunately we
do not have sufficient material in this area to provide adequate guidance to the youth. However,
block 3 of this course deals with most of the matters pertaining to the physiological components
of growing up.
Family life education, at this stage should provide opportunities for the youth to observe nursery
schools in operation, observe the care of small babies and learn more about parenthood and child
training.
Discussions and seminars on family life education can be arranged. Topics like responsible
partnership, parenthood, family planning, family relationships, psychology of man and woman,
how to choose the right partner can be included in such discussions and seminars. Help from
persons like psychologists, medical doctors and other specialists who have first-hand knowledge
about family life can be taken. There must be trustworthy resources available to the youth. The
educators must be well-informed in the subject.
Counselling facilities should be provided in the school to help children clarify their doubts and
personal problems. Pre-marital courses can be organised. All the mass media can be utilised for
this purpose. Good books on family life can be provided in the library.
Is there any other agency to impart family life education to youth?

Social and religious organisations can play a vital role in giving family life education to the
youth. Lately, many social and religious organisations have been arranging life orientation
programme for the youth. Today teenagers, newly-weds and long married couples are
approaching such agencies for guidance. Family courts and family counseling centres are also
doing a very good job in helping young couples and youth in family matters. Some newspapers
and periodicals publish regular columns to address issues pertaining to the common concerns of
people on sex and sexuality.

1) What are the methods adopted by the home in imparting family life
education?
a) At pre-school stage:
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b) At adolescence:
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4.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit you have learnt about the role of different agencies like home, school and religion in
imparting family life education. Home is the ideal place for such an education. The basic attitudes
formed during childhood about family life will influence later attitudes. Parents are the first and the
best educators for family life. Home has an important role in character building and also building
up the personality of a child. Parents have the moral responsibility for preparing children for family
life. Sex education is another responsibility of the family adults residing in the home.
Many parents do not have the technical knowledge and competence to give family life education
to their children. So the school has an important role in family life education. In school the
teacher is the key person to impart this education. Teachers are competent and children have
more confidence in their teachers. The peer group also helps the youth to socialise conforming to
social patterns and norm. The youth are more open and free with the peer group.
Religion also has a role to prepare the youth for marriage and family. Religious values and
background are necessary for a successful family life.
Family life education should be given at different stages of development like pre-school, primary,
pre-adolescent and adolescent stages. Family is the main agency for imparting this education.
The methods adopted by the family are mostly informal. Children learn from the examples they
see and the experiences they gain in the day to day life of the family. Father and mother are the
role models and main educators. They should answer the questions of their children regarding sex,
marriage and family. Learning by doing is the best method that can be adopted by the family.
In school, the curriculum should be designed for this purpose. Sex education can be provided
through biology lessons in the lower classes and human reproductive system in the upper
classes. A child should be equipped with detailed, systematic, correct, and scientific
information to face the challenges of sex and marriage.
Parents, teachers and other elders should give special care and attention to the needs of the
adolescents.
At the school level, honest and accurate information about sex and sexual problems,
reproduction, STDs, HIV/AIDS: should be given. Pre-marital preparation is very important.
Discussions and seminars can be arranged on topics related to marriage and family.
Social and religious organisations can also impart family life education. The mass media can be
utilised to a very great extent. Counseling centres are very helpful in giving guidance to the
youth.
4.7 KEY WORDS
Par Excellence : Excellence in the highest degree. No other person is better than the
parents in imparting family life education to their children.
Peer Group : Equal in rank- a group of people with same age, education, social
status, etc., is called a peer group. Children in a class usually form
a peer group.
STD : Sexually Transmitted Disease
Alphonse. H, Clemens, Marriage and the Family, Prentice-Hall-INC- Englewood.

N.J. Ann & John Murpy, Sex Education and Successful Parenting, Pauline Books, St. Paul Press
Training School; Mumbai.
D’souza, Antony, A., Sex Education and Personality Development, Usha Publications; New
Delhi.
Grugni, Dr. Antony, Sex Education, Better Yourself Books, St Paul Press; Mumbai.
G. Ginott, Dr. Haim, Between Parent and Child, Avon Books, Macmillan, Publishing Co; New
York.
Hurlock, Elizabeth B., Developmental Psychology, TataMcGraw-Hill Publishing Co; New Delhi.
Mascarenhas, Marie Mignon Family Life Education/Value Education, CREST Sevasadan

Training Institute; Bangalore.
Suriakanthi, A., Child Development, Kavitha Publications, Gandhigram.

1) Home is the ideal place to give training in family life, because parents have a continuing
relationship with their children over many years. Adult behaviour is the outcome of the
experience and training at home. The home has an important role to play in character
training and in moulding the basic attitudes of a person. All these are the decisive factors
for marital success. A child learns the art of living from his/her parents. The experiences
provided by the family cannot be provided through by books or through study classes.

1) The teacher has the technical knowledge and skill and competence to impart family life
education, especially sex education. A mature and prudent teacher can deal with the
subject in a matured and impersonal way without inhibition and embarrassment. Teachers
can give correct and specific information, clarify doubts and give guidance. Moreover,
adolescents are more open and free with their teachers and have more confidence in
them.
1) Religion should definitely play a positive role in family life education. As far as India is
concerned, marriage is still a religious ceremony for most people. A strong religious
background is necessary for successful family life. So religion should take positive steps
in imparting family life education.

1) a) At pre-school stage
At the pre-school stage, family is the agency for imparting family life education. Children
spend their early years with parents and other family members. A mother is the role
model for the growing girl and a father for the boy. Home provides every life situation in
which a child needs training. The methods used by the parents are mostly informal and
indirect. Learning by doing is the best method at this stage. Child should be given the
opportunities to participate in all the activities of the family. Parents must answer the
questions asked by their children in an honest way.
b) At the Adolescent stage
Parents have a vital role to play in preparing the adolescent for his future family life.
Through his family experience, the boy learns what it means to be a man, husband and
father. The girl learns the role of a woman, wife and mother. The parents must understand
the special problems and needs of the adolescent. They should be given the freedom to do
things for themselves. Adolescents need recognition, love, security and praise from
parents. By living in a family, an adolescent gradually acquires the philosophy of living
in a two sex world. The attitude of the parents will influence the family relationships of
the adolescents. Sex education is very important at this stage. Parents should take up this
responsibility also.
UNIT 5 DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY AND MORAL VALUES
Prof. Mary Mathew
Contents
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nature, Definition and Development of Personality
5.3 Theoretical Approach To Personality Development
5.4 Development of Moral Values
5.5 Theories of Moral Development
5.6 Environmental Influences on Moral Development
5.7 Let Us Sum Up
5.9 Answers To Check Your Progress
5.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit you will be learning about the nature of personality, its development and the role that
moral or ethical values play in personality development. The first part of the unit is devoted to
the discussion of the various theories of personality. The second part considers the development
of morality and moral values in an individual. The factors affecting personality and moral
development are also discussed.
After learning this unit, you should be able to:
 explain the nature of personality;
 describe the theories of personality development;
 be able to describe the meaning of moral values;
 list the various theories of moral development;

Prof. Mary Mathew, Santoshnagar, Trivandrum
 point out the relationship between personality and moral values; and
 discuss the measures of control of HIV/AIDS on the basis of personality development

and moral values.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Personality is a term widely used in popular language. People at large consider personality as the
external appearance and behaviour of the individual. We usually attribute personality to a person
on the basis of his/her personal grooming, manner of walking, talking, style of dressing, etc.
Personality, if equated to one’s character is a wrong notion. Personality is purely a psychological
term. The task of understanding personality is one of the primary goals of psychology.
5.2 NATURE, DEFINITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
You know that personality is of great significance in every walk of our life. Naturally you may
ask certain questions. What is the nature of this highly valued thing? Do all of us have
personality? Is personality determined at the time of birth? Why are some people calm and quiet
while some others are hot tempered and aggressive?
In this unit, we try to find out answers to these questions.
The term ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Persona’, which means ‘mask’. In ancient
Rome, actors used masks to hide their identity on the stage. Hence persona denotes ‘as one
appears to others, not as one actually is’. Persona does not indicate the internal organisation of an
individual which affects external behaviour. So persona does not represent the real personality.
Personality is something deeper than the outward appearance. It describes a person’s character,
emotional disposition, sociability and other aspects of what a person says and does. It is the
product of a long process of his physical, mental, emotional and moral development. For the
psychologist, personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of the
psychological system of an individual.
Definitions
It is very difficult to find an ideal definition for personality.
The first problem faced by us in the study of personality is the need to find out an ideal definition
for this phenomenon. Different psychologists have different views about personality. They have
defined personality according to their viewpoints. We can go through some of the definitions.
Munn has defined personality as the characteristic integration of an individual’s structure, modes
of behaviour, interests, attitudes, capacities, abilities and aptitudes. The particular way in which
these qualities are integrated in a particular person determines his personality.
The most frequently used definition for personality is given by Gorden Allport. According to
him, “Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.” This definition emphasises
the dynamic nature, i.e., the changing values of personality. It recognises the importance of
adjustment to the environment. It also stresses the importance of psychophysical systems, i.e.,
the habits, sentiments, emotions and motives of an individual which are psychological in nature,
but have a physical base. The disadvantage of this definition is that it stresses only the theoretical
part of personality.

1) What is the nature of personality?
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How does growth occur? It occurs in two patterns-enlargement and change. Take the examples
of a leaf and butterfly. The leaf expands in size in the process of growth. But it retains its
essential form. On the other hand the butterfly passes through different stages of change to attain
its adult form. Human beings manifest both kinds of development. As a child grows older,
his/her body becomes larger and heavier. But like the leaf, the same structure is retained. On the
other hand, the psychological process undergoes many changes during the early years of his/her
life.
Personality development implies tracing the connection between the personality of a child and
that of an adult. It is the understanding of how adult behaviour and psychological processes
evolve from a child. In other words, how does the butterfly emerge from the caterpillar?
Need for Studying Personality Development
Why do we study the development of personality?
There are many reasons for this. The most important ones are the following:
1) Studying personality helps us to understand the functioning of a personality in its mature
form.
2) It helps us to predict adult personality and personality disturbances.
3) We can understand the behaviour of a person only if we know about the specific
organisation of his motives, beliefs, skills, attitudes, etc., at different ages.
Moulding of Personality
What makes personalities and what are they?
There are no specific causes leading to changes in personality. But a number of factors interact
with one another in the formation of personality and in its development.
a) Heredity
How important is heredity in shaping the personality of an individual? Heredity plays an

important part in determining one’s personality. An individual gets his entire hereditary
endowment at the time of conception from his/her father and mother through the genes located in
the chromosomes. The personality pattern of a person is actually framed at this time. A child
inherits the main raw materials of his/her personality – physique, sex, intelligence, etc. Later
these develop further on his/her interaction with environment.
b) Environment
Unfavourable conditions in the prenatal as well as postnatal environment will have lasting and
damaging influences on personality development at a later stage. The important environmental
factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are culture in which we are growing up,
our family, friends, social and community groups.
i) Culture
Culture establishes the norms, attitudes and values that are transmitted from one generation to
the other.
ii) The family
A child spends his formative years in the family with his parents and siblings. The family is a
small group. But the intimate relationship among the family members influences the personality
development of the individual in a powerful manner. The home environment, the school the child
attends, his friends, the number of siblings, their personalities, the ordinal position of the child all
contribute to his/her personality development. The presence of harmonious, loving, peaceful
family atmosphere fosters healthy personality development.
iii) Economic environment
Unfavourable economic conditions usually lead to the development of undesirable personality

traits like inferiority feelings, nervousness, emotionality, lack of social initiative or sometimes
even bitterness against society. Of course there are exemptions. But self made men/women are
rare.
iv) Social role

The social conditions in the family are also decisive factors in personality development of an
individual. Family is instrumental in providing training to a child to adjust to other people, to
control his/her emotional expressions, and to cooperate in various fields of activities. There is a
continuous learning process between a child, its family, its social and community group.
c) Situation
A third factor which has effects of heredity and environment on personality is situation. An
individual’s personality may be generally stable and consistent. But it undergoes changes in
different situations. Different demands made in different situations bring about different changes
in personality.
Relative Importance of Heredity and Environment
At this stage an important question arises as to what plays a more important role in personality
development? Heredity or environment? It is not easy to answer this question. Personality
appears to be the result of both influences. Inherited qualities set the parameters or outer limits in
shaping the personality. Social environmental factors can strengthen or weaken the inherited
abilities. The social environment reinforces the development of inherited personality traits as the
child grows older. Heredity and environment are supplementary to each other. Personality
development is not possible in the absence of either heredity or environmental factors.
How consistent is an individual in his personality traits as he grows up?
Studies show that distinctive qualities noted early in life tend to persist. It is assumed that there is
a strong thread of consistency running through the life of an individual.

1) Explain the factors influencing the moulding of personality.
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5.3 THEORETICAL APPROACH TO PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Development of personality is a unique feature of an individual. Different psychologists
approach personality development from different viewpoints or perspectives. Can the personality
theories help us to explain and predict the personalities of people? We do not get a complete
picture of personality development from any one theory alone. Let us see what each theory has to
offer. The best from each will help us to understand personality development in a better manner.
i) Biological Perspective
The biological basis of personality is provided by researches conducted in this field. It has been
found that 50 per cent of personality characteristics are genetically determined. The rest is
determined by interaction with the physical and social environment. According to the theories of
Darwin the inherited qualities help an individual to adjust to his environment.
ii) Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality Development

This theory assumes that the basic dynamics of personality includes the conflict between two
opposing forces – anxiety arising from the inhibition of desires and defence against those desires
that arouse anxiety.
Freud’s Theory
The major contribution in this field comes from Sigmund Freud. He explained ‘personality’ as
the existence of conscious, preconscious and unconscious in an individual.
Id, Ego and Superego

Freud also believed that our personality is built around three interacting processes, the id, the ego
and the super ego.
Id is the unconscious reservoir of psychic energy. The other two systems operate on this psychic
energy. There are two basic instincts in man – the ‘life’ or sex instinct and the ‘death’ or
aggressive instinct. All the drive required by a man is derived from these two instincts.
Id is present at the time of birth. It does not know any morality or reality. It is concerned only
with satisfaction of its wishes. It is guided by the pleasure principle.
Ego functions as the manager of personality. It obeys the principles of reality. It controls, selects
and decides what instincts of the id are to be satisfied and in what manner it can be done.
Super ego works on morality principles. It represents the values of society. Human personality is
the result of the interactions among these systems. What will be the outcome if one of the
systems dominates over the other two?
The presence of a powerful ego ensures a well balanced personality. The dominance of super ego
leads to a neurotic personality while supremacy of id over ego and super ego ends up in the
development of a delinquent personality.
Psychosexual Stages in Personality Development

In addition to the concepts of id, ego and super ego, Freud emphasised the importance of sex in
personality development. He regarded the psychic energy for sex drive as the basis of
personality. So Freud explained personality development on the basis of the five stages of
psychosexual development.
Erogenous Zones: In each stage of development a child derives pleasure by stimulating a

particular area of the body. These are known as erogenous zones. The environment, however,
imposes restrictions in the satisfaction of his desires. How the child manages this conflict is
crucial in his personality development.
Fixation: Too much or too little satisfaction in any stage results in fixation. This means that
personality becomes emotionally fixed at a particular stage. This is also detrimental to
personality development.
The development takes place in five stages:

a) Oral Stage (1st year)
Pleasure is obtained by the stimulation of the mouth. Satisfaction at this stage lays the foundation
for a man’s adult personality traits like adjustability and tenacity. What are the traits developed if
libido is fixed at this stage? Fixation results in the formation of passive personality. It is
associated with over eating, smoking, drinking, or sarcastic criticism of other’s ideas.
b) Anal Stage (2 to 3 years)

Eliminatory process provides the focus of pleasure. The child achieves bowel control at this
stage. We can see the beginning of the development of ego in the child. If parents are too strict in
teaching toilet habits, the child develops anxiety. He manifests his anxiety and anger by
excreting at the most inappropriate time and place. These are the prototype of all kinds of
expulsive traits – cruelty, destructiveness, temper tantrums, disorderliness, etc. On the other
hand, praise for excreting at the proper time and place makes him feel that it is an important
activity. This idea lays the foundation of creativity and productivity.
What type of personality is developed due to anal fixation? A stubborn, compulsively orderly
personality is developed.
c) Phallic Stage (4-6 years)

This is a very important period in the personality development of a person. At this stage
pleasurable sensation comes from self manipulation of genital organs. In some cases sexuality
produces guilt feelings in an individual.
Oedipus Conflict
This stage is also marked by the emergence of Oedipus conflict in children. This is a complex in
which there is a strong attraction for the parent of the opposite sex and envy for the same sex
parent. At the same time the child knows that it is a wrong thing. S/he does not want to lose the
love and affection of the same sex parent. To resolve this conflict, the child tries to identify with
the same sex parent. He/ She tries to incorporate the sexual orientation, mannerisms and values
of the same sex parent.
Resolution of Oedipus complex results in the formation of super ego. Unresolved Oedipus
complex results in many problems in later marital life. Such children can never get closer to their
partners when they grow up nor make normal sexual relationships. A highly seductive female
continues to feel guilty about sex.
Freud assumed that every person is bisexual. What does this mean? There is attraction towards
members of the opposite sex as well as those of the same sex. This is the constitutional basis for
homosexuality. In most people this instinct remains latent.
d) Latency Period (6-12 years)

Freud thought that sexual urges were dormant at this state. The fact however, is that this is the
stage in which a person learns to befriend people of the same sex. The friends of a boy at this
stage are other boys; those of a girl are other girls. A sexually mature person should know to be
at home in the company of people of the same sex and of the other sex. This is a stage in which
this learning takes place. The child also begins to achieve emotional independence. An increase
in the knowledge about his/ her environment enhances his/her ego development.
e) Genital Stage
This is the final stage of development. Sexual interest reawakens at this stage. There is interest in
the opposite sex. Sexual attraction, socialisation and planning for a vocation, marriage and
family life begins at this stage.
If a person is well adjusted in the previous stages, he will be capable of establishing normal
heterosexual relationships. Most of the sexual problems in adult life come from failure at earlier
stages. There are no sharp lines dividing the different stages of development. The final
personality attained by an individual includes contribution from all stages.
Criticisms of this Theory

1) Too much importance is given to sex in explaining human behaviour.
2) Freud’s views are derived from his clinical experiences of people with disturbed
personalities.
3) Many points raised in this theory did not have empirical support. Then what does Freud’s
theory have to offer?
We cannot accept or reject Freud’s theory as a whole. We can accept some parts, reject some
others and revise a few. Freud put forward some challenging ideas which have relevance even
today.
From the above theories we know that id works on the pleasure principle. The impulses of id are
controlled by ego and super ego. But if id is more powerful it will not give an importance to the
voice of ego or super ego. It will not give any concern for moral values also. It goes on enjoying
pleasure giving activities. By controlling the id, undesirable sexual life can be prevented.

1) How do id, ego and super ego function?
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Social Cognitive Theories
You have already learnt that psychoanalytic theory focuses mainly on the unconscious for the
development of personality. Now, we shall go through the social cognitive theories.
Psychoanalytic theory is a broad term including behavioural and social learning theories as well
as cognitive psychology.
Learning theorists focused their attention on observable behaviour. They also stressed the role of
environment in personality development.
How is the child’s personality developed?
The pioneers in this field, John B. Watson and B.F Skinner believed in a single Stimulus
Response relationship in the formation of behaviour. They emphasised the importance of
reinforcement and excluded the role of consciousness in behaviour.
Most of the learning theorists followed the pioneers in this field. However, in the modern times,
behaviourism is concentrating on real life problems with respect to human behaviour.
Observational Learning
Albert Bandura gave a new approach to personality development on the basis of social learning
theory. Bandura and his co-workers (1986) demonstrated that we acquire most of our personality
traits through observational learning with or without direct reinforcement.
A child for example, observes and imitates the behaviour of a role model. The reinforcement
received by the model serves as reinforcement for the child also. Like this, by observing such
models, the child acquires many traits. This paves the way for the formation of his unique
personality. The various component of learning (environment, behaviour, and personal cognitive
variables) interact with each other to form a particular pattern of behaviour. Let us take the
example of a student choosing a particular subject for study (behaviour). His/her choice is
influenced by his/her family and friends (environment) and also by his/her own personal
preference (personal cognitive factor). All these are mutually influencing factors.
Drive Reduction Theory
This theory was presented by Dollard and Miller. When a person is impelled by drives, he learns
responses to reduce them. Drive reduction provides rewards and reinforcement. This in turn
gives rise to other drives. In this way, the individual learns new responses and new behaviour
patterns from our social environment. Consequently his/her personality develops accordingly.
What are the Factors Influencing the Learning Process?
They are the abilities of the individual – innate and acquired, his/her level of maturity,
stimulation and the reinforcement he/she gets from the environment.
Personality traits are acquired through interacting with the environment. Our lives are not
determined merely by our past experiences even though they are important. Learning processes
and their continuity help the individual to give up his/her habits. If a person has acquired a bad
habit in sex, it can be changed. The presence of positive models is also of help in changing our
bad habits.
The Humanistic Perspectives on Personality Development
This perspective emphasises the holistic characteristic of human experience. This is also known
as the third force in Psychology, an alternative to Psychodynamic and Behaviour Psychology.
Carl Roger’s Self Theory
Carl Rogers proposed the Self-Theory to explain personality development. Every day and every
minute, we are confronted by a number of events in our environment. How do we perceive and
interpret these experiences determines our behaviour.
How does personality development occur according to this theory?
There are two basic systems underlying Rogers personality theory – the organism and the self.
These two systems are operating in the phenomenological field of an individual. Personality is
the product of this interaction. Phenomenological field means the reality as experienced by an
individual or it is the personal reality of the individual. The organism represents the totality of
experience (conscious and unconscious). Self is the accepted awareness part of experience.
The acquisition of self concept is a long and a continuous process. How we perceive our
experience – negative or positive – depends upon our self-concept. Self concept is developed as a
result of a person’s interaction with social experience. For example, if somebody tells you that
you are a very smart and intelligent young boy, you will include this image in your concept of
yourself. You will make every effort to maintain this self-concept. We regulate our behaviour in
order to suit the already formed self-concepts.
What happens if an individual develops a false self image? Inconsistency between real and
imagined concepts may result in abnormal behaviour. A healthy personality development occurs
if there is a harmonious union of one’s self image and his/her real experience in life.
Self Actualisation Theory
The most well known theory on self actualisation is Abraham Maslow’s theory of hierarchy of
needs. He believed that human personality depends upon the fulfilling of inborn potentials. He
hypothesised that within every human being, needs are arranged in order of their importance or
hierarchy, from the basic to the complex. He explained five stages of motivational fulfillment of
personality development as shown in the diagram below.
Selfl
Actualisation
Self esteem
needs
Belongingness &
Love needs
Safety needs
Only after the satisfaction of a need at a lower level does the next need become dominant. The
satisfaction of primary needs motivates secondary needs. Every individual moves up the steps of
the given hierarchy because only after satisfying the basic needs which are essential for one’s
survival, one can think about the higher needs. A hungry man for example, cannot think about
reforming the society. There are, however, a few exceptions. There are some people who stand
for ideals, religious and social values without caring for the satisfaction of their own needs. But
such people are very rare.
Criticism
Still Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition. These theories have contributed much
to the individual’s freedom, love, personal growth and values. Humanistic theorists have called
attention to the constructive side of psychology.
Humanist psychologists encourage us to see ourselves in terms of positive traits. Problems occur
because of our faulty self image or unsupportive environmental forces. The message from this
theory is that by controlling the environment we can control negative exposure to life, especially
in unhealthy sexual relations. If we cannot control ourselves, we may fall a victim to many-
sexual diseases.
Trait Approach
According to the proponents of this approach the basic conceptual unit of personality is the trait.
Traits are relatively permanent and consistent with a general behaviour pattern that a person
exhibits in many situations.
G.B. Allport was the first personality theorist to put forward the trait approach to explain
personality. He classified traits into cardinal, central and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are very
effective and dominant. These are few in number. Central traits are the building blocks of
personality. They are the focus of an individual’s personality. Secondary traits are less important.
The most recent theory of personality is developed by R.B. Cattell. Cattell viewed personality as
a complex structure of traits. He used the theory of factor analysis to develop his theory.
According to him there are four types of traits.
1) Common traits: These are traits which are distributed to the general population; traits
which are common to all people.
2) Unique traits: These are unique to a person
3) Surface traits: These are traits which are recognised by the manifestation of our behaviour.
They are on the superficial level. They are readily observable.
4) Source traits: These are the underlying structures or the sources which determine the
behaviour of an individual. Source traits are more important than surface traits. These
traits are the basic source of individuality.
According to this theory, the source and surface traits are very important in shaping a
personality. The source traits are determined by heredity while surface traits are influenced by
environment. The inherited traits should help the individual to control the environment.
1) What are the factors influencing the learning process?
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2) Briefly explain Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory.

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5.4 DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL VALUES

Moral values refer to a set of principles that guides an individual on how to evaluate right
versus wrong.
Every cultural group has its own morals or standards of approved behaviour. Certain acts are
considered right because they are conducive to the welfare of its members while certain other
acts are wrong as they are dangerous to the welfare of society.
What accounts for the emergence of morality in children? How do they learn the moral values as
they grow up? Psychologists have been trying to find answers to these questions for many years.
Even today, many psychologists are doing intensive research in this field.
No one is born with knowledge of what one’s cultural group considers right or wrong. As the child
grows older, his/her conduct also develops and reflects upon his/her own moral life as well as that of
the group in which the person is a member. He/she unconsciously begins to imitate the behaviour of
others around him/her, imitates the customs, manners, traditions and culture of the society, learns
that others judge his/her behaviour as right or wrong based on the acceptance of the act by the
society. Thus gradually he/she learns the lessons of morality. Learning what the group approves of
is a long and a difficult process.
How do moral values influence the personality of an individual?

Moral values directly influence the quality of the person’s behaviour and judgement. A person
learns the values that satisfy his/her needs and desires and are, at the same time, approved by the
group. The moral values acquired by an individual are the reflection of his/her personality. Each
individual develops values which are important for him/her and which guide his/her life.
How do we learn moral values?
There are certain cultural norms of behaviour which are controlled by the society. Learning moral
values refers to the manner in which a child internalises these norms of behaviour. He/she develops
moral concepts by learning what is right and what is wrong and also by understanding the use of
punishment and other techniques in inculcating moral values in children.
The determinants of morality exist on many levels. In every society, there are specific rules to
protect morality and to guarantee good behaviour. In addition to this, there are psychological
determinants also. Morality has emotional, cognitive and behavioural components. These three
components are inter-related. All these factors interact with one another in the development of
morality.
Check Your Progress V

1) Briefly describe morality.
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5.5 THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
In this unit, we shall also discuss the major theories of moral development. Each theory explains
only certain aspects of moral development. Our description highlights the strengths and limitations of
each theory.
Socio-biological Theories
The biological perspective of moral development is represented by the field called sociobiology.
It assumes that morality is rooted in the genetic heritage of our species. This can be seen from
the prosocial behaviour such as helping, co-operating, sharing, etc. This theory cannot explain all
aspects of moral development, but it does point out the adaptive significance of moral behaviour.
Psychoanalytical Theories
a) Freud’s Theory
You have already learnt about the Oedipus complex arising during the phallic stage of
psychosexual development. You also know how it can be resolved.
Freud assumed that the resolution of Oedipus complex at the phallic stage marks the beginning
of morality. This conflict arouses fear and anxiety in child. He/she is worried about the loss of
parental love. To overcome the anxieties children identify with the same sex parent. The hostility
directed towards the same sex parent is redirected towards the self in the form of guilt. This is
the beginning of moral development in children.
What are the limitations of this theory? Freud’s theory is built around guilt as a motivator in
moral development. But guilt feeling does not foster conscience development. Physical
punishment and rebukes make child rebellious to authority. Instead induction is more effective in
conscience formation. Now the question arises, what is induction? It is pointing out to children
the consequences of their misbehaviour on others. It gives positive instructions to children. This
is of immense value in future situations.
b) Current Psychoanalytic Theories

Recent psychoanalytic ideas place greater importance on the sensitive emotional relationship
between parents and children. According to Robert Emde and others (1987) emotional
attachment is the vital foundation for acquiring moral standards. Children who feel secure in
their relationship with parents are more likely to learn right behaviour even from early years in
life. Parents give not only prohibitions, but also positive guidelines for behaviour. Both these are
included in the super ego of a child. Rewards help the child to internalise the moral standards of
parents. For example, an approving smile from the parent makes him understand the
acceptability of an act. Disapproval evokes shame and hurt feelings.
Social Learning Theories
Now let us find out the opinion of the social theorists on moral development. They believe that
moral behaviour is acquired just like any other set of responses through modelling and
reinforcement.
According to the traditional behaviouristic view, children learn new responses through operant
conditioning. They learn adult moral standards if their behaviour is reinforced by the most
important adult in their life -- parents and teachers. The reinforcement can be in the form of
praise, approval or rewards.
Another way in which children pick up good or bad behaviour is by imitating a role model. The
influence of the model may last for several weeks after the actual experience.
What are the qualities of a model?

Children are more receptive to those personalities who are warm, responsive, powerful and
practice what they preach. Punishment is a good motivator for moral actions. But it has
limitations. Harsh punishments usually do not promote socially desirable behaviour.
Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theorists assume that individuals develop morally through construction.
What is meant by construction in moral development? It means the process by which the child
becomes capable of making a correct decision about the rightness or wrongness of an act in a
conflicting situation. By this process the child derives new moral insights. They also learn about
the principles and procedures for the regulation of human relationships.
Piaget’s Theory
One of the earliest theories in this field is propounded by Piaget. Piaget emphasised the
importance of rules in moral development. According to him moral development is acquiring the
acceptance and respect for rules applied in different situations.
Piaget’s Stages of Moral Development
Piaget identified two stages of moral development. In the early years of life, children are not
concerned about rules and their implications. But around the age of five, they begin to recognise
rules and show respect for them. This stage is called Heteronomous morality. The word
heteronomous means under the authority of another. Rules are viewed as external features of
society. There is automatic obedience to rules without reasoning or judgement.
Why does a child obey rules without questioning? There are many reasons. First of all, these
rules are enforced on him by adults who are very powerful people in his life. The second reason
is the intellectual immaturity of the child. He does not know that rules can be modified.
The second stage of moral development according to Piaget is Autonomous morality. At this
stage, children use their reasoning power and question the propriety of rules. In 5-12 years age
group, a child’s concept of justice changes. He/she understands that rules are not rigid, they are
flexible and can be revised according to the situation, depending on the will of majority. Peer
group influence is very prominent at this stage.
Today moral development is regarded as a more extended process than Piaget believed.
Kohlberg’s Extension of Piaget’s theory
Kohlberg developed a detailed theory on moral development using Piaget’s theory as the primary
reference. Kohlberg employs a level and stage approach to describe moral development.
According to him there are six moral stages. They are grouped into three major levels each
consisting of two stages.
To understand the stages, an understanding of the three moral levels are essential.
i) Pre-conventional level
Moral values reside in external happenings. Moral understanding is based on rewards,

punishment and the power of the authority figure.
Stage 1: Punishment Obedience Orientation

Children adopt good behaviour out of fear for punishment. They do not want to get into trouble
by disobeying authority.
Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose Orientation

Moral choice is made on the basis of the satisfaction of personal needs and occasionally the
needs of others. They begin to understand that people can have different perspective in a moral
dilemma.
ii) The Conventional Level
This is the stage of most adolescents and adults in our society. You may ask now what is meant
by the term conventional? The term conventional means conformity to the rules, expectations
and conventions of the society in which one lives.
Moral values at this stage reside in conforming to social rules. Conforming will ensure social
order and behaviour according to the expectations of others. It helps the individual to establish
positive human relationships.
Stage 3: Good Boy/Girl Orientation
The desire to get approval and affection from relatives and the peer group motivates good
behaviour in children. They want to please and help others. We can also notice the effort on the
part of the child to conform to the stereotypical good boy/girl images of the majority.
Stage 4: The Social Order Maintaining Orientation
In this stage, the individual does his duty to maintain the roles of society. He respects the
authority. The social order is maintained for one’s own sake and for the welfare of the society.
iii) The Post Conventional Level
This is Kohlberg’s highest level of moral development. At this level the individual defines
morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies.
Stage 5: The Social Contract Orientation

This stage shows a contract between the rights of the individual and the accepted laws of the
society. He understands that laws can be changed to protect the rights of the majority. The main
emphasis of this stage is community welfare. It focusses on the protection of human rights.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
This stage is conscience oriented. He/she does not strictly adhere to social rules, but is motivated
by universal human values. They guide the individual in making moral decisions. The question
arising from this context is: how can we understand the three levels of moral development in the
best manner? We can understand the three levels well if we take them as three different types of
relationships between the self and society’s rules and expectation. At level I, rules and
expectations are something external to the self. At level II, the person identifies the self with
rules and social expectations of others especially those in authority. At level III, the self is
differentiated from the rules and expectations of others. He defines his values in terms of self
chosen principles.
Criticism
Kohlberg’s stages are strongly related to age and form an invariant sequence. But in real life
moral development fits a less tightly organised stage conception than the one assumed by
Kohlberg. His theory does not take into consideration the full range of moral reasoning in all
cultures. This theory underestimates young children’s moral understanding.
Check Your Progress VI

1) What are the two stages of moral development according to Piaget?
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5.6 ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON MORAL DEVELOPMENT
What are the factors promoting development of moral values? A few are mentioned below.
1) Peer Group Interaction
Interaction among with age mates promotes moral understanding. The child has no inhibitions in
engaging in intense, animated discussions about moral issues with friends of the same age group.
2) Child Rearing Practices
How do child rearing practices adopted by parents influence a child’s moral development? Often
physical punishments for a wrong act produce negative attitudes in a child. Children are afraid of
punishment. To avoid punishment, a child may rationalise his action or may tell lies to escape.
The child may even become aggressive with no concern for others. Parents can disapprove of a
wrong act and withdraw some privileges given to the child in which case, the child accepts his
wrong doing and there is great resistance to temptation. The best method is to have a discussion
with the child. Make him understand the consequences of the act as related to himself and to
others. Under such circumstances, a mother can influence the child more than the father.
3) Discipline
Discipline aids the individual in developing moral values. While disciplining children, adults
should emphasise the reason why an act is considered right while another one is wrong.
a) Rewards: It has a strong educational value. It shows the child whether or not he/she has
behaved in the correct and accepted manner. It motivates him/her to repeat the act.
b) Punishment: It influences the development of values only if it is appropriate to the age
and activity of the child. It should be administered fairly. Only then will it motivate
him/her to conform to social expectations.
4) Other Factors
The neighbourhood, school, mass media, TV, news papers, magazines, etc., teach the child
culturally approved values of his social group.
Personality Development and Moral Values
The development of personality takes place at home, at school and in society in the presence of
others. The child learns moral values also from these sources. We notice a breakdown in family and
social life today. We are faced with many problems like genetic technology, sexual perversions,
HIV/AIDS and so on. These issues threaten the lives of our future generation. Today, in our society,
we come across many young persons who are proficient in science and technology but
ignorant of moral values. In order to equip our youth to fight against all these forces of
degradation, we have to inculcate good moral values in them. We should make our young people
aware of the importance of good values in life. So, as the child grows older and as his/her
personality develops we should acquaint him/her with a moral code accepted by the society.
In today’s society learning a moral code is very difficult. The reasons are:
1. There are a number of different codes the person encounters within his environment.
2. There are inconsistencies between the moral codes and the behaviour of people, and
3. Social acceptance of new behaviour patterns brings about changes in moral codes. These
conflicts slow down the development of moral values in an individual. The social group
tolerates the violation of the moral codes by young child. But as one grows old one can
be punished if the behaviour falls short of social acceptance. If a person realises that
he/she falls short of the expectations of the society, it may create guilt feelings in the
person. The self concept of such a person will be low. Uncertainty, doubt, insecurity will
be the personality characteristics if one cannot conform to the values of society and
behave accordingly. On the other hand, if he/she conforms to them, he/she will be a
comfortable and adjusted person.
Check Your Progress VII

1) What are the factors promoting development of moral values?
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5.7 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, you have learnt, about the nature of personality and the different theories on
personality development. You are also acquainted with the importance of the development of
moral values. We have discussed the various theories on moral development. We have also briefly
pointed out the relationship between personality development and moral values and how moral
values can help individuals to develop healthy lifestyles.
5.8 KEY WORDS
Adaptation : In Piaget’s theory, an adaptation refers to the process of building

schemes through direct interaction with the environment.
Drive : An aroused reaction tendency that set up activities in an individual and

sustains them for increasing his/ her general activity level.
Delinquency : Criminal behaviour of a minor (person below 18 years of age).
Empirical : Pertaining to observable and tangible events.
Heterosexuality : Sexual interest or behaviour directed towards a person of the opposite

sex.
Homosexuality : Sexual interest or behaviour directed towards a person of the same

sex.
Motive : It is an affective-cognitive factor operating to determine the direction of
an individual’s behaviour towards an end or goal.
Operant Conditioning : It is a kind of learning process whereby a response is made more

probable or more frequent by reinforcement.
Norm : A standard value for a group.
Prosocial : Actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for
oneself.
Reinforcement : The process of strengthening a response with the help of an appropriate

stimulus making it likely to occur.
Response : An activity of an organism as a result of a stimulation.
Stimulus : An energy change which excites a receptor.
Self actualisation : It is the need that drives an individual to discover one’s self and fulfill
one’s potential.
Self concept : A set of beliefs about one’s own character.

Berk, Laura E., “Child Development”, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Cochen, Stewart, “Social and Personality Development in Children”, Macmillan Publishing Co.
Ltd., New York.
Cole and Irma Luella Nelson Hall, “Psychology of Adolescence”, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New
York.
Hall and Caluin S. Gardner Lindzey, “Theories of Personality”, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
Hurlock, Elizabeth B., ‘Personality Development’, Tata Mcgraw – Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New
Delhi.
Lickona, Thomas, Moral Development and Behaviour, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York,
USA.
Thomas, Gracious(2015),Code of Ethics for Social Workers, IGNOU, NewDelhi.
Voss, James T., Psychology as a Behavioural Science, Good Year Publishing Co; Pacific
Palisades, California.

1) When psychologists speak of personality, they mean a dynamic concept describing the
growth and development of an individual’s whole psychological system. It is the quality
of an individual’s total behaviour. It describes a person’s character, emotional
disposition, sociability and others aspects of what a person says and does.
1) An individual inherits the entire heredity endowment from his/her parents through genes.
These qualities develop by interacting with the environment. The family, school, social
and economic environment and particular situations play important role in moulding the
personality.
1) Id works on pleasure principle. It is not concerned about morality or reality. Ego obeys
reality principles. Superego works on morality principles.
2) Mention the stages of psycho sexual development. Point out the importance of each stage
in the personality development of an individual.
a) Oral stage: Satisfaction at this stage leads to adjustability and tenacity. Fixation
results in formation of passive personality.
b) Anal stage: Too strict a discipline leads to the development of traits like cruelty,
destructiveness, disorderliness, etc. Proper discipline lays the foundation for creativity
and productivity. Fixation results in the formation of stubborn, compulsive orderly
personality.
c) Phallic stage: Marked by the appearance of Oedipus complex. Unresolved Oedipus

conflict leads to many sexual and marital problems in later life.
d) Latency period: Sexual urges are dormant at this stage.
e) Genital stage: Normal heterosexual relations are established at this stage if the person
was well adjusted in previous stages.
1) The abilities of an individual, his/her level of maturity, the stimulation and the
reinforcement she/ he gets from the environment.
2) Needs of an individual are arranged in a hierarchy of prepotency. There is a hierarchy of

five needs-physiological, safety, social, esteem and self actualisation. The satisfaction of
the lower level needs motivates the needs at the next level.
Check Your Progress V
1) Morality involves in internalising the cultural norms of the society. It includes learning
what is regarded as right or wrong by the cultural group. Social concepts are developed in
the child through punishment and other techniques. The child is taught to develop the
ability to show concern for others.
Check Your Progress VI
1) Stage I: Heteronomous morality: The child knows that he is under the authority of
another. Rules are viewed as external features of society.
Stage II: Autonomous morality: At this stage, children use their reasoning power and
question the propriety of rules. He/ she is no more rigid or inflexible about his/her
previous ideas about rules.
Check Your Progress VII
1) Peer group, child rearing practices, disciplines, rewards, punishments, neighbourhood,

school, mass media, etc.
BSW-126
Block
2
SEXUAL HEALTH EDUCATION
UNIT 1
Basic Concepts of Sexual Health Education
UNIT 2
Understanding Man and Woman
UNIT 3
Sexual Health Education: Objectives and Components
UNIT 4
Sexual Health Education: Role of Home, School and Media
Prof. P.K. Gandhi Dr.Ranjana Sehgal Prof.

Jamia Millia Islamia Indore School of Social K.K.Mukhopadhyay
New Delhi Work, Indore University of Delhi
New Delhi
Work, Hyderabad

New Delhi Guwahati

Varanasi Delhi
Prof. Gracious Thomas Prof.A.B. Bose (Retd.) Prof. Prabha Chawla


IIPA, New Delhi

Department of Social Work, Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar School of Social Work,
University of Delhi College, IGNOU
University of Delhi

Department of Social Work, School of Social Work, School of Social Work,
Jamia Millia Islamia IGNOU IGNOU
Unit Writers
Prof. Thomas Kalam, St. John's Medical College, Bangalore

Prof. Thomas Kalam Prof. Kusum Chopra, Prof. Gracious Thomas
St. John National Academy of JNU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
Unit Writers
Prof. Thomas Kalam, St. John's Medical College, Bangalore
Content Editor Course & Block Editor Programme & Course

Ambedkar College, School of Social Work, Dr. Sayantani Guin,
University Delhi IGNOU School of Social Work,
IGNOU
PRINT PRODUCTION
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
The second block of the course on Social Work in Family Setting is ‘‘Sexual Health
Education’’. This is an interesting block which clarifies the basic concept of sex education or
sexual health education. The concept of sex education and family life education are different.
We have already seen “Family Life Education” in Block 1. Block 2 has four units. Unit 1 is on
‘Basic Concepts of Sexual Health Education’ which clarifies important aspects like sexual
pleasure and sexual fulfillment; genital and affective aspects of sexual experience; liking a
person and loving a person and about falling in love and staying in love. Unit 2 discusses
about ‘Understanding Man and Woman’. In this unit we see the differences between a man
and a woman; biological difference and cultural stereotypes, uniqueness and differences of
both sexes; and appreciation of the equality of a man and a woman in spite of differences. Unit
3 is on ‘Sexual Health Education: Concept and Objectives’. Unit 4 explains, ‘Sexual Health
Education: Role of Home, School and Media’. In this unit, we discuss the importance of
sexual health education, and the role of school as well as media in creating awareness about
sexual health education.
The four units contained in this block provide an understanding of the concept of sexual health
education and its various dimensions. The block provides clarity on the concept of sexual
health education which is different from family life education .
UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF SEXUAL HEALTH EDUCATION
* Dr. Subhakanta Mohapatra & Prof. Thomas Kalam
Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Role of Sex in the Constitution of a Family
1.3 Sexual Fulfillment vis-à-vis Sexual Pleasure
1.4 Distinction Between Genital Sex and Affective Sex
1.5 Multimotivation in Sexual Behaviour
1.6 Difference between Attraction and Love
1.7 Sexuality as a Language of Love
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Key Words
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 distinguish between sexual pleasure and sexual fulfillment;
 distinguish between the genital and affective aspects of sexual experience;
 understand the basic psycho-spiritual structure of sexual fulfillment;
 understand the different motivations in sexual behaviour that would threaten sexual
fulfillment;
 grasp the basic difference between liking a person and loving a person; and
 appreciate the difference between falling-in-love and staying in-love.
*
Dr. Subhakanta Mohapatra, NOS, New Delhi; Prof. Thomas Kalam, St. John's Medical College, Bangalore
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Sexuality is one of the most important aspects of life. Every cell and fiber of a person’s body is
sexual. Sexuality permeates the psychological and spiritual areas of a person’s life. One of the
sad lessons of human history is that sexuality which should have brightened and cheered up lives
of people often becomes, instead, a curse. We often see people’s lives being disoriented because
of the inability to deal with sexuality meaningfully. A person’s relationships with others in
his/her life are disrupted and distorted because of the inability to exercise sexuality honestly and
meaningfully. Sexuality which plays a decisive role in the formation of a family, if not
understood and exercised properly, can destroy families, and the intimate relationship that should
exist between members of a family. In this unit, you are introduced to a discussion on the healthy
way of handling sexuality. The objective of this unit is to enable you to understand the blue print
built into the very nature of human sexuality which should be kept in mind so that sexuality
remains a gift, and not a curse, in the relationship between a husband and wife.
1.2 THE ROLE OF SEX IN THE CONSTITUTION OF A FAMILY
It is with the birth of a child that a family is fully constituted. Lower organisms like amoebae
reproduce asexually. Human reproduction on the other hand is sexual. Family is the context in
which human sexuality is socialised and humanised. Without this socialisation and
humanisation of sexuality social life itself is not possible. The great psychologist Sigmund
Freud observed that until human beings learn to control their sexual instincts, social life is
impossible. In the world of animals, strictly speaking, there is no family life and social life.
They move in herds. Human being however, establishes healthy and viable relationships with
other human beings in the context of family life. A woman and man are married to each other.
The whole society is invited to respect that alliance. The purpose of marriage ceremonies in
any society is to let the whole society come to know about this alliance and protect it. This
understanding is essential for the survival of any society.
Apart from helping human beings to establish a society based on reciprocal relationship,
sexual relations also help the partners to express their love for each other and affirm each other
in their lovability and goodness. Sexual relations are thus not only procreative, but also re-
creative: they help to promote human fulfillment and satisfaction.
Often, the role of sexual relations, though it is of paramount importance in the life of human
beings, is not discussed. It is swept under the rug and kept hidden even from the life of
married couples. In most societies sex is a taboo subject. In these very same societies, sex is
often caricaturised and dealt surreptitiously as a dirty subject, especially by the youth and
people who want to exploit their vulnerability. As the sages of India used to say, truth alone
will last forever. The truth about sexuality is the matter of this unit.
1.3 SEXUAL FULFILLMENT VIS-À-VIS SEXUAL PLEASURE
One of the misconceptions about sex is that pleasure leads automatically to sexual fulfillment.
‘Fulfillment’ refers to a sense of accomplishment accompanied by a sense of meaning and
purpose. Anyone who attains sexual pleasure, does not, by the very fact, experience a sense of
fulfillment. It is evident from the fact that not everyone who engages in sexual relations feels
happy about it always. Roman philosophers went to the extent of saying “Every animal is
unhappy after coitus”. Human beings, who experience the sense of intimacy, of love, gratitude
and respect towards the partner, after sexual relations have been concluded, can be described
as sexually fulfilled people.
Sexual pleasure or venereal pleasure is a bodily experience of excitement. It follows a pattern of

sequential or phases when sexual activity is continued. First, there is the excitement phase
marked by increase in pulse and blood pressure, an increase in blood supply to the surface of the
body resulting in increased skin temperature, and swelling of all distensible body parts
(particularly noticeable in the penis and female breasts), more rapid breathing, the secretion of
genital fluids, vaginal expansion, and a general increase in muscle tension. These symptoms of
arousal eventually increase to a near maximal physiological level, the plateau phase, which is
generally of brief duration. If stimulation is continued, orgasm usually occurs. Orgasm is marked
by a feeling of sudden intense pleasure, an abrupt increase in pulse rate and blood pressure, and
spasms of the pelvic muscles causing vaginal contractions in the female and ejaculation by the
male. Involuntary vocalisation may also occur. Orgasm lasts for a few seconds (normally not
over ten), after which the individual enters the resolution phase, the return to a normal or
subnormal physiological state. Up to the resolution phase, males and females are the same in
their response sequence, but whereas males return to normal even if stimulation continues,
continued stimulation can produce additional orgasms in females. In brief, after one orgasm a
male becomes unresponsive to sexual stimulation and cannot begin to build up another
excitement phase until some period of time has elapsed, but females are physically capable of
repeated orgasms without the intervening ‘rest’ period’ required by males.
Sexual fulfillment, on the other hand, is related to the sense of meaning and contentment that
accompanies the sexual act. People who experience sexual fulfillment naturally will be grateful
to the partner and their intimacy will be promoted by the sexual expression of their love. Sexual
life, thus, would be always creative, even if it is not always procreative. It helps to create the
personality of two lovers who are committed to each other.
The question here is: what is essential for the sexual fulfillment of the couple? We have already
stated above that genital (physiological) relations alone are insufficient to guarantee this sense.
1.4 DISTINCTION BETWEEN GENITAL SEX AND AFFECTIVE SEX
It was Sigmund Freud who distinguished between two basic dimensions of human sexual
experience: the Genital dimension and the Affective dimension.
Genital Dimension
The genital dimension of sexual experience refers to the physiological changes and
developments that a person experiences, during the sexual relations—such as intense attraction
towards another person; culmination of this attraction in sexual advances, in sexual intercourse
which leads to sexual climax or orgasm; and consequent feelings of physical well being and
relaxation. The sum total of all these experiences is what is referred to as ‘genital sex’ by the
psychoanalytic school. This dimension is common to both animals and human beings. One of
the hallmarks of this dimension of sexual experience is that it is short-lived and sporadic. It does
not last forever, it come and goes.
Affective Dimension
If we analyse the valid sexual experience of a man or woman, we can also isolate and identify
another dimension: What the psychoanalytic school identified as ‘the Affective Dimension”.
There are a lot of psychological and affective changes and developments that are often part and
parcel of sexual experience – such as feelings and emotions of love, intimacy, oneness,
gratitude, respect, etc. The sum total of these psychological changes and developments are
referred to as affective sex. This dimension of sexual experience is unique to human beings.
Animals do not have this type of experience. They have instinctual, physiological attraction,
which is part of genital sex. This dimension of sexual life accounts for the possibility of family
life among human beings in the context of procreation. Animal procreation generally does not
involve long lasting friendships. When the physiological need is satisfied, the animals usually
part company.
In the light of this basic distinction between genital sex and affective sex, one can try to
understand the basic structure of human sexual fulfillment. Any genital experience
(physiological experience of sexuality) that takes place outside the context of affectivity, is
likely to lead to aversion.
In other words, if a man and woman, who do not have at least a modicum of love between them,
try to relate to each other sexually, the net result is not going to be fulfillment, but aversion.
Here aversion does not mean hatred. It refers to ‘lack of attraction’. This is why Roman
Philosophers used to say “Every animal is unhappy after coitus, or sexual union”, which is the
culmination of intense sexual attraction between two bodies. Before the attraction culminates in
sexual orgasm, aversion (lack of attraction) sets in. The tendency of the bodies is to separate
immediately after the sexual climax. It is very clearly seen in the animal world. The enthusiasm
they have before the sexual union and the disinterestedness they exhibit after the sexual union is
well known and visible to the whole world. There is only one type of animal who can overcome
this ‘aversion’ and continue to be partners in love-human beings. That too, not all human beings,
but only those who have this basic affective dimension present in them. When bodies do not
attract each other, there is stronger basis for their continued union due to the love and affection
they have in their hearts for each other. In the absence of this love, every sexual act becomes yet
another step towards developing aversion for one’s sexual partner.
The moral of the story is clear: love and love alone is the ambience which makes sexuality
become fulfilling and meaningful for human beings.
On the other hand, if there is love between the couple, their sexual life becomes the expression
of that love. That invariably promotes more love and intimacy between the couple. Thus, love
remains the motivation which makes sexual life become meaningful to human beings.

1) What do you understand by genital dimension of human sexual experience?
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2) What do you understand by the affective dimension of sexual experience?
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1.5 MULTIMOTIVATION IN SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR
There are other motivations that drive a man and a woman, or a boy and a girl to relate to each
other sexually. One example is ‘hatred’. Sex can be a powerful weapon of expression of hatred
towards another person. The classical example is that of rape. Rape is the expression not of love,
but of hatred. After raping a girl, the boy does not normally develop intimacy with her. Usually,
rape victims are murdered by the rapists. In wars, men are killed and women are raped. The ‘bad
words’ or ‘four letter words’ used in most languages to express disgust and anger towards
another person is almost always related to sexuality. This is another proof of the fact that sex
without love becomes a powerful weapon of destruction and anger.
There is another motivation which is very common in sexual behaviour- ‘Inferiority complex’. A
boy, who is not sure of his masculinity, may try to prove in place and out of place that he is
masculine. Part of that effort may be establishing sexual relations with a girl- not because of his
concern and love for the girl, but to prove his point. The same can hold good for a girl: a girl
who is not sure of her femininity or attractiveness may try to prove in place and out of place that
she is feminine. Promiscuity may be one of its expressions.
The truth is that other motivations do not lead the human couple to sexual fulfillment. They are
the source of many a breakdown in marital life and family life.
1.6 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ATTRACTION AND LOVE
We have seen that love or affectivity is the only valid motivation which can make sexuality
become meaningful and satisfying to human beings. There seems to be a lot of misunderstanding
with regard to the meaning of the reality we refer to as ‘love’. Some people believe that love is
an instinct that comes and goes arbitrarily and that human beings do not have any control over it.
Some people believe that only at the beginning of marital life, love is going to be present
between the husband and wife. All these people are certainly confused about the reality of love.
They seem to be confused between two realities that may look alike, but are not the same. These
two realities are ‘liking’ and ‘loving’.
To ‘like’ a person means to feel attracted to that person – to feel at home, and relaxed with that
person. When you like a person you are attracted to that person. This is an instinctive reaction.
In our nervous system, we can identify one system as the ‘autonomic nervous system’ (ANS).
The autonomic nervous system is in charge of the involuntary activities in our body, like, the
heart beat, functioning of the endocrine system, reflexes, etc. We have no control over these
activities. They are under the control of the autonomic nervous system. ‘Liking’ is under the
control of this nervous system. The conclusion is that we have no control over how much we like
a person, for how long we like that person, how intensely we like him/her, etc. It is like our heart
beat or gastric secretions.
On the other hand, ‘loving’ is under the control of the other nervous system: the central nervous
system (CNS). The CNS enables us to be in charge of voluntary activities in our life. It does not
mean that when we love someone, we love that person with our nervous system. We love that
person with our body and soul. But that activity we describe as ‘love’ is the fruit of a decision we
take with the help of our CNS.
The psychologist Harry Stack Sullivan gives a very practical description of love. According to
him, when the happiness, well-being and security of another person becomes as important to our
own happiness, well-being and security, then we love that person, whether we like that person or
not. Liking is often referred to, especially in common parlance, as ‘love’. Technically it is not
correct. Liking is always conditional. I like a person because of certain conditions that are
verified in that person. Liking can be described as ‘conditional love’. The fact, however, is that
conditional love is always a love of the conditions. When the conditions change, the ‘love’ also
will evaporate.
Love is, strictly speaking, not of conditions, but of the person. It can be described as
unconditional. The only preoccupation in real love is the wellbeing, happiness, etc., of the other
person.
The highest stage of liking is called ‘falling-in-love’. The highest stage of loving is described as
‘staying in love’. For falling in love, we do not have to work hard. It happens. It is the function
of the ANS. On the other hand, for staying in love, one has to work really hard all through one’s
life as it is the function of the CNS.
Family is based not on falling in love. Falling in love may be the beginning of the emergence of
family. Staying in love is what forms the foundation of any family. So often marriages take place
as a result of a boy and girl, (a man and a woman) falling in love with each other. The truth,
however, is that falling in love is not an abiding, long lasting foundation for family life. It comes
and goes. The abiding basis for living together should be love, which refers to the decision each
one takes to consider the happiness, security and well-being of the other to be as important, or
more important to one self than that of one’s own happiness and vice versa.

1) Write a brief note on multimotivation in sexual behaviour.
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1.7 SEXUALITY AS A LANGUAGE OF LOVE
The relationship within marriage consists of a life of work and worry, joy and sorrow, sickness
and health. It involves being young and becoming old, dealing with small and big problems and
coping with internal and external troubles. Among all these, if, the love bond between the two is
strong they may lead a happy life.
Love in the form of sex is the only thing which one shares exclusively with his/her spouse. It is a
vital part of marriage. Sex in marriage requires a deeper level of communication. It is a very
intimate and emotional bonding between the two that further strengthens the trust between the
couple.
Human experience teaches us that sexual life in the absence of love becomes not only repulsive
to human being, but also destructive. Instead of sexual life contributing to the growth of
intimacy, it becomes a step in the direction of couples becoming more and more estranged from
each other. Marital life becomes degraded into a process of satisfying each one’s sexual needs
alone. Many other aspects of interpersonal relationship, which are essential for the constitution
of a healthy family, are forgotten in this process. This may result in an atmosphere of ‘love-hate-
relationship’. Instead of thinking about what one can give to the partner, the mentality is one of
getting the maximum out of the other. The fact is that the more one grabs, the less one gets, the
more one gives the more one gets.
Two wrong attitudes towards sexuality
Masculinisation of Sexuality:
Sex is both male and female. Both men and women have a right to enjoy their sexual life. Often
sexual life has become the prerogative of the man. Women are reduced to being mere means for
man’s sexual satisfaction. What happens to the woman as a result of man satisfying his sexual
urges is often not taken notice of? Marriage is at times thought of as a license for a man to use,
abuse or misuse the woman he marries. The word used in English language for sexual relations
between a man and a woman is “intercourse”. In intercourse, both man and woman play different
but complementary and equal roles. If we analyse the ‘four-letter’ words in any language that are
used to refer to sexual intercourse, they are all masculine words, implying that sexual act is
prevalent in most societies. Until men understand and acknowledge that sex is also the right and
privilege of women, marital harmony is not going to be achieved.
Commercialisation of Sexuality:
Sex belongs to the core of a person’s identity. Sex does not exist in itself. It is a human being
who exists in a sexual mode. At times there is a tendency to deal with sex as a commodity.
Instead of dealing with sex as the core of a person’s identity, it is commodified as an object by
itself. The pronoun ‘it’ is used to refer to sex: “you want it”? “have you had it”? etc. The moment
sex becomes a commodity, it is considered to be something that can be purchased, lent,
borrowed, swapped, etc. A human person is unique and irreplaceable as a person.
Commodification of sex has led to a lot of tragedies in the lives of people. The healthiest
approach to sex is to view sex as part and parcel of the personal identity of a boy or a girl.

1) What do you understand by Masculinisation of sexuality?
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1.8 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have examined the concept of sex and love in relation to family life. In the
process of our discussion, we have focused our attention on the role of sex in the constitution of
a family. We have seen that the role of sexual relations, though it is of paramount importance in
the life of human beings, is not often discussed. We also discussed the concept of sexual
fulfillment vis-a-vis sexual pleasure. Another important aspect dealt with in this unit is about the
distinction between genital sex and affective sex. We also saw the multimotivation in sexual
behaviour, which included hatred and inferiority complex. One of the important aspects of our
discussion was the difference between attraction and love. Finally, we also talked about
sexuality as a language of love and the two wrong attitudes towards sexuality, namely,
masculinisation of sexuality and commercialisation of sexuality.
1.9 KEY WORDS
Surreptituosly : Kept secret or done by stealth; (clandestine)
Affective Dimension : The sum total of psychological changes and developments

such as feelings and emotions of love, intimacy, oneness,
gratitude, respect, etc., are referred to as affective
dimension.
Archer, J & Lloyd, B. (1982), Sex and Gender, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gilligan, C. (1982), In a Different Voice, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachussetts.
Kohlberg, L. (1966), “A cognitive developmental analysis of children’s sex role concepts and
attitudes”. In E.E. Maccoby (ed) The Development of Sex Differences, Stanford University Press,
Standford.
Maccoby, E.E. and Jacklin, C.N. (1975), The Psychology of Sex Differences, Oxford University
Press, London.
Nicholson, J. (1984), Men & Women, How Different Are They?, Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
Sanford, J.A (1980), Invisible Partners, Better Yourself Books, Paulist Press, Mahwah, N.J..
Tavris, C. and Offir, C. (1977), The Longest War, Harcort Brace Javanovich, New York.
1) The genital dimension of sexual experience refers to the physiological changes and
developments that a person experiences, during the sexual relations—such as intense
attraction towards another person; culmination of this attraction in sexual advances, in
sexual intercourse which leads to sexual climax or orgasm; and consequent feelings of
physical well being and relaxation. The sum total of all these experiences is what is
referred to as ‘genital sex’ by the psychoanalytic school. This dimension is common to
both animals and human beings. One of the hallmarks of this dimension of sexual
experience is that it is short-lived and sporadic. It does not last forever, it come and goes.
2) If we analyse the valid sexual experience of a man or woman, we can also isolate and
identify another dimension: What the psychoanalytic school identified as ‘the Affective
Dimension”. There are a lot of psychological and affective changes and developments
that are often part and parcel of sexual experience – such as feelings and emotions of
love, intimacy, oneness, gratitude, respect, etc. The sum total of these psychological
changes and developments are referred to as affective sex. This dimension of sexual
experience is unique to human beings. Animals do not have this type of experience. They
have instinctual, physiological attraction, which is part of genital sex. This dimension of
sexual life accounts for the possibility of family life among human beings in the context
of procreation. Animal procreation generally does not involve long lasting friendships.
When the physiological need is satisfied, the animals usually part company.
1) There are other motivations that drive a man and a woman, or a boy and a girl to relate to
each other sexually. One example is ‘hatred’. Sex can be a powerful weapon of
expressing hatred towards another person. The classical example is that of rape. Rape is
the expression not of love, but hatred. After raping a girl, the boy does not normally
develop intimacy with her. Usually, rape victims are murdered by the rapists. In wars,
men are killed and women are raped. The ‘bad words’ or ‘four letter words’ used in most
languages to express disgust and anger towards another person is almost always related to
sexuality. This is another proof of the fact that sex without love becomes a powerful
weapon of destruction and anger.
There is another motivation which is very common in sexual behaviour - ‘Inferiority

complex’. A boy, who is not sure of his masculinity, may try to prove in place and out of
place that he is masculine. Part of that effort may be establishing sexual relations with a
girl- not because of his concern and love for the girl, but to prove his point. The same can
hold good for a girl: a girl who is not sure of her femininity or attractiveness may try to
prove in place and out of place that she is feminine. Promiscuity may be one of its
expressions.
1) Masculinisation of Sexuality: Sex is both male and female. Both men and women have a
right to enjoy their sexual life. Often sexual life has become the prerogative of the man.
Women are reduced to being mere means for man’s sexual satisfaction. What happens to
the woman as a result of man satisfying his sexual urges is often not taken notice of?
Marriage is at times thought of as a license for a man to use, abuse or misuse the woman
he marries. The word used in English languages for sexual relations between a man and a
woman is “intercourse”. In intercourse, both man and woman play different but
complementary and equal roles. If we analyse the ‘four-letter’ words in any language that
are used to refer to sexual intercourse, they are all masculine words, implying that sexual
act is prevalent in most societies. Until men understand and acknowledge that sex is also
the right and privilege of women, marital harmony is not going to be achieved.
UNIT 2 UNDERSTANDING MAN AND WOMAN
Dr. Subhakanta Mohapatra & Prof. Thomas Kalam
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Male and Female Versus Masculine and Feminine
2.3 Physical Differences
2.4 Emotional Differences
2.5 Intellectual Differences
2.6 Aggression and Violence
2.7 Jobs and Gender
2.8 Differences in Sexual Behaviour
2.9 Man, Woman and Family
2.10 Let Us Sum Up
2.11 Key Words
2.0 OBJECTIVES

The basic unit of any family is made up of a man and a woman. Though members of the same
species, they are obviously different from each other. These differences have been
misunderstood and exploited for domination by one sex over the other. This has impeded the full
actualisation of the potentialities of both women and men. This has often been an obstacle for
happy companionship of man and woman in marriage. After you complete this Unit, you should
be able to:
 explain the differences between men and women;
 distinguish between differences, which are based on the biology of men and
women and differences, which are cultural stereotypes;
 identify cultural stereotypes regarding the difference between men and women in
the context of the Indian Society.
 appreciate the uniqueness and differences of both sexes;
 appreciate the equality of men and women in spite of the differences between
them;
 avoid discrimination against men or women on the basis of the differences
between them;
 avoid discrimination against men or women on the basis of the differences or
stereotypes;
 respond to people of the other sex with understanding and respect, and
 plan a family life where the potentialities of the man and the woman are not
stifled by stereotypes.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Both men and woman belong to the species ‘homo sapiens’. Both men and women are equally
human. But, there are many differences between them. Some of these differences are real and
based on the biological nature of men and women. These fundamental biological differences
have been used as a reason for sweeping generalisations about the differences in the way in
which men and women think, feel and act. These are called cultural stereotypes.
Although once upon a time, the term sex differences was used to refer to both the biological
differences and the cultural stereotypes, now a days social scientists are using the term sexual
differences to refer to biological differences and the term gender differences to refer to socially
derived distinctions.
There may not be any basis for the stereotypes in the biological or psychological make up of men
or women. It has, however, been found that these stereotypes are often used as a basis for
discrimination against women. They are also used to deny men the right to be spontaneous.
Especially in our Indian society, women have been excluded unjustly from many areas of social
life on the basis of sex. Men have been denied the right to have many genuine emotions and
develop qualities, which would have enhanced the quality of their life on the basis of these same
stereotypes. A better understanding of the men and women will certainly enhance the quality of
both social and family life.
2.2 MALE AND FEMALE VERSUS MASCULINE AND FEMININE

Sexual differentiation is a biological process. It provides the basis of human reproduction.
Genital sex (e.g. sexual organs) can be altered through surgery, though the genetic sex (the sex
chromosomes) remains the same. For example, through surgery and hormone treatment, a man
may be made to look like a woman, but his sex chromosomes will remain XY. Genetically, he
cannot be changed. Every cell of his body will have the XY mark.
There are some universal stereotypes about men and women. Men are, for example, thought to
be physically tougher, more aggressive, more rational, better able to handle sex without love, and
more likely to be successful at work by virtue of their greater will to win. Women, on the other
hand, are held to be more emotional and unpredictable, interested in people rather than ideas, and
too suggestible and dependent to wield authority comfortably over anyone, except perhaps their
own children.
The question is: Which of these stereotypes have any basis in the reality of women? Which are
the products of our conditioning? For example, is male dominance the result of man’s
physiology and hormone system? Can the stereotypes mentioned above be traced back to the fact
that men and women have different reproductive systems? It must also be remembered that often
the minute biological differences between the sexes are exaggerated and the tremendous
similarities between them relegated to the background.
Before, we try to answer these fundamental questions, let us try to understand the differences and
similarities between men and women.
2.3 PHYSICAL DIFFERENCES
Prenatal
The sex chromosome: Out of 23 pairs of chromosomes in a fertilized egg, the 23rd pair is
known as the sex chromosome. This chromosome determines the sex of the person. In this pair,
the X chromosome comes always from the female and the other X or Ychromosome comes from
the male. If the chromosome supplied by the male is X, the baby is going to be a girl and if it is
Y, it is going to be a boy.
The Process of Sexual Differentiation
There are some very rare cases of exceptions to the normal process of sexual differentiation in
the foetus. Though rare, they are very interesting for our discussion, as they would suggest that
sex is NOT always a matter of straight forward biological development. Let us examine some
such cases.
In very rare cases, it has been seen that a female foetus produces too much of the male sex
hormone. This anomaly occurs after the internal procreative organs have developed, but just
before the external sexual organs have been formed. These children are born with ambiguous
external sexual organs. At times, the baby is born with internal female procreative organs (e.g.,
ovaries) and external male sexual organs (e.g., penis). This condition has been induced
artificially.
Some years ago, in order to avert miscarriage or spontaneous abortion, some pregnant women
were given asynthetic hormone called progestin. Progestin contains derivatives of the masculine
hormone testosterone. It was found that these testosterone derivatives had a masculinising effect
on the female foetuses.
When a child is genetically female and has female internal organs and external male organs, it is
likely to be raised as a boy. It has been found that at puberty if this child is given extra male
hormones, it develops male characteristics, like a deep voice and facial and bodily hair. As an
adult, he may be able to enjoy a successful sex life. However, if this child receives corrective
surgery and is provided with the conventional female external genitals, ‘she’ could be raised as a
girl with the sexual stereotypes that go with being a girl in a given society. It seems that the large
doses of androgens they received before birth somehow makes their brains masculine.
The fact that such children, with the help of appropriate surgical and hormone adjustment, can be
raised successfully as either males or females, points in the direction that although sex may
usually be determined biologically, gender is affected by upbringing or nurture.
Physical Differences at Birth
1) At birth, both boys and girls are very similar.

2) Until puberty, the average girl is slightly shorter than the average boy.
3) Boys have significantly longer forearms relative to the length of their bodies.
4) Girls’ index finger is usually longer than the finger next to the little finger.
5) Girls’ reach puberty up to two years before boys.
6) Girls adolescent growth begins first.
7) Girls stop gaining height at about the age of 15 and a half; boys continue to grow for two
more years.
8) By 14, the period when the average girl is taller than the average boy come to an end.
9) Girls tend to be slightly lighter than boys when they are born, equal to them by the age of
8; and heavier by the age of 9 or 10. The average girl continues to be heavier until the end
of her growth spurt at about 14 ½ years.
10) Girls are born with slightly more fat in their bodies than boys. This continues throughout
childhood.
11) During the adolescent growth spurt, the rate at which boys gain body fat slows down,
while the girls continue to accumulate fat steadily, especially on their torso or trunk.
12) At birth, boys grow faster than girls, but this difference is reversed between the age of
about seven months and four years.
13) After this until puberty, there is little difference between boys and girls. At puberty, girls
begin to shoot ahead.
14) At birth, the girl is four to six weeks ahead of the boy in skeletal development. She reaches
half her adult height by the time she is 21 months old. A boy reaches the same landmark
three months later.
15) Sleeping pattern is more or less similar.
At Adolescence
1) At adolescence, the sex hormones begin to play their roles more clearly. The dominant sex
hormones in males are androgens, the most powerful of which is called testosterone. The
major female hormones are estrogens and progesterone.
Calling them male and female is actually misleading. Both sexes produce both hormones.
The only difference lies in the balance between them. The so-called male and female
hormones are not confined to their respective sexes. The ovaries and testes each produce all
the three hormones, and the adrenal glands, situated above the kidneys, secrete androgens
in both sexes. The ovaries and the adrenal glands of women produce androgens that affect
hair growth under the arms and in the pubic region. Testes produce a small quantity of
estrogens, but at present there are no known physiological effects.
2) At adolescence, the sexes begin to diverge physically. Girls grow faster and reach puberty
before boys do. They also stop growing earlier.
3) Because of this early start of growth spurt in girls, there is a short period when girls are not
only bigger but also stronger than boys.
4) There are marked developments in the genital organs and breasts:
5) The physical growth spurt in girls tends to coincide with the earliest of the changes in her
reproductive organs, which occur at puberty. In boys, the growth spurt rarely begins until
the period of genital growth is almost completed.
6) Only nine months separate the first appearance of pubic hair in boys and girls.
7) Puberty finishes for the average boy at14 ½, while girls have their first menstruation
(menarche) relatively late in puberty.
8) Boys and girls who mature physically early tend to have slightly higher than average IQ
scores. The tendency is for cleverer children to reach maturity earlier, rather than for
children who mature early to become cleverer.
9) Whereas before adolescence, boys and girls have roughly similar shaped hips and
shoulders, this rapidly changes once the growth spurt begins. Cartilage joints in the hip are
sensitized to respond to the hormone called estrogens, while those in the shoulder respond
to androgens, especially the hormone called testosterone. The girl’s hips and boy’s
shoulder broaden.
10) Much of the rapid build-up of fat on the adolescent girl accumulates around her hips,
breasts, upperarms and legs. This is due to the quantity of estrogens released into blood at
the beginning of puberty. This leads to one of the most important physical differences
between adult men and women: 25 per cent of the typical adult female’s body consists of
fat, compared with only 12 percent of the typical adult male. This can account for male
superiority in most forms of athletic endeavour. The amount of fat in women has some
advantages for the woman (explained below).
11) Boys become bigger and heavier because testosterone stimulates bones as well as muscles
to grow. Unlike before puberty, boys have bigger muscles. Strength of arms increases 2 ½
times in boys and 1 ½ times in girls.
The Question of Strength
Let us summarise here the scientific data regarding the strength of men and women:
a) The average man is bigger and stronger than the average woman.
b) The height of the average man is greater than that of the average woman.
c) An average adult male is 30 percent stronger than the average woman. He can run faster,
has more stamina than she has.
d) The average woman has smaller shoulder, larger hips, more fat and a smaller limb to
body-length ratio than the average man.
e) There are two different kinds of muscle fibres. One is red fibre. This fibre enables
performance of activities of endurance (e.g. long distance running, mountain climbing,
etc.).The other fibre, the white fibre is involved in sudden bursts of physical exertion like
sprinting or weight-lifting. Most people have an equal amount of the two types of fibres.
So, there is a balance in the amount of these fibres in them. They excel at neither of the
activities. Some have an excess of one or other type of muscle fibre. They tend to become
outstanding sports persons. It has been found that this imbalance occurs more in men than
in women.
f) However, there are ways in which women’s muscles give them the strength denied to
men. A woman has muscles, which are equipped to survive in a constantly changing
chemical environment in her body. As we know, that hormone levels rise and fall in her
body. The amount of water retained varies according to the time of menstrual cycle.
Woman’s muscles can cope with such turmoil. Men’s muscles do not have this
capacity.When chemical imbalance takes place (e.g.during illness), men are likely to find
it difficult to put up with them. Consequently, men find it difficult to cope with aches and
pains.
g) However, men’s red fibres use oxygen more efficiently, with the result that they can work
harder than women. However, they also build up the body’s natural pain agents called
beta endorphins. Women’s muscles may use oxygen less efficiently, but they do not build
up these pain inducers. Therefore, women may actually be able to carry on performing an
endurance task better than men. In fact, women are more equipped to deal with pain than
men.
h) Men also develop larger hearts and lungs, higher blood pressure, a lower resting heart-
rate, and a greater capacity for transporting oxygen through the bloodstream and a greater
ability to get rid of the chemical wastes of physical exercise. The lungs of an average
man are larger than those of woman. They can take in 1½ times more oxygen than hers.
This affects the powers of endurance and strength they have. One can go on being active
only as long as the muscles get the oxygen to be used as fuel. Therefore, an average man
has more stamina than an average woman.
i) There is difference also in the composition of blood: at adolescence, boys acquire more
red blood cells and hemoglobin than girls.
Men may be stronger for accomplishing tasks, but when it comes to sheer ability to survive,
women have a definite advantage. The very features that put women at a disadvantage in
strength, work in their favor in difficult situations. When nutrition is scarce, the larger stores of
fat in her body provide the woman with more to live on. Her small frame ensures that she loses
less heat than the bulkier male when the climate becomes cold. Women burn up food and oxygen
more slowly. So, they require less of both to survive.
In the light of the above facts, it seems possible to conclude that men are stronger than women in
the matter of physical strength. Of course, biological factors alone cannot account for this
phenomenon of strength. Muscles, lung capacity and size of heart can all be increased by
exercise. In this, the sex stereotypes affect the development of muscles etc., in girls. Many
adolescent girls refuse to take physical exercise because they are worried about getting hot and
sweaty and they think that it makes them less feminine. The story of modern athletics proves the
point that through exercise, women can improve their stamina and strength.Though men have the
genetic basis for developing more strength, this particular woman may be much stronger than
that particular man. We are only speaking about the average.
Do the menstrual cycle and pregnancy have any harmful effects on a woman’s performance as an
athlete? At the 1976 Olympics, an American swimmer won three gold medals and broke a world
record while at the height of her period. No fewer than 10 Russian female champions in 1964
Olympics were pregnant when they earned their medals. But it is interesting to note that bodies
of women, who improve their physical performance, look more like that of men.
The size and shape of woman’s pelvis and hips and her special leg-to-body-length ratio prevent
her from becoming equal in this matter of strength to man even through training. The greater
ability of a man’s muscles to break down lactic acid and so avoid cramps is another factor, which
handicaps women.
The Question of Health and Illness
The fact is that men are physically much more vulnerable to diseases than women. A newborn
boy is more likely than a girl to die before he is one year old. He is more susceptible to
infections. Men are more prone to heart attacks and ulcers. Women are more likely than men to
suffer from cancer of the reproductive organs and from various diseases related to the hormones,
like diabetes and thyroid disorders. Men are more susceptible to most other forms of serious
illness: men are four times more likely to get lung cancer, three times more likely to contact
heart-disease, more prone to suffer strokes and disorders of the respiratory system. In most
societies, especially where there is not much poverty, women outlive men. During the period
between 1951 and 1960, life expectancy for men was 41.9 years and for women 40.6 years. This
was seen as an exception to the general trend, whereby women outlive men in most parts of the
world.
2.4 EMOTIONAL DIFFERENCES
Women are often considered to be bundles of emotions. They are said to be guided by the
feelings of their hearts, while men follow reason of their hearts. Are these patterns of emotional
expressions based on the biology of men and women?
The first thing we have to agree upon in dealing with this question is what it means to be
emotional. Emotions are related to feelings – they are said to be strong expressions of feelings.
Only when we know exactly how we feel, we are in a position to say that one is more emotional
than the other. However, there is no way we can directly know how a person feels. In order to
know how someone feels, we have to rely on indirect evidence.
Three Ways of Measuring Emotions
There are three possible ways of measuring emotions experienced by individuals.
a) Observation
It is often used with children. Their tears, tantrums and joy and elation are easy to observe. It is
not an objective procedure, though there can always be biases. Suppose you believe that boys are
more aggressive than girls, one and the same gesture by the boy and girl may be ‘observed’
differently. Shouting may be interpreted as a sign of aggression in the boy and lack of modesty in
the girl. This method has a problem. It will not work with adults who have learned ways of
hiding their inner emotions.
b) Self-reporting
Ask the people to record their own emotions and report it to you. But this method is not useful in
finding out if one is more emotional than other. We can only understand how one feels. There is
no way of quantifying it and comparing it with someone else’s emotions.
c) Measuring the Vital Signs
This is supposed to be the most objective way to measure emotions. Here, we measure the effect
on the physiological changes, including hormonal changes that accompany emotions, which can
be measured through changes in a person’s urine or blood. But this gives a clue only to the fact
that they are experiencing ‘some’ emotion, not to ‘what’ this emotion is. Different emotions can
cause the same reactions in one’s body.
All these three methods have been employed in evaluating emotional reactions of men and
women that we are going to discuss below. Let us look at some of them to see if there is any
significant difference between sexes and if they have any basis in their biology.
The Phenomenon of Crying

It is observed everywhere in the world that adult women cry more than adult men. The
interesting thing to bear in mind here is that in infants, there is not such a significant difference
between male and female in the matter of crying. If at all there is a little difference, it is boys
who cry a little more than girls. The reason why adult women cry more than men, therefore, must
lie somewhere between infancy and adulthood, or in adulthood itself.
The result of modern researches in this matter is that this difference among adults is partly a
question of social conditioning. The message given by the society is that men do not cry. On the
other hand, it is an acceptable part of being feminine. Added to this, there is also a little
biological reason for this tendency. It is seen that some women are more prone to tears when
their hormone levels fall at the end of the menstrual cycle. But crying on the part of women is
not restricted to that time. It cannot account for the tears at other times. Crying may not be a bad
way of expressing emotions for men too, if it is required. Stereotypes, however, become a block
to men behaving naturally in this matter. No wonder, as Freud correctly observed, the price we
pay for being ‘civilised’ is neurosis!
Anxiety and Fear
In most of the studies, women emerge as more anxious, moody and emotional than men.
Teachers and everyone dealing with children often say this about girls, that they are more timid
and anxious than boys. Empirical studies done regarding this, however, do not support this
impression. The fact seems to be that girls are trained to be fearful and emotional. It has been
observed that even psychiatrists and psychologists are often victims of this social stereotype and
they often ‘see’ and ‘observe’ more emotions in women.
It has been found that women are significantly more affected by other people’s emotions. This
difference goes back to infancy. It has been observed that baby girls are more often moved to
tears than baby boys by the sound of another infant crying. This type of emotionality is
something positive. However, when women are said to be more emotional, it is stated in a
negative sense.
Menstrual Cycle and Emotions
Another statement regarding the emotional nature of women is that women are emotional victims
of their monthly cycle. This is a wide spread belief, not only among the uneducated, but also
among the educated. This myth received scientific backing in 1939 when two doctors published
their research findings conducted on 15 female patients. They suggested that women are at their
happiest and most self confident in mid-cycle at the time of ovulation, but they become tense,
unstable and depressed in the week before and during menstruation,when hormone levels decline
to their lowest level. As a result of this study, a new syndrome got enshrined in the annals of
pathology: the pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS). Today, it is a widely accepted ailment and drug
industry, doctors and dispensaries are only too happy to accept its existence. Some
discrimination against women is based on this alleged trouble they go through every month. The
truth, however, is that several questions still remain to be answered about this supposed to be
physiological ailment.
Finding explanation for the emotional differences between a man and a woman in the action of
sex hormones seems to be unwarranted. The truth is that children start responding to gender at a
time when the overall production of sex hormones is at low ebb and when there is very little
difference between the sexes in hormonal activity. So, this hypothesis too has to be nipped in the
bud!
The school of psychology suggested that children take on a gender role without any outside
assistance because of the biological differences between sexes, specifically because of sexual
differences. However attractive and convincing these theories appear to be, empirical studies
done so far do support this Freudian view.
The process of becoming a man or woman begins at conception and never really stops. Both
biology and social conditioning play their respective roles in this. But as of now, there is no
evidence to establish that men and women must feel emotions differently because they are
different biologically.
The conclusion, therefore, is that the difference in the emotional reactions of men and women
must mostly be the result of traditional sex role stereotypes. Conforming rigidly to these
stereotypes restricts our ability to cope with certain important areas of life, and makes us
vulnerable to breakdowns of different kinds. When occasion demands, we should have the ability
to respond with appropriate emotional response, no matter what the stereotypes are described as
androgynous (having the qualities attributed to men and women) persons. They seem to enjoy
better mental health than the others who follow the stereotypes.
Androgynous Personalities
The fact is that man and woman belong to the same species and they cannot pretend to be so
different that they can not understand each other. There are differences between them, but it is a
little bit of exaggeration to say that “men are from Mars and women are from Venus.” There is a
little bit of a man in every woman and a little bit of woman in every man. “Within every man
there is the reflection of a woman, and within every woman, there is the refection of a man”,
wrote an American Indian Author. We have seen the physiological and hormonal basis for this
statement. Most of the mythologies allude to the fact that the original human being was both
male and female. The psychologist, Carl Gustav Jung calls the feminine element or archetype in
man ‘anima’ and the masculine element in woman ‘animus’. Of course, a man will never ever be
able to comprehend many unique experiences either. They, however, remain complementary to
each other. Certainly, the cultural stereotypes attributed to men and women are not necessarily
part of this uniquely male and female aspect. The androgynous personality will be able to rise
above these stereotypes. That may enable men and women to actualise the potentialities implicit
in their nature without stifling inhibitions. This may also enable men and women to understand
each other better.
1) Briefly explain how a male is more prone to illness than female.
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2.5 INTELECTUAL DIFFERENCES
There is a wide spread belief that men are more intelligent than women. If one examines the
history of human kind, it is clear that it is men who made more valid and extensive intellectual
contributions.
Only in the 19th century some efforts were made to verify this impression scientifically. The
starting point was the study of the brain, which is the physiological substratum of intelligence.
An average man’s brain weighs four ounces more than that of the average woman. But the
reason for this is that he is generally heavier than she is. The extra ounces of men’s brain come
from supporting tissues rather than of thinking material in the brain. The size of the brain has
nothing to do with intelligence.
Are those parts of men’s brain specifically meant for intellectual activity more developed than
those of women’s?
In the 1870s, scientists believed that the substratum for intellect were the frontal lobes of the
brain. They claimed that this part was bigger in men than in women. This was accounted for the
allegedly superior intelligence of men over women. But women had bigger parietal lobes. By the
end of the 19th century, scientists started saying that parietal lobes were the seat of intellectual
activity. Now, researchers started finding that parietal lobes were bigger in men.
There were even some funny ideas, like too much thinking could make women infertile. The
conviction was that women needed all their energy to develop their reproductive functions.
With the emergence of IQ tests, a clearer picture began to emerge. With all their limitations,
these tests prove that an average man’s IQ score is indistinguishable from that of the average
woman. But these tests seen to prove that there is a difference in the type of intelligence between
the sexes. Women tend to get slightly higher scores than men on verbal IQ (that part of the
intelligence test that deals with one’s language ability), while men score a little higher on visual-
spatial IQ.
No decision can be made with regard to jobs or career on this basis regarding an individual. With
regard to IQ, the average man and the average woman do not exist. A particular woman may
have a much higher visual-spatial IQ than a particular man.
Why are men generally better at visual-spatial task, and women perhaps at verbal tasks?
Traditionally, men produced the food, while women produced and reared the children. These
different assignments call for different skills. Therefore, men and women might have developed
different intellectual aptitudes.
The difference between the sexes, in visual-spatial tasks is particularly noticeable in societies
where women play a very submissive role, whereas, it is not seen where women do not play such
a role (Eskimos). So, the environment also affects this ability, not only the biology. Therefore,
even if there is a biological basis for sex differences in visual-spatial ability, we could narrow the
gap by offering girls remedial training in visual-spatial skills, and boys in reading classes.
The difference between men and women in intellectual abilities seems to be the result of how
their brains were exercised down the ages, and it could be further remedied through training.
Centuries of associating certain attitudes and skills to a sex might have helped that particular sex
to advance in those abilities and skills, neglecting other attitudes and skills. It may be time to
reverse this trend.
2.6 AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE
Aggression can be described as an unprovoked attack intended to cause injury, physical or

mental. Violence is often seen as the masculine way of reaching to the difficulties and
frustrations. The feminine way is supposed to be a more passive response. Three pieces of
evidence for this statement are:
1. War are fought between armies of men. Joan of Arc and Jhansi Rani are exceptions to
this rule. But this does not mean that soldiers who are employed to wage a war are
aggressive or more aggressive than women. Aggressive or not, they have to do what they
are told to do.
2. Most violence and most crimes are committed by men. But crimes by women are on the
increase everywhere in the world.
3. Laboratory studies show that men are slightly more ready than women to inflict pain on
others even without any reason. Women, however, can be persuaded to behave so,
especially if they see some valid reason. But it must be stated that laboratory studies
show that the difference in the matter of aggression is much smaller than the general
impression people have.
Why are men more aggressive than women?
It has been scientifically proved that the parts of the brain called hypothalamus and amygdale are
involved in human aggressive behavior. The hypothalamus is particularly susceptible to the
action of male sex hormones. So, the hypothalamus becomes more easily activated in men than
in women. Therefore, one cannot categorically state that the one is the cause of the other. The
size and physical strength of men also account for their added aggressiveness. The different
types of conditioning or learning experience of men and women also play their role in promoting
the natural aggressiveness in men.
There is nothing so immutable in nature and society however that hampers a man’s ability to
socialise and control his aggressiveness and his ability to live together with others peacefully. As
Sigmund Freud correctly pointed out, that ability to control the aggressive ‘instinct’ is essential
for social life. This applies to both men and women.
2.7 JOBS AND GENDER
In this unit, we have argued consistently that women are not weaker, moodier or less intelligent
than men. Men and women are fundamentally very similar in intellectual ability, ambition to
succeed, reliability and other aspects of personality. Now, the question is: then why do women
have so few of the best jobs in the world?
This question is: If there is no difference in what men and women are capable of achieving, then
what is the reason why women have achieved so little in the past that they have been victims of
unfair discrimination. At the outset, it must be stated that ability alone does not guarantee
achievement. To succeed at something, you not only have to be able to do it, you must also want
to succeed at it. Some psychologists believe that this is where women are lacking: though the
two sexes have equal abilities they are said to have different needs and ambitions. The reason
why men and women differ so much in their achievements is that they seem to have been
created for different purposes. The decisive question, therefore: is “are the different motivations
of men and women based on their biology?”
In the history of humankind, as has been stated above, man’s role generally has been that of a
bread-winner, and the woman has been assigned the task of care and upbring babies. Therefore,
men have to be go-getters who have a lot of motivation for achievement, whereas women are
satisfied with managing the home without too much ambition.
Is there something about women’s make-up, which makes them less interested than men in
achievement for its own sake? Examination results of schools in our country do not support this
theory. Girls usually achieve more than boys. Examination results are, of course, an indirect
indication of motivation to succeed. Research into achievement motivation in children points to
the conclusion that girls take at least as much pleasure in their own achievements as boys do.
Empirical studies oblige us to accept that motivation towards achievement and fear of failure go
hand in hand both for men and women.
Men and women are equal in ability, anxious to succeed, and have much the same opinion of
their own value as individuals. These are the findings of serious studies conducted on the
motivation of men and women. But when there is a job to be done, men seem to be much more
confident than women. What is the reason?
The reason is sought in another observation about men and women. People, who believe that
they are controlled by some external forces in everything they do, are called externalizers (they
have an external locus of control). People who think that they are responsible for what happens
to them are internalizers (they have an internal locus of control). During childhood, equal
numbers of boys and girls fall into the two categories. Later on, this changes, and more women
are found to become externalizers than men.
Women generally belong to the category of externalizers. They are more inclined to use the
‘don’t know’ option in opinion polls. This must be one of the reasons why more women than
men believe in God. They say, women have a greater tendency to vote for stability, whereas
more men are for revolution.
This must be the result of centuries long conditioning of women. A hundred years ago, even in
today’s highly developed countries, there was/is nothing unusual about a woman having twelve
children, half of whom might have survived to become adults. In many parts of India even today,
the situation is the same. In such a situation, the woman has to breast-feed her children for
eighteen months each. She would be either pregnant or nursing for virtually the whole of her
adult life, depending on the average life expectancy of a given society. The rate of child
mortality makes it imperative to have more children.
Women are capable of being men’s equals. There is nothing in the biology or psychology of
women to stop them from doing what men can do. For various reasons, many women do not
want to compete with men. Some others experience failure when they try to compete. But it is
not an excuse not to give women equal opportunities with men.
Until the time men also accept an equal role in raising children, women will remain subordinate
to men. Children need both fathers and mothers for their holistic growth. Somehow, the
fathers’role was neglected in the past.
These findings oblige us to change some of our stereotypical impressions about man- woman
differences that men are more interested in doing a job for their own sake than women. Today,
we have compelling reasons for believing that:
 both sexes seem highly motivated to achieve in life;
 men may be more willing to take risks to get what they want;
 competition galvanises boys more than it does girls;

 men and women have equally high opinions of themselves as individuals;
 women tend to think less well of their sex as a whole;
 men do tend to be more optimistic than women that they are going to succeed at a task;
 more men believe that they are in control of their destinies.

It seems unwarranted, however, to conclude that men do better than women at work because of a
difference in the structures of their personality. The conclusion is that it is not personality, which
decides what sort of job a person is likely to get and do. It is the other way round: the type of job
someone does can have an obvious effect on their personality and attitudes.
Since the vast majority of women get married, and most of them have babies, it seems reasonable
to assume that the main reason why men get most of the best jobs is that women simply don’t
have the time and energy to compete for them, let alone do them.
Many of our attitudes about what jobs are suitable for women and how women can be expected
to achieve at work seem to originate from the context where the vast majority of the work force
has been. With the ability to limit the number of children, things are changing. It enables women
to go for work. In the developed nations, many women continue successful lives with dual
careers. Even there, the demands of motherhood certainly have an effect on women’s chances of
achieving success at work.
Though many professional women, even in our country, claim that they find motherhood
relaxing, and that it gives them more rather than less energy at work, quantity-wise, at least, it
cannot be denied that it can be very stressful for a woman.
1) Why does an average man’s brain weigh more than an average woman’s?
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2.7 DIFFERENCES IN SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR

There is a popular belief that men enjoy sex more than women. If you go through the ancient
literature of any culture, there are a lot of narratives about woman’s excessive sexuality. The
negative appreciation of woman’s attitude to sexual pleasure must be the result of negativity
towards sexuality that was in existence mostly in the west. Ancient Taoist physicians offered
advice that enabled both women and men to achieve sexual satisfaction. So did the Jewish
Talmud. The approach of Kamasutra in this matter is world famous. What is the truth? Are
women less interested in sex than men? The conclusion reached as a result of many researches
done regarding this question, is that the female potential for sexual satisfaction is equal to, if not
actually greater than, that of the male. The actual differences in this matter attributed to women
must be considered as cultural stereotypes.
This is not to say that there are no differences. We know that a man can produce millions of
sperms, each with the potential to produce offspring. Women, on the other hand, have a limited
supply of eggs, available for fertilisation at the rate of one every month. Once women become
pregnant, there is no question of their being reproductive for at least the next nine months.
But unlike others pecies, the big difference in human sexuality is that sexual relations of human
beings are not completely under the control of hormonal changes and other biological facts.
Hormonal changes do affect the sexual behaviour of some people. According to one study six
percent of women are more likely to desire sexual intercourse in the middle of their cycle than at
other times of the month. A small percentage of women show a regular peak of sexual activity
just after menstruation.
The majority of women do not have any regular pattern of sexual activity linked with their
menstrual cycle. There seems to be very little connection between the female sex hormones and
the sexual life of women. Removing ovaries generally has very little effect on woman’s
sexuality. One notices a slight decline in women’s sexual activity after menopause, when the
hormone level drops. The capacity to have orgasm is not affected. That means social rather than
biological factors may be involved in this reduction of sexual activity.
The school of Psychoanalysis pioneered by Sigmund Freud made very valuable contributions to
the understanding of human sexuality. He observed that the stereotypical differences between
male and female sexuality are the outcome of psychosexual development in terms of biological
necessity, especially of castration complex and penis envy. The main criticism about Freud is
that he neglected the questions of cultural learning and social values and instead focused upon
the anatomy of sex. May be, he was trapped by the stereotypes of his time.
2.9 MAN, WOMAN AND FAMILY
Traditionally, it has been accepted that a man’s place is the society outside the home and the
woman’s place is in the home. The question we would like to raise here is—should it be so
always? In the normal course of events, the legitimate unit within which to raise children is a
family formed by a man and a woman in a legally and socially sanctioned marital relationship. In
a family, the role of both the man and the woman keeps on changing. In a typical Indian family,
these roles can be described as follows:
Stage Man Woman
1) Beginning Stage Becoming a husband, Becoming a housewife,

responsible for the acquiring domestic skills,
woman. dependent on the husband.
2) Childbirth Becoming a father, Becoming a mother; acquiring

acquiring fathering skills; mothering skills, restrictions on
increased responsibilities; many activities; change in
readjustment in spouse role. spouse role.
3) End of childbirth Fathering skills for more Mothering skills for more
than one child at a time, than one child, starting part
educators of children. time outside work, educator
of children.
Coping with the ‘empty nest’
4) Children getting Coping with the ‘empty nest;
learning again to live with the
settled learning to allow children to
wife alone; grand- father
become adults/grand-mother;
learning to allow children to
learning again to live
be adults, retiring from work
with the husband alone.
and renewed work and
renewed interest in family
and home.
The complete separation between production and reproduction exists only in industrialised
societies and those urban areas of India, which are quasi-industrialised. In other parts of India,
even today, families remain both the social and commercial centers. Here, women have to work
on the land, look after livestock and poultry, make household articles, process and store food, go
for work and earn a living and bear children and rear them. The ideal of women restricted to
home has never been the rule for working class women in India, who start working even before
they reach puberty and continue to work even after they become grandmothers. Even children
are employed in work in many places inspite of legal sanctions against child labour. Things are
changing gradually in our country too. A growing number of married women from middle and
upper classes are working outside their homes. Sports, games, politics are all now populated by
more and more women.
How would these changes affect the healthy development of children?
The role played by mothers and fathers in the development of children has been studied at length
by social scientists. The conclusion of all these studies is that most infants develop satisfactorily
when cared for by a few concerned people. This role is naturally performed by the parents. When
the parents have to accept other jobs for the well being of the family in the long run, it is
essential that ‘a few concerned people’ must be present in the life of children. The merit of the
extended family system where children were cared for by ‘a few concerned people’ like grand-
parents, is clear here. These ‘concerned people’ need not be always females. The important
factor as far as the development of children is concerned is that they must be sensitive to and
responsive to, the infant’s needs.

1) Why do we say that in most parts of India, the families remain both social and
commercial centres?
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2.10 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have tried to understand the nature of men and women. We have seen the
important differences that exist between them. It has also been established that most of the ‘so-
called’ differences between them are the result of cultural and social stereotyping. Though
different physiologically, men and women can form a partnership in the family based on
equality. There is no basis for any sort of discrimination against men or women.
2.11 KEY WORDS
Conditioning : The process whereby social values are differentially inculcated.

Here, it is not used in the the technical sense of the term used by
the behaviourist psychologist Pavlov. Here, this term refers to the
process whereby people are influenced by society.
Stereotype : The Oxford Dictionary of English defines a stereotype as ‘pre-

conceived, standardised, and over simplified impression of the
characteristics, which typify a person, situation, etc., often shared
by all members of a society or certain social groups, an attitude
based on such a preconception’.
Androgynous : The word androgynous comes from two Greek words, andros (=
men) and gynos (=woman). This word denotes a person who
combines within his/her personality both male and female
elements. It must be distinguished from the word hermaphrodite.
This word is used to refer to a person who has physical sexual
characteristics of both the male and the female.
Intelligence test : Desinged to measure intelligence rather than acquired knowledge.
Intelligence quotient : A number arrived at by intelligence tests and intended to denote

the ratio of a person’s intelligence to the normal or average.
Archer, J. & Lloyd, B. Sex and Gender, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1982.
Gilligan, C. In a Different Voice, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachussetts, 1982.
Kohlberg, L. “A cognitive developmental analysis of children’s sex role concepts and
attitudes”. In E.E. Maccoby (ed). The Development of Sex Differences, Standford University
Press, Stanford, 1966.
Maccoby, E.E and Jacklin, C.N. The Psychology of Sex Difference, Oxford University Press,
London, 1975.
Nicholson, J. Men & Women, How Different Are They? Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984.
Sanford, J. A. The Invisible Partners, Better Yourself Books, Paulist Press, Mahwah, N.J.
1980.
Tavris, C. and Offir, C. The Longest War, Harcourt Brace Javanovich, New York, 1977.
1) The fact is that men are physically much more vulnerable to diseases than women. A
newborn boy is more likely than a girl to die before he is one year old. He is more
susceptible to infections. Men are more prone to heart attacks and ulcers. Women are
more likely than men to suffer from cancer of the reproductive organs and from various
diseases related to the hormones, like diabetes and thyroid disorders. Men are more
susceptible to most other forms of serious illness: men are four times more likely to get
lung cancer, three times more likely to contact heart-disease, more prone to suffer strokes
and disorders of the respiratory system. In most societies, especially where there is not
much poverty, women outlive men. During the period between 1951 and 1960, life
expectancy for men was 41.9 years and for women 40.6 years. This was seen as an
exception to the general trend, whereby women outlive men in most parts of the world.
1) An average man’s brain weighs four ounces more than that of the average woman. But
the reason for this is that he is generally heavier than she is. The extra ounces of men’s
brain come from supporting tissues rather than of thinking material in the brain. The size
of the brain has nothing to do with intelligence.
1) The complete separation between production and reproduction exists only in

industrialised societies and those urban areas of India, which are quasi-industrialised. In
other parts of India, even today, families remain both the social and commercial centers.
Here, women have to work on the land, look after livestock and poultry, make household
articles, process and store food, go for work and earn a living and bear children and rear
them. The ideal of women restricted to home has never been the rule for working class
women in India, who start working even before they reach puberty and continue to work
even after they become grandmothers. Even children are employed in work in many
places inspite of legal sanctions against child labour.
UNIT 3 SEXUAL HEALTH EDUCATION: CONCEPT AND
OBJECTIVES
†
Dr. Subhakanta Mohapatra & Prof. Thomas Kalam
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Rationale Behind the Introduction of Sexual Health Education
3.3 Conceptual Framework of Sexual Health Education
3.4 Broad and Specific Objectives Behind Sexual Health Education
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Key Words
3.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to acquaint you with the concept of sexual health education and to
examine how sexual health education is different from family life education. The matter will be
clearer when we study the broad and specific objectives behind this concept. This unit will also
provide the rationale for introducing sexual health education and discuss its relevance in the
present day context.
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 understand the rationale behind the introduction of sexual health education;

 appreciate the need for sexual health education;
 know the conceptual framework of sexual health education; and
†
 identify the relevance and objectives of sexual health education in the present day context.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Sex and sexual health are very sensitive topics. They are still considered to be taboo and
therefore public discussion and education on the subject is limited. Usually discussion on the
subject is considered to be indecent. But the need to impart knowledge and understanding related
to sexual health education to young people and adults is being increasingly felt in the context of
widespread sex related problems. The advent of HIV/ AIDS pandemic has made it further
imperative of the part of the education system to respond meaningfully to this important concern.
3.2 RATIONALE BEHIND THE INTRODUCTION OF SEXUAL HEALTH

EDUCATION
The Programme of Action (POA) adopted by the International Conference on Population and
Development (ICPD), 1994, identifies certain specific needs of young people. The POA
recommends that young people should be adequately informed about reproductive health so that
they attain the level of maturity required to make responsible decisions.
Teenagers face several problems with regard to physical and emotional development, as they
become aware of their sexuality. As a result of the social and economic changes taking place in
the country, marriage and formation of family gets delayed. Therefore, they have a longer
interval between the onset of sexual maturity and marriage. This increases the likelihood of their
involving in pre-marital sex. Traditional custom and family ties that have discouraged pre-
marital sex are being undermined by social and economic development and its consequences.
Thus migration and an increasing exposure to sex and violence through media tend to influence
the young people.
While the media has much to offer with regard to adopting unhealthy behaviour, there is hardly
any effort made to offer proper knowledge, which can prevent unhealthy practices. With the
advent of HIV/AIDS, an increasing number of premarital pregnancies and rapid increase in
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), there is an urgent need to introduce sexual health
education in our educational system.
The practice of early marriage leads young girls to early motherhood. In fact there is an
increased risk of high maternal mortality and high level of morbidity and mortality for their
children. It is also an accepted fact that early marriage and motherhood affect the status of
women in education, economic and social areas of life.
Some of the specific rationales behind the introduction of sexual health education are given
below.
India is a Nation of Young People

The ages between 15-19 years and 20-24 years are the ones known to have great emotional
upheavals and require careful nurturing. It is estimated that India has 200 million adolescents.
Some of them are already married (especially women), many of them become irresponsible
parents and the rest wait for their marriage. Tragically, sexually transmitted disease like
gonorrhoea, syphilis and drug intake are most prevalent among them. Though everybody claims
that they know every thing about themselves the fact is that ignorance about their own body is
widespread.
Sexual Health Education Provides Guidance about One’s Own Body
Young people of today may want to seek guidance but they do not know where to get it. Their
present attitude will determine their future growth and even their usefulness as members of
society. We have a great task in preparing them for the responsibilities of marriage and family
life, particularly when many of them are exposed to deviation from traditional norms and values.
There is an urgent need to provide accurate and complete information about matters concerning
sex and sexuality to young people. This will help them to become responsible citizens and to
lead a productive and healthy reproductive life.
Life Styles
The impulses behind activities associated with sexuality are important for the continuity and
welfare of the individual and the society at large. Understanding the behaviour of an individual
makes it easier to understand interaction amongst couples which in turn provides an
understanding on how families behave and societies functions. With the advent of killer diseases
like HIV/AIDS, there is an urgent need for people to modify their behaviour pattern, particularly
in relations to practices like promiscuity and drug addiction.
Exposure to Sex at an Early Age

In this age of advanced communication, people are flooded with endless information from
multiple agencies. So in the present day world young children are being exposed to various right
and wrong information related to sex. But the major problem is whether young people
judiciously use the information. Therefore, there is a need to provide them proper education
systematically through educational institutions.
Rapid Social Change
In our country until recently, sexual behaviour was engulfed by a set of rigid standards and
moral codes. There were a number of restrictions on free communication and interaction with
members of the opposite sex. But today on account of rapid urbanisation and prevalence of
market economy, the age old tradition of joint family and extended family system is breaking
down. People are somehow persuaded to opt for the nuclear family. As a result, the support and
guidance to young people from responsible adult members like grandparents is no more
available. For this they have to look forward to outside agencies which can provide them
information regarding delicate topics like sex and sex related issues.
3.3 CONCENPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF SEXUAL HEALTH EDUCATION

In this section we shall discuss about the conceptual framework of sexual health education. It
will help you in differentiating between family life education and sexual health education.
Sexual health education is an educational programme designed to provide learners with adequate
and accurate knowledge about human sexuality in its biological, psychological, socio-cultural
and moral dimensions. It focuses largely, on the individual, on self- awareness, personal
relationships, human sexual development, reproduction and sexual behaviour. Human sexuality
is the core of sex education. It is the function of the total personality which includes the human
reproductive system and its functioning, attitudes towards being women or a man and the
relationships among the members of the same sex and the opposite sex. It embraces the
biological, psychological, socio-cultural and ethical aspects with regard to sexuality; to learn to
respect others as sexual beings and to make responsible decisions about their behavior.
Concerns
It is a usual thing for young people to become concerned about their physical appearance. Some
may feel that they are too tall or too short in comparison to their friends. Some others may tend
to think that they are unattractive and awkward and because of that they may not find acceptance
among the peer group. An adolescent girl who matures early may feel self-conscious because her
breasts are comparatively larger than those of her friends in the same age group. Similarly, an
adolescent girl who matures late may become self-conscious for the opposite reason. A late
maturing adolescent boy may find difficulty in making friends.
The concern that exists among young people about their speed of growth and appearance is
common phenomenon. It is true that anything that makes them feel different may upset them.
Although the process of change and growth taking place during the period of adolescence is a
natural one, it does cause concern and draws attention. However, as they grow, such feelings will
fade away.
Body image refers to the way a person feels about his/her physical appearance. Although the
size, shape, colour of skin, height and some other characteristics of the body are determined by
heredity conditions, the appearance one gives to the images of one’s body is by and large
influenced by socio-cultural factors. Role models do cause an important impact on the concept of
the body of an adolescent. Teenagers do feel concerned, if the shape and size of their body parts
are not in consonance with their image of an ideal man or women.Young people need to be made
aware that an attractive personality does not depend only on physical appearance.
Components of Sexual Health Education
Following is a brief description of the main components of the sexual health education:
A) Physical Aspects
Among the usual topics taken up on reproduction in the Biology course in schools and colleges
are the anatomy and physiology of the human reproductive system. Anatomy refers to the
science of the structure of the human body and the interrelations of their parts. In sexual health
education the anatomy of the human reproductive system is an important field of study.
Physiology of the reproductive systems refers to the study of the processes and mechanism by
which parts of the reproductive system functions. It is extremely important for boys and girls to
know about their bodies and how they function. Misinformation or lack of complete information
often results in unnecessary worries and may cause serious problems. For instance many young
girls without proper education about menstruation are shocked to find themselves bleeding at the
initial stage of puberty. On the other hand, untutored young boys may be upset by their wet
dreams. Wet dreams or seminal emissions are indications of the ability of young man to cause
conception, while the onset of menstruation indicates that a young woman is capable of
conceiving a child. In short they are maturing into adulthood. Let us briefly discuss the sub-
topics under the physical aspects as mentioned above.
i) Anatomy and Physiology of the Reproductive Systems
This part identifies the various male and female reproductive organs and their functions.
Adolescents need this information in order to understand the successive concepts concerning
conception, pregnancy and contraception. Concept of menstrual cycle is also to be discussed. In
the third block of this course, all these details are extensively explained.
ii) Physical, Emotional and Psychological Changes During Puberty
Puberty is a time for physical and emotional change. During puberty adolescents begin to
become concerned about the physical changes they see in their bodies. Some may be developing
at a slower pace while some other may grow at a faster rate than their friends. Some may be
feeling awkward about their growth while some may become anxious over their bodily changes
and may have conflicting feelings about becoming adult. Yet, some others may feel proud and
comfortable about their approach to maturity.
It is a time for adolescents to develop their esteem. Adolescence a period of high stress for many
. Young people are much concerned about their physical image and their relationships with their
family friends. Their confusion, concern and anxiety affect their feeling of self worth. Behaviour
matches self image. A young person with a positive, healthy self image will make positive,
healthy choices. Efforts should be made to encourage self-awareness and self-acceptance among
the adolescents during this period of drastic change.
iii) Conception, Pregnancy and Birth
This sub-theme is aimed at familiarising you with basic knowledge concerning the physiological
processes involved in conception, pregnancy and birth. It is very important that adolescents get
proper education and guidance on the topics. In many countries adolescent pregnancy (or teenage
pregnancy) is on the increase.
In several countries in Asia, early marriages are common. This is true for India as well. Young
couples are urged to have children as early as possible. Early pregnancies do create a lot of
health, social, and psychological risks. The younger the mother, the more serious are the physical
consequences of pregnancies. Complications in pregnancies and child birth are leading cause of
death among women aged between 15 and 19 years in developing countries. It is important to
distinguish between younger and older adolescents when discussing the risks of pregnancies.
Pregnant women of any age require good obstetric and antenatal care and nutrition. According to
a UNESCO package on sex education mortality rate among women who become pregnant before
they are 15 is 60 percent higher than for women in general. Mothers under 15 are 3.5 times more
likely to die from toxemia.
Pregnancy and birth are areas of real concern for teenagers. Because of the health risks, they will
be interested to know about pre-natal and post natal care, pregnancy symptoms and testing, foetal
growth and development and labour or delivery.
B) Social Aspects
This sub-section deals with the sociological and cultural aspects of human sexuality. It covers
topics such as sexual behaviour, sexuality in childhood and adolescence, love, dating,
relationship, adolescent pregnancy and moral code of ethics.
Sexual adjustment is part of a person’s total development into a mature individual. Sexual
maturity helps to bring out what is best, most generous, and most constructive in an individual’s
life. Sex is a basic drive upon which both race preservation and personal happiness depend. If
sexuality does not evolve properly, the whole process of growth and development are likely to be
affected negatively.
Excessive sex repression tends to impair freedom and the functioning of an individual to the
extent that mating and sexual satisfaction are not attained. On the other hand, too much sexual
freedom can interfere with normal demonstrations of love and mating functions, to the degree
that sexuality remains on an infantile level. Disturbances in sexual development can lead to
personal and social mal-adjustments.
i) Sex Drive or Sexual Feelings in Childhood and Adolescence
Sexual attitudes are formed from early childhood, although sexual urges and emotions do not
become apparent until the age of puberty. During this period, many changes occur among young
boys and girls. In the male, puberty begins with the appearance of nocturnal emissions or wet
dreams. At about this time, a young man begins to experience a distinct sexual urge that is
associated with his genitals. This heightened sexual excitability is likely to lead to masturbation.
The sexual drive of young woman, on the other hand, is less genital specific and she tends to
associate sex with romantic situations.
This awakened sexual drive among the youth, particularly young men, creates a certain amount
of restlessness because of which the youth are often considered by their elders as being different
and difficult. These are the first indications towards the adolescent’s development of an
independent personality and existence which tend to be interpreted as an emotional withdrawal
from home and family. During this stage lackof understanding on the part of elders and
youngsters on each other is common.
ii) Emotional Development

Teenage period (13 to 19) is often described as a period of great excitement and emotional
turbulence. The physical changes that take place among people during this period may result in a
sudden upsurge of sexual feeling. Experiences of sexual excitement may occur when they are
nearer to people of the opposite sex and age. At this time, they may not recognise that such
emotions are sexual in nature. An increase in hormones can arouse sexual thought and
excitement. However, due to social control such interests are not expressed in reality and this
will lead them to day – dreaming. During the teenage period ‘wet dreams’ are common in many
boys.
Emotional stress is a common phenomenon during adolescence due to the changes taking place
with their bodies. Hormonal imbalance can cause irritation, restlessness, and tension. Young
people need to be educated on such matters although most adolescents manage such changes and
developments on their own. It is however, essential that authentic knowledge on the subject is
provided to them along with proper guidance and support from parents, teachers and responsible
elders in the family. It is however, most important to offer a healthy emotional climate for young
people at home, in the school, as well as in the community where they can conveniently express
their emotions.
iii) Personal Identity
During adolescence every child tries to establish his/her own identity. The establishment of
identity is a gradual process during this stage of development. It is possible that the physical
and psychological changes taking place during the teenage period can interfere with the
process of establishing personal identity. However, as they grow into adulthood, they normally
develop a strong sense of personal identity.
Parents and teachers need to help and support young people to develop and maintain a high
sense of self-esteem and self-concept. Self-esteem is closely identified with self-respect. It is
the realisation of one self as a human being and the identification of one’s self within the
society. The social development of a person is primarily based on this self-esteem.
iv) Social Relationship
The growth and development of social relationship of young people is by and large centered
around their interaction with siblings, parents, peer group and members of the opposite sex.
Early experience of social relationship is usually centered around home. However, as young
people enter into their teens, physical and emotional development which takes place in them is
marked by changes in the patterns of interpersonal relationship. Parents continue to have
control over their teenage children and provide protection and guidance. However, teenagers
try to assert their independence by shifting away from parents and trying to be on their own
within their families. It is common for young people to have more frequent conflict with their
parents over the amount of freedom they think they deserve. Some parents treat these changes
in behaviour pattern as a challenge to their authority. Many parents tend to think that their
growing child is inexperienced and therefore, cannot make right decisions. Therefore, such
parents can also generate stress and strain for their children. Social development is easier for
those teenagers who feel that their parents love and trust them. An over-protected teenager is
likely to have greater difficulty in learning to act independently.
To a great extent, peer group relationships help teenagers to learn to interact with people in a
healthy manner. It is also seen that adolescents look to their peer group for approval. During
this period there is a tendency to have friends from both sexes. While the peer influence helps
in establishing independent identities, peer pressure at times can generate negative orientation
in teenagers. Studies indicate that most people who indulge in drugs, alcohol and teenage sex
do so under peer group pressure or orientation.
Therefore, an appropriate sexual health education package is required for young people which
will enable them to adopt healthy behaviour pattern.
v) Pre-marital Sex and Teen-age Pregnancies
Pre-marital sex has given rise to a range of alarming problems. Today’s teenagers are faced with
new challenges. Sexual activity has become more overt among the youth and society in general.
Girls and boys are reaching sexual maturity at an earlier age. Because of their early menarche,
girls are able to conceive at a younger age. As sexual intercourse among adolescents in some
countries becomes common, teenage pregnancies are on the increase. Sexual permissiveness is
encouraged by sexual messages conveyed through the mass media while hardly any effort is
made to provide moral education and the negative impact it has on the individual and the
society.
Teenage pregnancies pose many problems. In many societies, pregnancy out of wedlock is taboo.
Strong social pressure may lead to illegal abortion and may also provoke the women to commit
suicide. Illegitimate children may face the problem of social and legal discrimination as well as
economic hardships. If marriage is forced on the mother, there is a high probability of marriage
failure. When a low level of educational attainment among the women is perpetuated from
generation to generation, their opportunities for employment also get reduced. Thus their
continued dependence on others for their livelihood is reinforced. In terms of health, early
reproduction is usually harmful both physically and emotionally, than one which begins late.
C) Sex Roles
The study of sex roles is vital to achieve one of the objectives of sexual health education,
namely, to enable the youth to understand and cope with changes in their own lives. The
breaking down of traditional social structures and the changing role of men and women as a
result of social change is one such example. Studies on sex role stereotypes indicate that men and
women generally hold stereotypes of the typical characteristics of males and females: males are
logical, dominant, independent, unemotional, and aggressive while, women are sensitive,
emotional, nurturing, and are somewhat dependent and submissive. It is unlikely that such
personality characteristics are completely innate, because in some cultures women are aggressive
and dominant, while men are found to be emotional and sensitive. If there is inherent pre-
disposition that is different for each sex, it appears that particular cultures emphasise some and
mask others. Furthermore, literature and mass media tend to create, reinforce and perpetuate
many sex role differentiations. Many experts agree that the pressure, anxiety and confusion about
male- female roles are core issues in most concerns related to sexuality. Male pressure to
perform, female pressure to have children, male pressure to hide feelings, female pressure to be
sexually appealing without being sexual, etc., lead to the high incidence of unwanted
pregnancies, divorce and sexual dissatisfaction. Stereotyped sex roles hinder people from
developing their natural abilities and personalities.
Topics on sex roles cover masculinity and femininity in different cultures, stereotypes and role
expectations. You can read more about it in the Unit on understanding man and woman given in
this block.
D) Gender Roles
The term ‘gender’ is derived from the French word ‘genre’ meaning sex. Sex refers to binary
division between a male and female in terms of physical features, chromosomes, hormones and
secondary sexual characteristics. Gender refers to those characteristics of males and females that
are shaped by social factors. While examining gender difference in life expectancies, we refer to
social influences on survival, such as preference for male children and discrimination of women
and girl children in matters of education, health care, nutrition, etc. In fact, the differences
between males and females are derived from three sources;(i) biology, (ii) roles that men and
women traditionally play in society, and (iii) beliefs and opinions prevalent in society.
The existing inequalities between men and women and the subordination of women to men is
one area of distinction between sex and gender which is quite explicit. It is important to
understand the gender-based role assignment by society to male and female. In fact all these role
stereotypes influence every aspect of human life. In short we may say that gender roles are a set
of behaviour which is determined by the society for men and women.
A close analysis of gender roles prevalent in various cultures and societies through various ages
show considerable variation. Across the globe we find that almost all societies have assigned
different roles to men and women. In fact history shows that men and women hardly performed
equal roles or held equal positions except in certain exceptional cases where women inherited the
throne from their fathers. Otherwise men are valued higher than women. In short the females are
considered weaker and males stronger.
Men are considered wage earners, heads of households and leaders of the society in various
fields. The role traditionally assigned to women include raising a family and maintaining the
home, being ideal mothers, wives, sisters, and daughters while sacrificing their personal interests
for the interest of the male members within the family.
The major impact on gender roles are influenced by the stereotyped sex roles which continue in
every society. Almost all stereotypes are man made, but they are considered to be natural. In fact
these man made stereotypes have been handed down from generation to generation which has
resulted in the perpetuation of the discrimination against women. From the moment a child is
born, identification of sex followed by gender based role assignment begins and this process
continues to be an integral part of socialisation of children into adulthood. Most of the
stereotyped roles or messages are given to children from childhood days by parents, siblings,
peers, society and the mass media. In fact these messages communicate that certain behaviours
are acceptable for boys but not for girls, and vice versa. As the child grows up, he/she identifies
himself/herself with the parents of the same sex. The male child starts internalising the
characteristics of his father and the female child internalise the characteristics of her mother.
Gender roles continue to influence the behaviour of teenagers during the formative period. The
gender identity with regard to various types or roles, such as occupational roles, domestic roles,
kinship roles, community leadership roles, conjugal roles and parental roles continue to develop
during the period of adolescence. The effect of such gender-defined roles results in development
of attitudes, behaviour and value orientation viewed as appropriate for male and female in a
given cultural setting.
Therefore there is a need to promote appropriate gender role development among young people
during the formative period so that discrimination of women can be challenged and a
transformation of traditional models of gender relations takes place in the society. This is
required if we want to create a decent society where men and women can live a meaningful life
creatively with dignity.
Only a consciously prepared curriculum on sexual health education can influence the existing
stereotyped gender roles.
E) Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD)
STD as a topic in sexual health education which has become more important due to the increased
spread of STDs, and especially the dramatic rise in the incidence of HIV/AIDS. STD education
should address two areas- factual education and inculcation of the right social attitudes. Students
need to understand that STD is not only a serious social problem, but more importantly a critical
medical problem which can be prevented and treated. The study of STD includes the various
types of STDs, their origin, symptoms, treatment and prevention. Some of the STDs like HIV
have no cure. More details on STD are given in Block I of the Elective course on HIV/AIDS.

1) Write a brief note on personal identity.
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3.4 BROAD AND SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES BEHIND SEXUAL HEALTH

EDUCATION
A comprehensive sex education programme should aim at several objectives. Some of these
include:
1) Sexual health education should focus on the total personality development of the
individual.
Sexual health education should seek the development of an individual’s sexuality and
sexuality involves one’s total being and identity. In short it includes physical, social and
psychological aspects of sex and sexuality. It will also create the power to make value
judgment.
2) Sexual health education should aim at providing factual, complete and honest
information about sex and sexuality.
Sexual health education programme should aim at increasing awareness and insight
regarding physical, social and psychological development. It will help in clearing up myths
and misinformation that young people share among themselves. It will also prepare the
adolescents to face the biological changes that would come about during puberty such as
menstruation, seminal emissions, change of voice, enlargement of breasts, etc.
3) Sexual health education will enable young people to become responsible in making
decisions.
Sexual health education aims at helping individuals to acquire and maintain responsible and
caring relationships and behaviour. Simultaneously it will prepare the children to recognise
the behaviour that is exploitative and self destructive.
4) Sexual health education will help the child to respect (him/her) self and others self and
others.
Sexual health education will enable young boys and girls to become proud of their own sex
while appreciating the attributes and capacities of the opposite sex.
5) Sexual health education will provide opportunity to youngsters to imbibe human values.
Sexual health education will provide opportunity to the young people to develop ethical,
social and spiritual values which will serve as a guide to the individual in personal, family
and social relationships.
6) Sexual health education should help the young boys and girls to understand that each part
of the body and each phase of growth is good and has a purpose.
This will give holistic idea about human development and simultaneously it will help the
young people to nurture a feeling that sex is something beautiful, positive and is a creative
part of life.
7) Sexual health education should help in the formation of an emotionally stable

personality.
By developing various skills an individual will also become emotionally stable. Such an
individual will be able to make rational decisions and will have judicious thinking.This is
considered to be the ultimate outcome of sexual health education.
Specific Objectives of Sexual Health Education
Physical Aspects
Sexual health education provides information about male and female reproductive systems. It
identifies various parts of the male and female reproductive anatomy and their functions. Sexual
health education acquaints students with the process of ovulation and menstruation among
females and familiarise students with the terms used and the principles involved in this aspect. It
enables students to understand and explore the range of physical, emotions and psychological
changes during puberty. Through sexual health education, students can differentiate between the
physical changes and characteristics of girls and boys. They also become aware of the physical
signs which indicate reproductive maturity. Student’s feelings about the various parts or aspects
of his/her body can also be identified through such education. It helps the learner to increase
one’s self-awareness and self-esteem.
Social Aspects
Sexual health education develops an understanding about the natural aspects of sexual growth
and manifestations of the sex drive in the adolescents. It makes them aware about various factors
that influence the development of sexual attitudes and behaviour. It gives an understanding to
accept the need to control and guide one’s sex drive, for it to become a positive force in a
person’s life. By getting sexual health education a person can realise the importance of
wholesome sexual attitudes and behaviour and can evaluate the issues related to sex drive.
A student can build up an understanding about the development of sexuality among adolescents
from childhood to adolescence and can differentiate between pre-genital and genital sexuality.
Various problems of adolescents can be discussed and clarifications or solutions can be offered
to the problems through education. It gives an understanding about the concept of love; different
types of love; and can list out ways of showing love to ones parents, friends,
girlfriend/boyfriend, etc.
Sexual health education explains the various dating customs throughout the world; define what
dating is; study various attitudes towards dating; identify who is an ideal dating partner; and
solve problems relating to dating. It also gives an understanding about the growing number of
adolescent pregnancies and the consequences of such pregnancy. It can also explore individual
feelings and attitudes about adolescent pregnancy and sexual behaviour.
Sexual health education gives an understanding of what is meant by code of roles, ethics or
morality and functions. It makes one aware of the complexities and difficulties involved in
deciding what is morally right or wrong. A student can also get knowledge about the existence
of various theories on moral behaviour. Through such education an understanding can be
developed about the concept of morality in relation to the family, people, religion, culture,
education and political system, with emphasis on the confusion and conflicts between the older
and younger generation.
Sex Roles
Sexual health education is one of the ways to examine and understand attitudes towards sex,
men, women and youth. Students can identify and discuss the role and expectations of men,
women and youth in the family and society. They can be aware of child rearing practices in the
family and in society as they affect sex role development.
Sexual health education is very helpful in identifying various stereotypes developed for men and
women and different roles of men and women as well. It describes how different cultures look at
sex roles. It is helpful in increasing the student’s awareness of the stereotyped sex roles and
encourages them to notice how they compare themselves to stereotypes. It helps students to
develop better understanding about masculinity and femininity, comparing ideas and explore sex
roles stereotyping.
Informative Roles
Sexual health education increases knowledge of the students on various types of STDs, their origin,
symptoms, effects, testing, treatment and prevention. It increases understanding about STDs as a
medical problem and convince students that it is a social, and a medical problem, which should be
treated immediately (UNESCO, 1998).

1) List the major objectives of sexual health education.
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3.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have discussed the conceptual framework of sexual health education. The main
purpose of discussion was to distinguish sexual health education from family life education. It
has mainly four aspects. They are knowledge/awareness regarding physical aspect, social aspect,
sex role and Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs). We also discussed the rationale behind the
development of sexual health education.
The issue has become very important because more than half of the population of India is young
i.e. below twenty-four years and we have over 190 million adolescents in the country. The major
objectives behind the development of sexual health education are to develop the total personality
of the individual i.e. physical, emotional and psychological. The other objectives are to acquaint
young boys and girls to become proud of their own sex while appreciating the attributes and
capacities of the opposite sex. The unit concludes with a table giving specific objectives of sexual
health education identified by the International Conference on population and development
(UNESCO) held in Bangkok in 1994.
3.6 KEY WORDS

Puberty : The period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and
become capable of reproduction.
Menstruation : The process of discharging blood and other material from the
lining of the uterus in sexually mature non-pregnant women at
intervals of about one lunar month till menopause.
Muley, D.S. (1993) Adolescence Education-Report of National Seminar, NCERT Delhi.

Pandey, Jawaharlal Saroj B.Yadav and Kanan K. Sadhu (1999) “Adolescence Education in
Schools” parts I to NCERT, New Delhi.
Thomas, Gracious (1995) AIDS and Family Education, Rawat publications, New Delhi.
UNESCO (1988) Sex Education, Vol. II, PROAP, Bangkok.
1) During adolescence every child tries to establish his/her own identity. The establishment
of identity is a gradual process during this stage of development. It is possible that the
physical and psychological changes taking place during the teenage period can interfere
with the process of establishing personal identity. However, as they grow into adulthood,
they normally develop a strong sense of personal identity.
Parents and teachers need to help and support young people to develop and maintain a
high sense of self-esteem and self-concept. Self-esteem is closely identified with self-
respect. It is the realisation of one self as a human being and the identification of one’s
self within the society. The social development of a person is primarily based on this self-
esteem.
1) The following are the objectives of Sexual Health Education:
i) Sexual health education should focus on the total personality development of the
individual.
Sexual health education should seek the development of an individual’s sexuality and
sexuality involves one’s total being and identity. In short it includes physical, social and
psychological aspects of sex and sexuality. It will also create the power to make value
judgment.
ii) Sexual health education should aim at providing factual, complete and honest
information about sex and sexuality
Sexual health education programme should aim at increasing awareness and insight
regarding physical, social and psychological development. It will help in clearing up myths
and misinformation that young people share among themselves. It will also prepare the
adolescents to face the biological changes that would come about during puberty such as
menstruation, seminal emissions, change of voice, enlargement of breasts, etc.
iii) Sexual health education will enable young people to become responsible in making
decisions.
Sexual health education aims at helping individuals to acquire and maintain responsible and
caring relationships and behaviour. Simultaneously it will prepare the children to recognise
the behaviour that is exploitative and self destructive.
iv) Sexual health education will help the child to respect (him/her) self and others self
and others.
Sexual health education will enable young boys and girls to become proud of their own
sex while appreciating the attributes and capacities of the opposite sex.
v) Sexual health education will provide opportunity to youngsters to imbibe human

values.
Sexual health education will provide opportunity to the young people to develop ethical,
social and spiritual values which will serve as a guide to the individual in personal, family
and social relationships.
vi) Sexual health education should help the young boys and girls to understand that each
part of the body and each phase of growth is good and has a purpose.
This will give holistic idea about human development and simultaneously it will help the
young people to nurture a feeling that sex is something beautiful, positive and is a
creative part of life.
vii) Sexual health education should help in the formation of an emotionally stable
personality.
By developing various skills an individual will also become emotionally stable. Such an
individual will be able to make rational decisions and will have judicious thinking.This is
considered to be the ultimate outcome of sexual health education.
UNIT 4 SEXUAL HEALTH EDUCATION- ROLE OF HOME, SCHOOL
AND MEDIA
‡
Dr. Subhakanta Mohapatra & Prof. Thomas Kalam
Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Importance of Sexual Health Education
4.3 Role of Home in Sexual Health Education
4.4 Role of Schools and School Teachers in Sexual Health Education
4.5 Role of Mass Media in Sexual Health Education
4.6 Role of School Administration in Promoting School Safety
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to acquaint you with the importance of sexual health education. This unit
will also consider the role of various institutions like family, school, and mass media in
providing sexual health education.
‡
 identify the importance of sexual health education;
 explain the role of home in imparting sexual health education;
 describe the relevance of schools in providing sexual health education; and
 point out the role of media in creating awareness in sexual health education.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In India, sex education is yet to be valued socially. Parents and teachers are often hesitant to
provide sex education to adolescents. This attitude prevents adolescents from acquiring a proper
understanding of sexuality, of their responsibilities as growing individuals and ways to know
how to communicate with the opposite sex. Boys and girls lack the requisite knowledge about
their own body, sex organs and their functions. Similarly there is a need for them to know the
reproductive system of the opposite sex. During puberty, when physiological and psychological
changes occur in them, adolescents develop emotional and other psychological problems. When
they enter into the phase of transition from childhood to adulthood, changes occur not only in
their sex organs, but also in their feelings towards the opposite sex. Proper knowledge and
counseling at this stage may therefore equip them to best adjust in life and live successfully in
society. To perform this important task, various institutions and agencies like home, school and
mass media have to play a vital role.
4.2 IMPORTANCE OF SEXUAL HEALTH EDUCATION
The importance of Sexual Health to Education cannot be over emphasised in the modern society.
The mass media and experience tell us regularly about various problems caused by
misconceptions regarding sex. Many people, especially the adolescents and youth are confused
about what sex its, what functions it performs for the individual and the society at large.
Many of these misconceptions occur as people get wrong information from unreliable sources.
Some of these sources are peer group, friends, mass media and even parents. At times these
sources themselves are ignorant and have wrong knowledge on sex. Other sources have vested
interests. This is true of the mass media which knows that sex in its glamourised and over blown
form, sells. Therefore, an image of sex and activities associated with it (dating, friendship, live-
in relationship and marriage) are created so as to attract viewers and readers. One would
therefore, come across a large number of T.V. serials, operas, discussions on the merits and
demerits of these issues. Many media observers point out that other relevant issues are
neglected.
It is also to be accepted that modern societies has some characteristics which allow the media to
manipulate the issues related to sex. Some of these factors are: the delayed marriage of man and
woman in modern societies; urbanisation, migration for the purpose of education and
employment; increasing percentage of woman in employment sector, etc.
There has also been a change in the value system of modern societies. The control of collectives
(family, society) over the individual is lessening and the person is given autonomy and freedom.
People are not expected to interfere in an individual‘s private life unless he or she is given
permission by that person.
The Indian society is also not immune from the changes happening in the western societies.
During the 1960s western societies experienced a radical change in popular attitude towards sex
and some observers has even called it a revolution. The human body was increasingly being
seen as pleasure producing device rather than a sacred object (mainly by religious thinkers)
Social norms and values emphasising control over the body and its desires were seen as being
manipulative and undesirable. Individual was thought to be free to do what he wants with his or
her body. These views were challenged then and later on but its influence continues. But we
need to look at these issues because of the increasing cases of STDs, especially HIV/AIDS.
Sexual health education is one of the ways to increase awareness and prevent these diseases.
In the Family
Definitely such a “revolution” has separated sex from matrimony and love from family. It has
also separated sex from life of unitary dimensions and from within the conjugal act of
procreation, thus providing a background in support of abortions, contraception and
promiscuity.
This, so called “revolution”, has had political implications as well. It has become now an
ideology which has made sex a weapon to break all the ties of traditions. It rampages all parent-
child relationships, family institutions and social fabric and establishes a most exasperating
individualism. The media of social communication, pornography, internet and erotic telephones
have given young people such emotional appeal that they consider themselves as objects and not
even as subjects of the alienating mechanisms.
In the School
Sex education does not exclude the positive intervention of schools or of other educational
association. But it reindicates strongly the unsubstitutable role of the parents and of the family
atmosphere as the first and foremost factor.
Realising that children and youth are so badly exposed to misrepresentation of sex that they are
often the most gullible victims of sex abuse, public authorities in some countries believe that
they have solved the problem by favoring sex education in school. But often, such education is
reduced to mere sanitary information. The human and family perspective is kept outside sex and
sex is regarded as something purely private and personal.
Individual Persons
Sexuality is innate in the body and in all dimension of the person as a whole. It involves the total
development of his/her person in his/her physical and spiritual life which will be reflected in
his/her social relation.
In other words sexuality is inscribed in the person in his/her growth, in his/her complementary
relation, of one sex towards the other and his/her openness in giving up of self for the other.
In the Society
Another point of view is of the society, the whole of which needs to examine itself. Society
should continue to question itself as to what kind of young, women and men it should like to
form for tomorrow. It should also ask itself as to what sort of relationship between sexuality and
person and society, it would like to see; whether the sexuality is only legitimate or it is to be
tolerated as a simple private function of pleasure without its rightful orientation.
What is the right time to start sex education?
The imparting of sex education at different stages and levels has been a subject of debate since
long. However, in the conservative environment of Indian society, this matter has failed to gain a
definite educational response. In our country, sexual health education is not only absent at the
school and college levels but is a grossly neglected subject even in the curricula of medical
institutions. As a result, sexual dysfunctions are often misinterpreted and the regular treatment of
any malfunctioning involves prescribing one of the ever increasing plethoras of drugs, or the
ayurvedic sex tonics. It seems to be doing more harm than good. Regarding the prescription and
subsequent use of these sex tonics, one can rightly state that “it is nothing but the exploitation of
the desperate by the ignorant”.
As far as the appropriate period for providing sexual health education is concerned, there is no
fixed or definite time to start the process. Informal sex education can be started at any time,
when the child’s curiosity makes him/her receptive to conceptual inputs. As the child grows
imparting knowledge appropriate for his/her age would be the right approach. Without conscious
volition, parents provide sex education to the child from the moment of birth. The ways in which
parents hold, touch, care for the child during infancy and the ways in which they interact
between themselves and with the child lays the foundation for his/her future sexual conditioning.
Making the child accept his/her gender and also giving him/her love has a profound influence in
shaping his/her attitude towards sex and sexuality.The everyday communication and interaction
patterns of the family influence the child’s sense of self esteem, body image, gender role and
family roles and positively shape his/her capacity for love, intimacy and sharing.
As far as formal education is concerned, sporadic work in the area has been done in a modest
way. Educationists have been making conscious effort to include relevant contents and suitable
strategies in respect of sexual health education into the curriculum. The National Curriculum for
Elementary and Secondary Education brought out by the NCERT as follow up of National
Policy on Education 1986 states that this dimension deserves careful attention of the curriculum
organiser so as to make adequate provisions for inculcation among adolescents “healthy attitudes
towards sex and members of opposite sex”. We are aware that some aspects of sex education
particularly of physical components have been incorporated in the syllabi and in some of the
textbooks developed by the NCERT and also by some State Governments.
Let us discuss the specific roles performed by the home, school, and mass media in providing
sexual health education. We will also discuss the methods and stages of imparting sexual health
education to young people.
4.3 ROLE OF HOME IN SEXUAL HEALTH EDUCATION
Children first learn about sex and morals by observing the attitudes and behavior of their parents
and family members. The importance of a caring and loving relationship is often understood by
the behaviour patterns of children manifested at different stages of emotional and sexual
development.
Because, during childhood, most of the learning is acquired by imitation, it is important for the
parents to be aware of their roles and to impart positive sexual health education to the children.
The most appropriate attitude is to let the child know that sex is not a dirty reality and curiosity
in these spheres is a common and natural process of growing up. Without a caring and helpful
attitude, children will be hesitant to ask sex related questions fearing that their parents will be
uncomfortable to answer them truthfully. If only parents become comfortable talking about sex
and sexuality they will be able to promote a healthy parent-child relationship. Parents should
avoid associating scary stories with sex. Sex should not be mixed up with sexually transmitted
diseases, AIDS, teenage pregnancy, rape, and pornography and child molestation. Children
should, no doubt be warned about the dangers of these problems but at the same time, parents
should not forget to acknowledge and explain that sex, in its proper place is a good and
wonderful thing. Parents should neither panic when children ask questions, nor should they
express distress at seeing their children exploring their bodies.
Parents are usually worried that knowledge about sex and sexuality will harm the child. Though
we are products of a conservative society with primitive norms, scientific knowledge appropriate
to the chronological and mental age of the child will not harm him/her as much as ignorance
may.
It is better to give the child basic information in a simple manner as the child grows up. It may
also happen that children may ask questions that are in conflict with moral values. An
understanding and positive explanation catering to their needs and satisfying their curiosity will
reduce the risks and consequences of sexual ignorance. Even if parents occasionally respond a
little more than the child’s capacity or level of understanding, it will only leave the door open for
further communication. It is the parent’s attitude that is important. Sometimes the child’s
curiosity and concerns may seem irrational, but they may also be real to him/her and should not
be dismissed or discarded by parents. This may even close and snap off the healthy
communication in the parent-child relationship. Only if the child can trust that his/her parents are
not rigid or hostile to his/her curiosities, he/she will be able to look up on them as a source of
wisdom and guidance.
Sexual health education is important but of greater importance is the fact that it is imparted from
childhood onwards. Youngsters need to feel free to talk with parents about sex and sexuality
even before puberty because by then, they are already sexual beings. It just appears that the
sexual orientation is a product of puberty; but in reality they are reflections of sexual mores well
established in childhood and do not change much in later period. All these things happen because
at this stage most of the learning style is through suggestion. John Money of John Hopkins
University, maintain“The reassuming truth is that it is impossible to influence or train any
teenager selected at random to be a sadist, atheist or whatever else you name”.
Norm Setting
Boys and girls begin to learn the morals and customs that are expected of them from their
interaction with their parents, family and close kin. Different cultures impose rules of different
severity and maintain control of varying strengths. There are always restrictions on what young
people and adults in the family or among relatives can talk about. Simply by virtue of being a
norm shelter and an adult cannot always hold a conversation of mutual trust with a young person.
The young people are bound to have secrets, feeling and thoughts that they may not reveal to the
adults close to them. In a number of societies, in Western countries, for example, sexuality and
attraction to others are themselves the things that offer a path for a young person to create his/her
own more or less independent life.
It is for these reasons that parents are not considered as the best communicators of information
on sexuality and love relationships. Many parents also feel a resistance to talk with their children
about sexuality as something natural because they are not provided with adequate information
and orientation. Nevertheless this does not prevent parents from being the primary creators of a
sense of morality. One can always learn and impart right education to the young people
especially at a time when there are endless challenges which affect the behavior patterns of
young people.
Parental Responsibility
The primary responsibility of imparting sexual health education lies with the parents. With the
fast changing market economy, migration of people, increasing educational opportunities and
exposure to various mass media, there is certainly an added necessity to address the issues of sex
and sexuality by responsible people. Along with emerging and re-emerging social problems
associated with behaviour patterns, HIV/STDS and substances abuse, the call for providing
sexual health education to adolescents and young people is more justified than ever before. Since
parents have the primary responsibility to impart proper sexual health education from the
formative period, let us briefly list the responsibilities of parents in this area.
Parents should:
 Inculcate a positive attitude on sexual health education in children.
 Strongly discourage tendencies towards developing unhealthy lifestyle in children.
 Provide a healthy home environment which is conducive to holistic growth of the child.
 Cooperate with the school in their attempts to encourage healthy life styles.
 Build relationship with school teachers and cooperate with their initiatives towards
 Encourage children to follow the instructions and guidance provided to them from the
school on sexual matters.
 Cooperate with the community in its efforts at maintaining healthy environment.
 Provide children opportunities for sharing of ideas regarding positive aspects of sexual
health and encourage discussion at home between parents and children on such matters.
 Serve as role models for children’s inspiration.

1) List the parental responsibilities in imparting sexual health education.
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4.4 ROLE OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL TEACHERS IN SEXUAL HEALTH
EDUCATION
Often, school programs have focused exclusively on didactic, class room based activities, where
the teachers stand in front of the students and lecture them about body functions, do’s and don’ts
of behaviours and demographic issues.
These lecturers imparting sexual health education are frequently seen as “add on” pieces that are
not incorporated into the school curricula and therefore are regularly forgotten or dealt with very
superficially in order to allocate sufficient time to teach other topics to be covered for term end
examination.
More successful school based programmes seek to engage students in participatory and
exploratory activities where they can actively take part in frank discussions about their thoughts
and fears. Students can be supported in clarifying their attitudes and values related to
reproductive health through participatory discussion. They can learn life skills that will help
them to maintain the behviour which will support their desired sexual and reproductive health
outcomes clearly, addressing issues of self esteem, assertiveness, gender and socio-cultural
factors while developing skills and access to services more effectively. These approaches are
much more effective than simply providing information without proper aim and purpose.
In any school sexual health education programme, it is important that the concept of
responsibility be introduced so as to make personal health and hygiene a priority. This
responsibility should be expected from the child in the school, the teacher, parent, school
administration and the community. Many people underestimate the role of school in imparting
sexual health education. They try to argue that this responsibility should be left to the health care
professionals. In any difficult situation where one does not want to own responsibility, the best
and often sought way out is to pass on the responsibility to a third party or person. But the time
has come to seriously address the issue of providing adequate knowledge and information on
sexual health to our young people during their school days so that they are prepared to face the
challenges that are ahead of them.
It is true that the home or family has the primary responsibility to impart sexual health education.
School is an extension of the family since school has an important role to play in the personality
formation of the child over a period of about twelve years. It has a unique role to play in
imparting accurate and adequate knowledge on the topic of sexual health through a consciously
planned curriculum. In fact, it is the responsibility of the school to supplement the training that
the child receives in his/her family.
The school provides adequate opportunities to a child for socialising with other people who
matter in his/her life such as peers, teachers and others who play various roles in a social
situation. Therefore, the opportunities available in school are many.
Again, one may question whether sexual health education should be given in the school at all.
Since we have a large number of parents who do not have adequate knowledge on sex and
sexuality, school is the right choice for providing educational opportunities to adolescents on the
subject. It is easier to provide orientation to a teacher to teach topics on sexual health rather than
teaching parents across the country. Further, even if parents are made aware, all will not be in a
position to satisfactorily answer the questions of teenagers. Again, children usually tend to seek
information from third party rather than their own parents.
Let us now briefly examine the responsibility of the child as well as the school teacher with
regard to sexual health education.
Responsibility of the Child
The primary responsibility in learning about sexual health lies with the child in the school. Even
if the school management and school teachers take interest in teaching sexual health education
and provide opportunities for acquiring skills, no positive result can be expected if the child does
not cooperate. In short the responsibility of the child is:
 To learn to understand the importance of positive health.

 To learn the need and importance of acquiring adequate and right knowledge on sexual
health.
 To know that unhealthy lifestyles lead to diseases and unhappiness in self and others.
 To participate in the process of sexual health learning initiated in the school.
 To carry home sexual health education messages received in the school and community
and seek clarification from parents or responsible adults in the family.
 To maintain a healthy lifestyle at the school and at home.
 To aid the school authorities in building up and keeping a healthy environment where
learning on sensitive topics like sex and sexual health are made possible.
 To aid parents in creating and sustaining healthy home environment where a healthy
discussion on the subject is possible.
Responsibility of the School and Teacher
There is this belief that a well prepared curriculum and service strategies can show the way to
positive sexual health education programme in the school. But to make this process a reality, the
responsibility must be shared between the various players, i.e., the children, school and school
teachers. Let us briefly list the responsibility of the school and school teachers in providing
sexual health education.
Their responsibility is:

 To ensure that the school environment is conducive for providing positive sexual health
education.
 To enable all teachers to imbibe content and method of transmission of sexual health
related learning material.
 To empower teachers to transmit sexual health related message to school children in a
conducive atmosphere.
 To develop teacher as role-models of positive health so that students may get inspired.
 To interact as closely with students as necessary to observe and positively influence
health-related behavior.
 To resist all attempts to introduce unhealthy lifestyles in the students by vested interest
groups of any nature.
 To suitably recognise positive behavior in students by providing incentives wherever
possible.
 To co-operate with all agencies involved in providing opportunities for enchancing
positive sexual health eduction in the schools.
Strategies
There are many strategies that have been adopted in the field of school health services. The
choice of a strategy is based entirely on the local resources available. Often, a combination of
strategies may have to be used. The strategy could be of the following types:
1) Supervisory Strategy
This involves intervention by health professionals who undertake the responsibility of providing
health care to the school children periodically through annual medical examinations, counseling
and guidance. Inevitably the school teachers and children have to merely carry out instructions.
The element of participation is totally absent. No skills are transferred to the teacher or parent.
However, this is sufficient to satisfy mere regulatory requirements.
2) Preventive Health Programme
This consists of stressing the importance of immunisation, disinfecting water, safe disposal of
refuse, lecture in personal hygiene, displaying of health posters and organising film/video shows
for the children. This is certainly better than the supervisory approach. However, there is still no
participatory involvement of the children and the methods are all generally pre-planned and
packaged. This does not generate any initiative. Transfer of skills is minimal and community
participation is limited to merely providing a physical space for the organisers of the programme.
This approach may be good entry point to the school health programme.
3) Participatory Strategy
In this approach, the four ‘key players”-the community leaders, parents, teachers and school
children are involved in the following steps:
a) Formation of core group of people who will be directly responsible for the school
health programmes including sexual health education.
b) Community leaders, parents, teachers and school children being made aware of the
importance of school health and sexual health education.
c) Identifying the local health professionals who could play the role of technical advisors
and trainers without taking over the entire school health programme.
d) Training of core group members, teachers and selected parents, in the various skills
necessary for executing various components of school health programme with special
emphasis on sexual health education.
e) Identifying health needs of school children.

f) Listing the local resources available in terms of the site of the programme, finances,
willingness on the part of community leaders to give time to plan and execute the
school health programme, human power available, health workers, social workers,
counselors, etc.
g) Identification of specific components of school health programme and prioritising the
specific activities.
h) Evolving a plan of action, keeping in mind resource limitations.

i) Implementing specific components of the school health programme as per the plan of
action.
j) Periodic meetings of the core group members to review the programmes as they are
implemented and modify if needed keeping in mind the social changes taking place in
the community.
The core group referred to above must have representatives of the health profession, school
teachers, community leaders, parents and a few senior school children. This approach emphasises
participation by all concerned in the planning and execution of school health programme with
special emphasis on sexual health education.
The health professional in the group has a vital role to play since he/she has to impart technical
training without domination and should only be a facilitator while leaving organisation details to
the core group.
Participation by Students
This is one area which generally tends to be neglected under a misconception that students need
only to be “taught”. However, if any educational programme is to bring about a change in the
attitude and practices by the students, then the students themselves must be involved actively in the
learning process. Although difficult, student participation is the only way out. For this purpose,
apart from involving the student in the core group mentioned earlier, the programmes themselves
must be designed in such way that the students are always interacting and executing as much of the
programme components as possible.

Note:a) Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Write a brief note on preventive health programme as a strategy.
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4.5 ROLE OF MASS MEDIA IN SEXUAL HEALTH EDUCATION
Mass media, particularly news papers, magazines, journals, leaflets, television and radio have
helped to provide information and create awareness among the people about many sensitive and
health related issues. If we want to provide a consciously planned sexual health education
programme, we need to mount and sustain a major public educational campaign. Media can play
a key role in creating awareness about the importance of sexual health education at a time when
we are faced with sexually transmitted killer disease like HIV/AIDS.
Information Education and Communication (IEC) is a process that informs, motivates and helps
people to adopt and maintain healthy practices and life and prevents them from acquiring
infections and ill health. Sexual health education programmes whether at school or in a
community where illiteracy and ignorance exist need to make use of every method of
communication to impart accurate and complete knowledge on the subject.
To raise awareness about the importance of sexual health education in the general population and
to educate them on various aspects involved in it, IEC can be used. This includes information
materials, posters and pamphlets, their display at public places, their wide distribution through
mass gathering and community based organisation. In addition to the written material,
information must also be provided to those who cannot read by devising appropriate channels of
communication.
However, bringing about a change in the behaviour of the people through sexual health
education is not easy and is even more difficult when it is related to issues that are personal and
sensitive in nature. In such type of cases, use of different approaches of IEC become handy and
many a times has been successful in bringing about desired result. Educating the public on sexual
health can be effectively carried out by removing many misconception and ignorance through a
well designed communication system.
India is not only a vast country but also a country of numerous cultural and linguistic diversities.
This poses a great challenge for developing suitable IEC strategies and approaches that are
specific and relevant to the cultural and linguistic content. Most people think of media as press,
cinema, radio and television. These are called mass media or ‘big media’. They are big because
of the large audience they address, vastness of their production, involvement of large capital,
equipment and qualified personnel. Group media or mini media or small media, instead are not
only small in size but are economical, easy to use, and easily portable. They seldom require
technical expertise of the kind needed for mass media. Let us briefly list the kinds of group
media and examine to what extent they can be used for promoting sexual health education.
Posters
A poster contains pictures, drawings, cut outs, illustrations and captions. A good poster presents
a single idea concisely and powerfully. It can be meaningfully used among the less literate
people as well as younger children to convey sexual health education messages.
Collages
A collage is a composition of pictures, words or objects, which have been collected according to
a given theme. Use of collage in sexual health education programme can add variety and reduce
monotony.
Banners, Murals, Flip Charts and Flash Cards
Banners, murals, flip charts and flashcards can be successfully used in providing sexual health
education particularly through melas, exhibitions and training workshops. Similarly mobile
displays, folders, comic strips, flannelgraph, story board, drawings, hoardings, wall writings,
photo language, slides, filmstrips, newsletters and wallpapers also can be effectively used. For
more details, you may read unit 5 from Block I of the course on communication and counseling
in HIV/AIDS.
Broadcast Media
Radio is the most popular medium among the mass media in its ability to reach a vast audience.
In India practically every village has access to radio. There is a huge population who keeps
listening to radio broadcasts. It is therefore most useful to use this media to teach sexual health
and related issues. There are also facilities for radio counseling and ‘phone in’ services where
individuals can directly receive answers to their questions. There are various programmes that
one can offer through the medium of radio in order to educate people on sexual health.
Telecas t Media
Television in India began as an educational and community service medium. Today it has grown
in extent and coverage and can reach over 80 per cent of the population even in far flung areas.
With the unprecedented growth of television channels in national and regional languages, the
impact this medium can offer for sexual health education is certainly very wide. Sexual health
education programmes can be offered through programmes such as drama, theme based music,
panel discussion, talk shows, interviews, quizes, features, etc.
Cinema
The potential of cinema as a popular medium is evident from the large crowds that the cinema
theatres in India draw and the popularity of film artists. Documentaries and slide shows at
intervals are occasions to communicate sexual health education messages and lessons. In fact this
is a very powerful medium to reach the illiterate masses.
Print Media
Besides the efforts of the government and NGOs to popularise the concept of health and promote
education on health related issues through newsletters, magazines, and pamphlets, national and
regional news papers and periodicals can highlight the issues of sexual health education through
their columns.
Multimedia
Multimedia is a means of communication to a group or audience by a good combination of

different media and techniques. Multimedia presentations, using computer video projectors, etc.,
can be effective to present various themes within the framework of sexual health education. Use
of multimedia can ensure the constant attention of the participants.
Negative Impact of Media
With the advent of satellite communication network, internet and other technological
advancement along with exposure to foreign media, our young people are faced with a lot of
challenges at home, in the school and within the society. Such exposures are affecting the
behavioural pattern and lifestyles of people. Certainly the young mind is made to drift away from
family values, social values, traditional practices and moral values which were being held in high
esteem by the Indian masses. Today with the fast changing social lifestyles, young people need
guidance and support to recognise ‘what is right’ and ‘what is wrong’ and to choose healthy
lifestyles.
Adolescents mostly depend on the media and peers for sexual information. However, it has been
noticed that despite increasing public concern about the potential health risks of early and
unprotected sexual activity, there are very few programs on television that include sexual content
and the possible risks associated with sex outside marriage. Sexually transmitted diseases other
than HIV are less discussed, while unintended pregnancies are rarely shown as the outcome of
unprotected sex. The available pornographic literature and visual media content is also
misleading, often giving exaggerated coverage and very often incomplete information.
Nowadays, some of the apps (like, WhatsApp, Instagram, Kik Messenger, Snapchat, Liveprofile,
etc.) are very popular among the children and young adults. Most of these apps are designed to
keep the online conversation as private as possible. Given the current situation, it is very
important to have communication frankly and in a pleasant manner with the children. It is needed
to educate adolescents about the risks of misusing the mobile phones. As a parent, one may not
be able to stop their children from downloading these apps, but it is important to be able to
understand the implications and the ways to deal with such issues. Therefore, the parents should
keep themselves updated and aware and communicate with their children about the advantages
and limitations of new technologies.
Role of School Administration In Promoting School Safety
Sometimes students in the school may be witness to or victims of physical abuse, sexual abuse,
emotional abuse, etc. School administration requires to develop policy and procedures to address
such issues. School functionaries who suspect students’ involvement in such violence should
communicate their concerns to the school social worker/counselor or other designated teacher or
official.
Students services team members, ideally the school nurse, school psychologist, school social
worker, and the counselor will have to work together to assist students and their families. In such
cases parents should be taken into confidence.
School Violence Prevention Measures
All schools work to prevent school violence and schools are expected to be, very safe places. The
students, staff, and parents can play important roles in promoting school safety by following
procedures and reporting unusual or suspecting behaviours noticed by them. Below is a list of
possible school prevention activities that can be conveyed to the students, parents, and school
administration for the safety of the children.
1. There should be limited access to anyone to school building preferably through the
designated entrance with all other access points locked from the exterior.
2. Monitoring should be done of the school parking lot as well as people entering and leaving
the campus.
3. Regular monitoring and supervision of student common areas such as cafeterias, wash
rooms and playgrounds. The school should have presence of security guards at vital spots.
4. The school guests should be monitored. They should report to the main office, sign in, and
wear badges provided by the reception desk. If the guard finds unfamiliar people, he
should report it to responsible people.
5. Encourage students to take responsibility for safe school environments, including student
participation in safety planning.
There should be adequate security systems like metal detectors, video monitoring (CCTV), exit
door alarm systems, etc.

1) What is the role of broadcast media in health education programme?
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4.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have extensively discussed the importance of sexual health education at a
time when society is faced with drastic changes in social life. We have also discussed in
detail the role of home and family in providing sexual health education. One of the important
areas discussed in this unit is the role and responsibility of the school, the school teacher and
the child with regard to sexual health education. In fact the discussion on the strategies for
providing sexual health education has widened the scope of the subject. Towards the end of
the unit we also discussed the role of mass media and the usefulness of various methods of
mass communication in providing sexual health education so as to reach the maximum
number of people across the country.
4.7 KEY WORDS
Celibacy : Abstention from sexual activity.
Fidelity : Refers to being faithful to one’s chosen or given sexual partner

and having sexual relation only with that person.
Grugni, A (1988), Sex Education, Better Yourself Books, St. Paul’s Publication, Mumbai.
Grugni, A (1997), Exercises in education to love, Tej-Prasarini, Don Bosco Communications,
Mumbai.
Hurlocks, E.B (1994), Development Psychology: A Life Span Approach, Tata Mcgraw-Hill
Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi.
Thomas, G(1995), AIDS and Family Education, Rawat Publication, New Delhi.
1) Parents should:
 Inculcate a positive attitude on sexual health education in children.
 Strongly discourage tendencies towards developing unhealthy lifestyle in children.
 Provide a healthy home environment which is conducive to holistic growth of the
child.
 Cooperate with the school in their attempts to encourage healthy life styles.
 Build relationship with school teachers and cooperate with their initiatives towards
 Encourage children to follow the instructions and guidance provided to them from
the school on sexual matters.
 Cooperate with the community in its efforts at maintaining healthy environment.
 Provide children opportunities for sharing of ideas regarding positive aspects of
sexual health and encourage discussion at home between parents and children on
such matters.
 Serve as role models for children’s inspiration.
1) This consists of stressing the importance of immunisation, disinfecting water, safe

disposal of refuse, lecture in personal hygiene, displaying of health posters and
organising film/video shows for the children. This is certainly better than the supervisory
approach. However, there is still no participatory involvement of the children and the
methods are all generally pre-planned and packaged. This does not generate any
initiative. Transfer of skills is minimal and community participation is limited to merely
providing a physical space for the organisers of the programme. This approach may be
good entry point to the school health programme.

1) Radio is the most popular medium among the mass media in its ability to reach a vast
audience. In India practically every village has access to radio. There is a huge population
who keeps listening to radio broadcasts. It is therefore most useful to use this media to
teach sexual health and related issues. There are also facilities for radio counseling and
‘phone in’ services where individuals can directly receive answers to their questions.
There are various programmes that one can offer through the medium of radio in order to
educate people on sexual health.
BSW-126
Block
3
PROGRAMMES FOR FAMILY WELFARE
UNIT 1
Indian Family in Transition
UNIT 2
Family Planning and Parenting
UNIT 3
Family Planning Methods and Spacing between Live Births
UNIT 4
Medical Termination of Pregnancy and Issues Associated with It
Prof. P.K. Gandhi Dr.Ranjana Sehgal Prof. K.K.Mukhopadhyay
Jamia Millia Islamia Indore School of Social Work, University of Delhi
New Delhi Indore New Delhi
Work, Hyderabad

New Delhi Guwahati

Varanasi Delhi
Prof. Gracious Thomas Prof.A.B. Bose (Retd.) Prof. Prabha Chawla


IIPA, New Delhi

Department of Social Work, Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar College, School of Social Work,
University of Delhi University of Delhi IGNOU

Department of Social Work, Jamia School of Social Work, School of Social Work,
Millia Islamia IGNOU IGNOU

Unit Writers
Prof. Mary Joseph & Dr. Lizy James

Prof. Thomas Kalam Dr. Gulab Jha, Prof. Gracious Thomas
St. John National Academy of New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi

Unit Writers
Content Editor Course & Block Editor Programme & Course

Ambedkar College University, Delhi School of Social Work, IGNOU Dr. Sayantani Guin,
School of Social Work, IGNOU
PRINT PRODUCTION
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
Welcome to Block 3 of the course on Social Work in Family Setting. This comprises four
interesting units. Unit 1 is on ‘Indian Family in Transition’. Under this title we have tried to
explain very important concepts like family structure, functions and relationships, family
dynamics, social changes affecting Indian family, problems encountered in family and intervention
strategies, policies and programmes related to Indian families, human rights within the family and
planning for a family and responsible parenthood. Unit 2 describes ‘Family Planning and
Parenting’. Apart from describing the objectives and scope of family planning, important areas like
development of National Population Policy, 2000, family mobility, parenting and single
parenthood have been explained in this Unit. Unit 3 deals with ‘Family Planning Methods and
Spacing Between Live Births’, in which religious views and spiritual guidance as well as the
preference for male child have been explained. Unit 4 of this Block is on ‘Medical Termination of
Pregnancy and Issues Associated with It’. Keeping in view of the growing incidence of abortion
and the decreasing sex ratio in the country, care has been taken to include within the unit the
definition of abortion, types of abortion, the methods of abortion as well as the main features of the
Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act. 1971.
All the units of Block-3 have been meticulously prepared to provide you necessary inputs with
regard to the family planning policies and methods of family planning which are being practiced in
India.
UNIT 1 INDIAN FAMILY IN TRANSITION
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Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Family Structure, Functions and Relationships
1.3 Family Dynamics
1.4 Social Changes Affecting Indian Family
1.5 Problems Encountered in the Family and Intervention Programmes
1.6 Government Policies and Programmes for Families
1.7 Human Rights in the Family
1.8 Planning for Family and for Responsible Parenthood
1.9 Let Us Sum Up
1.10 Key Words
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to provide you detailed understanding of the family and the need for
planning for a happy and a peaceful family life. After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 describe in detail the various aspects of the family, the changes affecting the Indian
family and the relevant policies, programmes and laws related to family in India;
 identify the factors responsible for disorganisation of families and direct appropriate
intervention programmes;
 plan and organise family life education programmes for the various development stages
of the family; and
 demonstrate the importance of planning for a family and for parenthood.
*
Prof. Mary Joesph, Kalamassery & Dr. Lizy James, Vimla College, Trichur
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, you are going to have a clear understanding of Family – the different aspects of
family, social changes affecting the Indian family, problems faced by the Indian family, various
policies, programmes and laws related to the welfare of the family. Finally, we conclude this unit
by making you realize the need for planning for a family and becoming parents.
1.2 FAMILY STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

Family may be defined as a group of persons united by the ties of marriage, blood or adoption or
consensual unions, generally constituting a single household, interacting and communicating
with each other and creating and maintaining a common culture (Burges & Locke, 1950).
Family Functions
There are three major areas of functions which have been particularly emphasised. The functions
of the family for the society, the functions of the sub-systems within a family and the functions
of the family for individual family members. Thus, a functional analysis of the family
emphasises the relationship between the family and the larger society, the internal relationship
between the sub-systems of the family, and the relationship between family and the personality
of individual members. The former may be termed macro- functionalism and the latter two
micro-functionalisms.
Family Patterns
Family patterns are conceptualised in terms of family composition. A household is one of the
dimensions of the family pattern. It is a residential and domestic unit composed of one or more
persons living under the same roof and eating food cooked in a single kitchen (Shah, 1973).
The normative family patterns in India are extended or joint family and elementary or nuclear
family.
The term joint family is used more commonly in India than extended family. The joint family
comprises movable or immovable property, and all the members of the family may or may not be
staying together. The elementary or nuclear family comprises couples and their unmarried
children and is generally financially independent of other families (Desai, 1956).
Family Structure
Family structure is conceptualised as the configuration of role, power and status and
relationships in the family. It depends upon the family’s socio- economic background, family
pattern and extent of urbanisation. Family structure has implications for family unity and
stability and development of individuals.
The functions that the family as an institution performs are divided among family members in
the form of roles. Roles are culturally defined and are passed on to succeeding generations as
correct behaviour (Nye & Berardo, 1973). Role expectations are thus learnt from family
orientation.
Norms of family relationships may comprise norms and dyadic relationships, familism and
kinship orientation.
The dyadic relationships cover the following dyads in the family:
 Filial Relation : Parent-child relation
 Fraternal Relation : Relation among siblings
 Conjugal Relation : Relation between husband and wife
 In-law Relation : Relation between family members related through marriage and not
by blood.
Family Practices
Family practices depend upon the family’s ethnic background, extent of urbanisation, family
structure, and family laws. Marriage practices cover marriage patterns, selection of marriage
partner, and age at marriage, age at consummation of marriage, marriage rituals, financial
exchange and divorce.
Other family practices relate to lineage, residence, child bearing, child birth, adoption,
guardianship and custody of children, maintenance, death and inheritance and succession.
Families are classified into patrilineal and matrilineal families according to the lineage or descent
by the father or by the mother. Patrilineal families are generally patrilocal and matrilineal
families are generally matrilocal by residence. Neolocal families establish a new residence after
marriage (Leslie & Korman, 1984).
Role of the Family in the Socialisation of the Child
Socialisation is the process by which persons learn the ways of a given society. Children are
taught the ways and values of their society through contact with already socialised individuals.
The family is important because it maintains contact with children over a longer period of time
than any other group, and through close emotional association is able to exert maximum
influence in their lives. Both adult and other sibling members (brother and sisters) act as role
models in providing examples for children in the development of their personality, attitudes and
behaviour.
1.3 FAMILY DYNAMICS
Family dynamics broadly comprise family interactions and family development as influenced by
socialisation of family norms of individual members.
Family Interactions
Family interactions refer to the distinctive character of interpersonal relationships which occur
between members of the family. An interpersonal relationship is a relation based on personal
interaction rather than on any legal or structural basis. The main characteristics of family
interactions may comprise cohesion, communication, role performance, decision-making and
adaptability. Each subsystem of the family has different interactional patterns.
Family Cohesion
Family cohesion is defined as the emotional bonding that family members have towards one
another. There are four levels of cohesion, ranging from disengaged (very low) to separated (low
to moderate), to connect (moderate to high), to enmeshed (very high). It is hypothesised that the
central levels of cohesion (separated and connected) make for optimal family functioning. The
extreme levels (disengaged and enmeshed) are generally seen as problematic.
Family Communication
Family communication is defined as all the verbal and non-verbal behaviour that occurs within
the family, and between the family and its social environment.
Role Performance
The following are the different aspects of role performance: role enactment, role performance
and role behaviour. The behaviour dimension of roles either validates the cultural expectations or
emerges to create new roles.
Role Competence
Role competence is the evaluation of one’s own and another’s performance.
Role Conflict
Inter-role conflict takes place when the norms or behaviour patterns of one role are inconsistent
with those of another role of the same individual. Intra- role conflict takes place when two or
more categories of people hold conflicting expectations concerning the behaviour appropriate to
a single role.
Decision-making
Decision making involves recognition of need for decision, identification and weighing of
acceptable alternatives, selection of an alternative and facilitating its implementation.
Family Adaptability
Family adaptability is defined as the ability of a family system to change its power structure, role
relationships and relationship rules in response to situational and developmental stress.
The four levels of adaptability range from rigid (very low) to structured (low to moderate), to
flexible (moderate to high), to chaotic very (high). It is hypothesised that the central levels of
adaptability (structured and flexible) are more conducive to marital and family functioning with
the extremes (rigid and chaotic) being the most problematic.
Family Development
The concept of family development gives a longitudinal view to compare family interactions in
different stages of family life span. These stages may be determined by the age and
developmental needs of the adults and the children in the family.
The Family Life Cycle is a way of taking a look at the family life. It is based upon the
recognition of the successive patterns within the continuity of family living over the years.
Evelyn Duvall (1962) depicts the family life cycle as consisting of 8 stages:
Stage I Beginning Families (married couples without children)

Stage II Childbearing Families (oldest child, birth to 30 months)
Stage III Families with Preschool Children (oldest child 2½ to 6 years)
Stage IV Families with School Children (oldest child 6 to 13 years)
Stage V Families with Teenagers (oldest child 13 to 20 years)
Stage VI Families as Launching Centers (1st child gone to last child’s leaving home)
Stage VII Families in the Middle Years (empty nest to retirement)
Stage VIII Aging Families (retirement to death of one or both spouses)
Development Tasks
A family’s development task is a growth responsibility that arises at a certain stage in the life of
a family, successful achievement of which leads to satisfaction and success with later tasks,
while failure leads to unhappiness in the family, disapproval by society, and difficulty with later
developmental tasks (Duvall, 1977). Family development tasks are basic family tasks specified
for a given stage to develop in the family life cycle.
Family life development programmes aim at development of knowledge, attitudes and skills
towards democratic family functioning and strong family ecology. These goals may be achieved
through the following tasks:
 Attitude development in favour of family rights and responsibilities.

 Skill training for enrichment of family dynamics and development at each stage of family
life span for strengthening family’s interactions with its social ecology.
 Information dissemination about family resources such as laws, policies and
implementation systems and services.

1) What is the role of family in the socialisation of the child?
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2) What do you mean by family life cycle and family developmental tasks?
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1.4 SOCIAL CHANGES AFFECTING INDIAN FAMILY

The family has been and continues to be one of the most important elements in the fabric of
Indian society. The bond that ties the individual to his family, the range of the influence and
authority that the family exercises make the family in India not merely an institutional structure
of our society, but give it a deep value. The family has indeed contributed to the stability to Indian
society and culture.
Today, the Indian family is subjected to the effects of changes that have been taking place in the
economic, political, social and cultural spheres of the society. In the economic sphere, the
patterns of production, distribution and consumption have changed greatly. The process of
industrialisation and the consequent urbanisation and commercialisation have had drastic
impacts on the family. Migration to urban areas, growth of slums, change from caste oriented and
hereditary occupations to new patterns of employment offered by a technological revolution, the
cut-throat competition for economic survival and many other economic changes have left their
impact on the family.
Briefly speaking, these changes in the socio-economic-political-cultural milieu of our society

have led to changes in the structures, functions, roles, relationships and values of the family. In
the context of the changes in the economic system, more and more members of the family are
moving away from the larger family circle and living as individuals or members of a nuclear unit
in urban areas. The patterns or loyalties, obligations and expectations have changed. The case of
the child and the aged in particular has become a problem for many due to structural changes in
the family.
Change in Traditional Functions
Many functions performed by the traditional family are being taken over by other agencies such
as schools, day care centers, commercial and entertainment centers, etc. For example, an
important function of cultural transmission performed by the family has been affected because
the nuclear families are scattered cultures. The function of setting moral standards for the
growing children and adolescents has been taken over to a large extent by the peer group culture,
mass media or by commercial entertainment.
A major area of the family that has been affected by the social and economic changes in the
society is that of the role performed or expected of the different members of the family. The
traditional role allocation based on sex, age, or kinship has changed. With more and more
women taking up jobs outside the home, the traditional role of the wife has changed. Similarly,
the roles of the father, the mother, the husband, the child and the elders in the family have all
undergone various changes. The degree of role-overlap depends on the adaptation of the
particular family to the changed situations.
The changes in roles have inevitably affected the relationships, among the members of the
family. The concepts of freedom, individuality and rights of the individual have had their impact
on the relationships too. The attitudes of implicit obedience to elders, concern for others, self-
denial for the sake of others in the family, acceptances of the authority of parents and superior
status of the male are being displaced by attitudes of self-centeredness, assertion of individual
rights, clamor for equality and right for self-determination, etc.
In the realm of values, today’s family is moving towards materialism, individualism and
liberalism. The cherished values such as respect for aged, concern for the weak, devotion to
one’s duty, co-operation, etc., are being replaced by competition and “getting ahead”. It is not
surprising that the family in India is also succumbing to the pressures of the time.
The consequences of these changes are many. Problems such as child neglect, behaviour
problems in children, indiscipline among the youth, alcoholism, drug addiction, neglect of the
elderly, marital disharmony, etc., are on the increase today and are indications that the family is
not able to handle the change in a desirable manner. There is need therefore, to help the families
to cope with the pressures and challenges of their life situation which are affected by the
interacting forces to change in the economic, political, and cultural spheres.
Alternative Family Patterns
One of the most striking features of contemporary societies is the presence of a range of family
variations, from the most traditional, extended families with strict, gender based sex roles to the
modern dual career families based on liberal, equal sex roles and to adults cohabiting without
marriage. The term “alternative family patterns” suggests family patterns that result from
personal circumstances outside one’s control (death of a partner, infertility) or from socio-
economic conditions (male migration, work participation of women). In the Indian context, most
family variations are a result of personal or socio- economic circumstances. Experimental or
chosen lifestyles like living without marrying, and being childless voluntarily are restricted to an
extremely small group of people.
The following are the most commonly observed family variations in India:
 Single parent families
 Female headed households
 Dual earner/career families
 Childless families
 Adoptive families
1.5 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN THE FAMILY AND

INTERVENTION PROGRAMMES
Programmes
The following is a list of major family problem situations which may be entry points for family
intervention. The causal factors of the situations may be multiple, located in the family ecology,
socialisation of authoritarian family norms, dysfunctional family interaction patterns or problems
with individual member’s developmental tasks. These areas are, therefore, not mutually
exclusive. Some of these problem situations are:
 Families with individuals having problems-
o Families of the disabled
o Families of the chronically/terminally ill
o Families of substance abuse addicts
 Problems with child bearing-
o Infertility
o Unwed motherhood
 Marital problems-
o Marital disharmony
o Marital breakdown
 Abuse and violence in families-
o Child abuse in family

o Family violence against women
o Elderly abuse in family
o Family abuse of the disabled
 Families in conflict with other systems-
o Families with unemployment/indebtedness
o Families with inadequate or no land/housing
 Families affected by dis-equilibrium in other systems-
o Families facing political violence
o Families facing environmental disasters
o Uprooted/refugee/migrant families
 Family deprivation-
o Destitute children
o Destitute adults
o Destitute aged
These family situations, in turn, may affect the family functions, interactions, and individual
members. The family may become incapable of caring for some individual members. The family
interaction patterns may change as a coping mechanism. Harm may be caused to physical and
mental development and health of individual members, particularly children, women and the
aged. In the extreme situation family may disintegrate and individual members may become
destitute.
Family Intervention
A family practitioner’s role comprises planning and implementing of a combination of

interventions ranging from developmental to remedial, using individual, group, as well as
community methods to strengthen these families coping mechanisms and then rehabilitate them.
Family counselling, marital counselling, family and marital therapy, crisis intervention,
encouraging self help groups and legal aid are specific methods that may be used.
The groups needing family intervention may be children, adolescent, youth, women, couples, or
the aged; but the family as a whole may be considered the unit for intervention.
Besides, planning and implementing the services, the practitioner needs to monitor and evaluate
them and raise public awareness about these services.

1) What do you mean by alternative Family Patterns and what are the various
patterns found in India today?
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1.6 GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES FOR FAMILIES

Family policy means everything that the government does for the family explicitly or implicitly.
The Constitution of India does not make an explicit reference to the family. However, it lays
down the fundamental rights of individual citizens in terms of equality, nondiscrimination and
protection. Its Directive Principles of State Policy state that, “The state shall strive to promote the
welfare of the people by securing and protecting as effectively as it may a social order in which
justice, social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of the national life” (Article
38). Article 41 specifically lays down that, “The state shall, within the limits of its economic
capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education
and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement”.
Social Policies and the Family
Reviewing the social policies of India that affect the family, one can conclude that India has
explicit family policy with explicit goal for the family only in the form of the Family Welfare
Programme (1977) of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. This programme pursues family
planning as an integral part of a comprehensive policy, covering the total health care delivery
system. However, the policy has the limited goal of promoting planned parenthood with a two
children/one child norm, through the independent choice of family welfare methods.
We have a National Policy for Children (1974) that aims at full physical, mental and social
development of children. As far as the family is concerned, it states that, “In organising services
for children efforts would be directed to strengthen family ties so that full potentialities of growth
of children are realised within the normal family, neighbourhood and community environment”.
In 1992, India adopted a “National Plan of Action” for children, based on the recommendations
of the World Summit of Children contained in the plan of Action for Survival, Protection and
Development of Children. The long-term goals of the National Housing Policy (1988) are
eradication of house -less ness, improvement of the housing conditions of the inadequately
housed, and provision of minimum level of basic services and amenities to all.
The National Policy for Child Labour (1987), the National Youth Policy (2014), the National
Policy on Education (1986) and the National Health Policy (2017) aim at specific services for
select groups of individuals and implications for the family are implicit. Thus, we have many
policies for the family and its members.
Family Laws in India
India has different personal laws for families belonging to different religions, and therefore, do
not have any agreed upon goals about this important aspect of civic life. Hindus, Muslims,
Christians, Jews and Parsis, have their own personal laws, which cover matters of personal
relations and family practices such as marriage, divorce, adoption, maintenance, guardianship
and custody of children, and inheritance and succession. As these laws draw from the respective
religious norms, they often perpetuate traditional patriarchal norms and slow down the process of
reforms.
Although Article 44 of the Constitution maintains that, “The State shall endeavour to secure for
the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India”, very few attempts have
succeeded in enacting secular family laws that apply to family practices of all Indians. These
secular family laws are: The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, The Medical Termination
of Pregnancy Act, 1972, Special Marriage Act, 1954, Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 and
provisions made in the Criminal Procedure Code and Indian Penal Code.
Government Schemes and the Family
The government schemes that affect/ benefit families and their members are divided among
different ministries.
Provisions under Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has two bureaus for the following purposes: Social
defence, welfare of the handicapped, minorities, tribal development and scheduled castes and
backward classes.
The Bureau of Social Defence controls the problems of family and social disorganisation which
manifest in the forms of delinquency, juvenile vagrancy, drug addiction, alcoholism, and other
such problems of personal and social deviance, within the framework of specific laws and allied
measures. This Bureau implements the following schemes:
 For the welfare of children in need of care and protection;

 For the prevention and control of juvenile special maladjustment;
 For spreading awareness about the ill effects of drug abuse and providing counselling, de-
addiction, after-care and rehabilitation services;
 For refugees from other South Asian countries (Relief and Rehabilitation schemes);
 For grant-in-aid to welfare programmes of the aged; and
 For the development of street children.
Provisions under Ministry of Human Resources Development
The Ministry of Human Resource Development runs the Department of Women and Child
Development which has two bureaus: Bureau of Nutrition and Child Development and Bureau of
Women’s Welfare and Development.
The Department runs the following schemes for children:
 Integrated Child Development Services for Children (commonly known as ICDS);

 The Adolescent Girls Scheme;
 A Scheme of Crèches/Day Care Centers for Children of Poor, working and ailing women
and;
 Early Childhood Education Programme.
The Department runs the following schemes for women:
 Hostels for Working Women Belonging to Low Income Group;

 Employment cum Income Generating Production Units;
 Training Centers for Rehabilitation of Women in Distress;
 Short Stay Homes for Women and Girls;
 Public education for the Prevention of Atrocities against Women; and
 The Support to Training cum Employment Programme (STEP)
The Central Social Welfare Board, which is an autonomous organisation working under the
Department of Women and Child Development, offers the following schemes:
 Opportunities for Education For Adult Women;

 The Socio-Economic Programme provides opportunities for work and wages to needy
women that include the economically backward, the destitute, the widowed, the deserted,
the physically handicapped, and so on;
 The Awareness Generation Project for Rural and Poor Women Programme;
 Mahila Mandals;
 Family Counselling Centers;
 Voluntary Action Bureaus;
 Welfare Extension Project; and
 Scheme of Balika Mandals for Adolescent Girls.
Provisions under the Ministry of Urban Development
The following Social Housing Schemes are implemented by the Ministry of Urban Development:
 Housing Scheme for economically weaker sections;

 Housing Scheme for low income groups;
 Housing Scheme for middle income groups; and
 Rural housing sites cum construction assistance scheme for landless workers;
The Ministry is also implementing the following programmes related to urban poverty
alleviation:
 The Nehru Rozgar Yojana;

 The urban basic services for the poor; and
 Environmental improvement of urban slums aimed at ameliorating the living condition of
urban slum dwellers.
Provisions under the Ministry of Rural Development
The Ministry of Rural Development implements various schemes. However, with the formation
of every new Ministry and Government at the centre, each of the programmes gets a new name
or is put into different categories. Some of the well known programmes include:
 Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)

 National Scheme for Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM); and
 Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA).
1.7 HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE FAMILY
The goal of the International Year for the Family (IYF), 1994 is “Building the smallest
democracy at the heart of the society”. The plans for the IYF seek to promote the basic human
rights and fundamental freedoms accorded to all individuals by the set of internationally agreed
instruments formulated under the aegis of the United Nations, whatever the status of each
individual within the family, and whatever the form and condition of the family.
According to the United Nations (1987), “Human rights could be generally defined as those
rights which are inherent to our nature and without which we cannot live as human beings.
Human rights and fundamental freedoms allow us to fully develop and use our human qualities,
our intelligence, our talents and our spiritual and other needs”, their being met is, therefore, not a
matter of choice, but an imperative of basic justice.
The human rights need to be applied to the family for enriching family life. Denial of them
creates conditions of exploitation, deprivation and destitution of families and their individual
members. Family responsibilities are as important as family rights to ensure family happiness.
The following human rights instruments are applicable to the family:
o The U.N. Declaration of Human Rights (1948);
o The U.N. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(1976); and
o The U.N. Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989).
Desai (1993) has applied these human rights instruments to family and added family
responsibilities at three levels:
1. The individual’s right to have a family;

2. The individual’s rights and responsibilities within the family, and
3. The family’s rights and responsibilities with reference to its environment.
These family rights and responsibilities can form the goals for family well- being that cut
across the diverse forms of families.
The Individual’s Right to Have a Family
1) Every child has the right to be reached by his or her natural family. Parents have the
primary responsibility to rear their children.
2) Every adult has the right to marry and form a family.
3) Every elderly person has the right to be cared by his or her children.
The Individual’s Rights and Responsibilities within the Family
There are natural humane and caring qualities in family relationships. These may be used and
strengthened by promoting and protecting every individual’s rights for status, worth and dignity;
equality and nondiscrimination; freedom and choices in family life; social security from family
members; and protection from family abuse and violence. It is the responsibility of every
individual, family, community and the state to promote and protect these rights. Every individual
has responsibility to enrich family interactions. These rights and responsibilities are further
elaborated below.
1) Every family member is equal in dignity and worth, irrespective of age and gender. Every
family member, therefore, has the right to equal allocation of family resources, and equal
responsibility towards household work.
2) Both the married partners have the right to gender equality in marriage with respect to
monogamy, role, power and status; parenting, guardianship and custody of children; title
to matrimonial home and property; and dissolution of marriage and division of
matrimonial property.
3) Every family member has the right to freedom and choice in family life.
4) Every family member has the right to care and support from other family members in
crisis events such as disability, illness and in old age.
5) Every family member has the right to life and security of persons.
6) Individuals need legal protection of the state for their rights within the family.
7) It is the responsibility of every family to register birth, marriage and death of every
family member.
8) It is the responsibility of every family member to promote sensitivity and responsiveness,
positive communication patterns, democratic decision making and peaceful and
nonviolent approaches for resolving conflicts in their family interactions.
1.8 PLANNING FOR FAMILY AND FOR RESPONSIBLE

PARENTHOOD
A marriage undergoes a transformation when husband and wife suddenly become parents. The
word “suddenly” is appropriate because the transition to the status of parent is quite unlike the
transitions to other major statuses in life, such as marriage or an occupation. People have
relatively greater preparation and experience for entering marriage or an occupation, and they
also have a grace period during which they gradually assume the responsibilities of the new
status.
The transition to parenthood is quite different and often dramatic. It may constitute a crisis in the
life of married couple, as it forces them to take on an important and demanding responsibility.
The task of parenting allows the wife and husband much less time to devote to each other. As the
child becomes an interacting individual in the family, complex relationship patterns emerge.
Once the motivation for the good life is created, couples will be able to come to mutual decision
regarding each pregnancy so that every child in the family will be a ‘wanted child’ and not a
“product of chance”. Every pregnancy will place husband and wife in a new human setting and
far from experiencing pregnancy as a pathological condition. It will place them in a revived
experience at the very centre of human destiny.
The decision to marry and to bring a child into the world is the couple’s decision. They must
responsibly prepare for parenthood so as to provide for themselves and their children in an
environment in which they can grow personally and as a family.
Marriage and conjugal love are by their nature ordained towards the begetting and educating of
children. Children are really the supreme gift of marriage and contribute very substantially to the
welfare of their parents. Hence conjugal love requires that in husband and wife there is an
awareness of their mission of “responsible parenthood”.
Aspects of Responsible Parenthood
 Responsible parenthood means the knowledge and respect of their functions.

 The deliberate and generous decision to raise a family, or by the decision, made for some
motives and with due respect for the moral law, to avoid for the time being or even for an
indeterminate period, a new birth.
 The responsible exercise of parenthood implies that husband and wife recognise fully their
own duties towards God, towards themselves, towards the family and towards the society,
in a correct hierarchy of values.
Future Trends
The future of parenthood will include a greater awareness of what the role involves, increased
sharing by both spouses of the birth of their child or children, new techniques of delivery, and
more emphasis on fatherhood. There is need for preparation for parenthood classes available to
potential parents as Lamaze classes (the Lamaze method emphasises active involvement of the
father in the delivery process).

1) What is Planned Parenthood?
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1.9 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, first we introduced you to the essential characteristics of the basic group in a society,
i.e., the family. Also, we have dealt with the interactions taking place in the family and the
developmental stages of the family which is otherwise called as Family Life Cycle.
The social change which took place in India due to westernisation and industrialisation, has
affected the family and in turn the various alternative patterns of the family have emerged.
Alongside, there are many problems, confronting the family. We have briefly mentioned the
various intervention programmes, and also the various policies, laws and programmes existing
for the welfare of the Indian family.
Finally, we have dealt with the human rights within the family and the need for family life
education for the family life enrichment. The basic focus of this unit is the planning which is
very important in family life and we have emphasised the concepts of responsible/planned
parenthood.
1.10 KEY WORDS

Adoptive Family : Couples, who adopt a child of known or unknown
background.
Dual Career Family : Family, where both the husband and wife are
simultaneously employed in full time, paid jobs outside
their home.
Female Headed Family : Families where the women are head of families by virtue
of their being main earner, widowed, divorced,
abandoned, separated, and single mothers; women
whose husbands have migrated for employment; and
women whose husbands are not economic providers due
to unemployment and ill health.
Family Ecology : Family general environment (geographical surroundings,

neighbourhood, etc.) and the system with which it
interacts (political, economic, education, housing, health
welfare, legal, etc.)

Bharat S. (ed) (1991), Research on Families with Problems in India: Issues and Implications.
Vol. 1, Bombay, Tata Institute of Social Sciences.
Burgess, E.W & Locke (1950), The Family, American Books Co., New York.
Chatterjee S. (1988), The Indian Women’s Search for an Identity, Vikas Publishing House, New
Delhi.
Committee on the status of Women in India (1974), Towards Equality, Government of India,
Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, Department of Social Welfare, New Delhi.
Duvall, E.M. (1977), Marriage and Family Development, B. Lippincott., Philadelphia .
Gore, M.S. (1968), Urbanization and Family Change in India, Popular Prakashan, Bombay.
Institute of Social Studies Trust (1984), Indian’s Female Headed Households, New Delhi.
National Perspective Plan for Women for AD 2000 (1988), Government of India, Department of
Women and Child Development.
Unit for Family Studies, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Bombay (1994), Enhancing the Role
of the Family as an Agency for Social and Economic Development, Bombay.
1) Individuals are socialised for different roles and skills in different settings and situations
like family, school, workplace, etc. The principle agents in the process of socialisation
are parents, teachers, siblings, extended family members, and play mates. It is within the
family that the child is first socialised to serve the needs of the society. A society will not
survive unless its needs are met, such as the production and distribution of commodities,
protection of young and old or sick, and the pregnant, conformity to the law and so on.
Only if individuals are motivated, to see these needs, will the society continue to exit.
The foundation for such motivation is laid by the family.
2) Family life cycle denotes taking a longitudinal view of the stages in which a particular
family will take its shape, and pass through different stages till the stage when the
participating couples leave the family by their death.
In each of these stages, all the family members have to perform certain tasks for the
fulfillment of needs of the whole family. Successful completion of these tasks at each
stage leads to better performance of tasks in the next stages.
1) The term alternative family pattern means those family patterns chosen out of one’s own
choice, ideology, or certain socio-economic circumstances. These family patterns are
different from the traditional joint or nuclear family patterns. The commonly observed
alternative family patter in India are:
 Single parent families
 Female headed households
 Dual earner/career families
 Childless families
 Adoptive families
1) The decision to marry and to bring a child into the world is the couple’s decision. They
must responsibly prepare for parenthood so as to provide for themselves and their
children in an environment in which they can grow personally and as a family. Hence,
planned parenthood means the responsibility the parents take regarding the functions of
parenting the child.
UNIT 2 FAMILY PLANNING AND PARENTING

Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives and Scope of Family Planning
2.3 National Population Policy 2000
2.4 Family Mobility, Parenting and Single Parenthood
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Key Words
2.0 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to provide you an understanding of family planning by the
government of India since independence. After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 understand the objectives and scope of family planning services;
 know about the salient features of National Population Policy 2000; and
 parenting and single parenthood.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have learnt about Indian family in transition in the previous unit. A detailed discussion of
family planning policies and related concepts are intended in this unit.
India’s family welfare programme seeks to promote on a voluntary basis, responsible and
planned parenthood with the “two child norm” male, female or both through ‘cafeteria
approach’, that is an independent choice of family planning methods, best suited for the couples.
Population control and Family Welfare Planning are listed on the concurrent list. The Central
government bears virtually the entire cost of the programme. State government and Union

Territory administrations are responsible for its implementation. The Central government is also
responsible for programme planning, training of functionaries, research and evaluation.
2.2 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF FAMILY PLANNING
An Expert Committee (1971) of the WHO defined Family Planning as: “a way of thinking and
living that is adopted voluntarily, upon the basis of knowledge, attitudes and responsible decision
by individuals and couples, in order to promote the health and welfare of the family, group and
thus, contribute effectively to the social development of a country”.
Objectives of Family Planning
Family planning refers to practices that help individuals or couples to attain certain objectives:
a) to avoid unwanted births
b) to bring about wanted births
c) to regulate the intervals between pregnancies
d) to control the time at which births occur in relation to the ages of the parent and
e) to determine the number of children in the family
Now you have learnt the definition and objectives of family planning. Let us see the scope of
family planning services.
Scope of Family Planning Services
It is not synonymous with birth control, but is in fact more than mere birth control. A WHO
Expert Committee (1970) has stated that, family planning includes in its purview:
1) the proper spacing and limitation of births,
2) advice on sterility,
3) education for parenthood,
4) sex education,
5) screening for pathological conditions related to reproductive system,
6) genetic counselling,
7) premarital consultation and examination,
8) marriage counselling,
9) carrying out pregnancy tests,
10) preparation of couples for the arrival of their first child,
11) Providing services for unmarried mothers,
12) Teaching home economics and nutrition and,
13) Providing adoption services.
These activities vary from country to country according to national objectives and policies with
family planning. This is the modern concept of family planning.
Rapid population growth in less developed countries is a key factor in limiting the ability of
these countries to raise standards of living. Important obstacles to their socio-economic
development include limited resources, food distribution problems, high rate of diseases and
infant mortality, lack of proper sanitation, scarcity of funds and shortage of educational facilities
and work opportunities.
In this context, the Planning Commission clearly, recognised the need for population control
right at the beginning of the planning exercise. To quote the First Five Year Plan, (1951-56)-
“The recent increase in the population of India and the pressure exercised on the limited
resources of the country have brought to the forefront the urgency of the problem of family
planning and population control. It is, therefore, apparent that, population control can be
achieved only by the reduction of the birth-rate to the extent necessary to ‘stabilise the
population’ at a level consistent with the requirements of national economy. This can be secured
only by the realisation of the need for family limitation on wider scale by the people”.
2.3 NATIONAL POPULATION POLICY 2000
A social policy signifies consensual social purpose, and aims at progressive and structural
changes. It pays appropriate attention to economic, cultural, political and social factors as also to
short-term and long term perspectives. A population policy can be nothing less than a social
policy. Population programme must work itself in the whole fabric of social environment and
must influence and be influenced by all other measures of social changes. When a policy is
translated into programmes and activities, it causes social development, with due involvement of
integrated diverse range of sectoral programmes and activities.
National Population Policy 2000

National Socio-Demographic Goals for 2010
1) Address the unmet needs for basic reproductive and child health services, supplies and
infrastructure.
2) Make school education up to age 14 free and compulsory, and reduce drop outs at primary
and secondary school levels to below 20 percent for both boys and girls.
3) Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births.
4) Reduce maternal mortality ratio to below 100 per 100,000 live births.
5) Achieve universal immunisation of children against all vaccine preventable diseases.
6) Promote delayed marriage for girls, not earlier than age 18 and preferably after 20 years of
age.
7) Achieve 80 percent institutional deliveries and 100 percent deliveries by trained persons.
8) Achieve universal access to information/counseling, and services for fertility regulation
and contraception with a wide basket of choices.
9) Achieve 100 per cent registration of births, deaths, marriage and pregnancy.
10) Contain the spread of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), and promote greater
integration between the management of reproductive tract infections (RTI) and sexually
transmitted infections (STI) and the National AIDS Control Organisation.
11) Prevent and control communicable diseases.
12) Integrate Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM) in the provision of reproductive and child
health services, and in reaching out to households.
13) Promote vigorously the small family norm to achieve replacement levels of TFR.
14) Bring about convergence in implementation of related social sector programs so that
family welfare becomes a people-centred programme.
Strategic themes
i. Decentralised Planning and Programme Implementation.
ii. Convergence of Service Delivery at Village Levels.
iii. Empowering Women for Improved Health and Nutrition.
iv. Child Health and Survival.
v. Special efforts for Under-Served Population Groups who are people living in Urban
Slums, Tribal Communities, Hill Area Populations, Displaced and Migrant Populations,
Adolescents. Efforts to increase participation of men in Planned Parenthood.
vi. Diverse Health Care Providers including private practitioners, private hospitals, NGOs,
etc.
vii. Collaboration With and Commitments from Non-Government Organisations and the
Private Sector.
viii. Mainstreaming Indian Systems of Medicine and Homeopathy.
ix. Contraceptive Technology and Research on Reproductive and Child Health.
x. Providing for the Older Population.
xi. Information, Education, and Communication.
New structures
i) National Commission on Population
A National Commission on Population, presided over by the Prime Minister, will have the Chief
Ministers of all states and UTs, and the Central Minister in charge of the Department of Family
Welfare and other concerned Central Ministries and Departments, for example- Department of
Woman and Child Development, Department of Education, Department of Social Justice and
Empowerment in the Ministry of HRD, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of
Environment and Forest, and others as necessary, and reputed demographers, public health
professionals, and NGOs as members. This Commission will oversee and review implementation
of policy. The Commission Secretariat will be provided by the Department of Family Welfare.
ii) State / UT Commissions on Population

iii) Coordination Cell in the Planning Commission
iv) Technology Mission in the Department of Family Welfare
Funding
Funding to obtained from a variety of sources including international sources, national

governments, state governments, NGOs, etc. The following promotional and motivational
measures will be undertaken:
i) Panchayats and Zilla Parishads will be rewarded and honoured for exemplary performance
in universalising the small family norm, achieving reductions in infant mortality and birth
rates, and promoting literacy with completion of primary schooling.
ii) The Balika Samridhi Yojana run by the Department of Women and Child Development, to
promote survival and care of the girl child, will continue.
iii) Maternity Benefit Scheme run by the Department of Rural Development will continue.
iv) A Family Welfare-linked Health Insurance Plan will be established. Couples below the
poverty line, who undergo sterilisation with not more than two living children, would
become eligible (along with children) for health insurance (for hospitalisation) and a
personal accident insurance cover for the spouse undergoing sterilisation.
v) Couples below the poverty line, who marry after the legal age of marriage, register the
marriage, have their first child after the mother reaches the age of 21, accept the small
family norm, and adopt a terminal method after the birth of the second child, will be
rewarded.
vi) A revolving fund will be set up for income-generating activities by village- level self help
groups, who provide community-level health care services.
vii) Creches and child care centres will be opened in rural areas and urban slums. This will
facilitate and promote participation of women in paid employment.
viii) A wider, affordable choice of contraceptives will be made accessible at diverse delivery
points, with counselling services to enable acceptors to exercise voluntary and informed
consent.
ix) Facilities for safe abortion will be strengthened and expanded.
x) Products and services will be made affordable through innovative social marketing
schemes.
xi) Local entrepreneurs at village levels will be provided soft loans and encouraged to run
ambulance services to supplement the existing arrangements for referral transportation.
xii) Increased vocational training schemes for girls, leading to self-employment will be
encouraged.
xiii) Strict enforcement of Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1976.
xiv) Strict enforcement of the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994.
xv) Soft loans to ensure mobility of the ANMs will be increased.

1) In your own words, discuss the need for family planning.
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2.4 FAMILY MOBILITY, PARENTING AND SINGLE PARENT
FAMILIES
Family Mobility
With the advent of massive technological advancement, every society on this planet is witnessing
rapid changes in life-styles that increase mobility of families. As a result, we find a different type of
family setting both in rural and urban areas. Until a few decades ago, people grew up in villages and
towns and preferred to marry someone from nearby area and settle in the same locality for the rest
of their lives. However, there is a change in this pattern of life-style as more and more people
choose to leave their native places and home towns to faraway places within one’s state or country
and even abroad. This has resulted in the emergence of more and more nuclear families and the
notion of extended or joint family is fast vanishing.
This family mobility primarily affects family life style, family values, relationships and family
bonding. Departure from joint families and extended families significantly affects the process of
growing up for children and poses several new challenges to the young couple and their children in
managing domestic affairs as well as health and education of children. Considerable amount of time
and money have to be spent to keep up the communication channels with one’s parents and other
siblings. Frequent interaction of children with grandparents, uncles, aunts, etc., have become rare
and in some cases almost absent. Several parents opt for keeping their children in boarding schools.
This has become common among parents who go abroad for better paid jobs.
Even within families, many changes have occurred as a result of the access to new technologies and
social media including television, computer games, mobile phones, etc. Thus, several
communication channels within families have been replaced which is causing distance in
relationships and limiting several family related activities from one another.
Some of the other notable changes being observed in families include the decline in birthrate,
increase in life span of the elderly, spending less time for child care and parenting and more time for
the care of the aged. Unprecedented growth of old age homes and mortuary for the preservation of
dead bodies as a result of delayed funerals have become much more common. Home care of the
elderly and the sick is being replaced with nursing care and hospice care.
The emerging trends in the growth of new forms of family include living-together, choosing not to
marry, single parent families, different sexual orientations, dual- career families, and sharing of
household affairs that include childrearing. There is also a trend among more and more couples to
seek divorce, inter-cast and inter-religious marriages.
Parenting
One of the unavoidable roles of humans is parenting. Almost all people in their adult life experience
the challenges in parenting. As children, all of us observed parenting from our own parents and
parents of other children. Motivation to parenting and much more so to be good were abused by
their own parents- It is like a child who picks up alcoholism because his/her parents (one or both)
were alcoholic. This tendency may be seen as a chance happening and not necessarily that one is
destined for the same. Institutions and experts involved in parenting teach us that one can be trained
to be a good or better parent.
In some of the western countries including the U.S, parenthood education is common particularly in
higher secondary schools. The school curriculum on parenting include biological factors of
reproduction, pregnancy, childbirth, nutrition, pre-natal and post natal care of mothers, infant care,
process of growing up, parental roles and responsibilities as well as on the need and importance of
family planning. Parenthood training programmes have common goals. They include meaningful
communications between the parents and child, recognition of the needs of children of various
age groups, and appropriate behavior which are value based.
Single Parent Families
The prevalence of single parent families is of recent origin in India and this concept is gaining
momentum particularly in urban India. The rise in single parent families is due to divorce,
separation, death of one of the spouses, and in few cases out of wed lock pregnancies. Most
single parent families in India are headed by women. Most men headed families are due to the
death of the spouse.
Although in ‘two parent families’ there is an emerging trend among the couple in sharing
household tasks including parenting, in single parent families one has to put in extra effort to
take of the child/children as well as work hard to earn sufficient to support of the family. Most
single parents have to attend to household chores and responsibilities, including cooking,
cleaning and nurturing and caring for the child. Such parents could be leading very stressful lives
which may also affect the upbringing of the child. It is a well known fact that the services and
facilities available to single parent families would be much less as the single parent’s finances
and resources are drastically reduced.
Children of single parent families in India also have to face stigma and discrimination from
friends and relatives. Such parents will also have the added responsibility of promoting role
models for their children (whether man or woman). The challenge of providing good parenting
with appropriate skills remains a constant concern for single parents. In cases of divorce or
separation, the child/children should be constantly assured of the support of both the parents
throughout their lives. In India, the single parent female is entitled to financial support from the
former husband towards maintenance of self and for the child/ children up to the age of eighteen.
The customs and practices do vary depending upon the cultural background of the family.
2.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, you have learnt about the definition, objectives, scope and need for family planning.
This unit also dealt with Family Welfare Programmes developed by the Government of India, by
describing the concepts of family mobility, parenting and single parenthood.
2.6 KEY WORDS

Infant Mortality : Number of death(s) of infant(s) in their first year during the
year / (divided by) the total number of live births in the
year x (multiplied by) 1000
Net Reproductive Rate : It is the average number of live females that would be born
to a woman at the end of her reproductive period, if she
experiences the fertility and mortality patterns of a given
period throughout her reproductive span.
A Net Reproductive Rate of 1.0 indicates that on the

average a mother will be replaced by just one live daughter
within the reproductive period. It may be pointed out that
male surviving children are not considered for calculating
NRR.
Total Fertility Rate : TFR represents the average number of children a woman
would have, if she were to pass through her reproductive
years bearing children at the same rate as the age –specific
fertility rates observed in woman in any given year. Here it
is assumed that there is no mortality.
Lakshmana, Mamta (1998), Population Control and Family Planning in India, Discovery
Publishing House, Delhi.
Alok, S.K., (1991), Family Welfare: The Indian Experience, Inter India Publications, New Delhi.
Population Control and Family Planning Report of the Indian Parliamentary and Scientific
Committee (1964), Publications Division Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of
India.
Mathur, Hari Mohan (1995), The Family Welfare Programme in India, Vikas Publishing House
Pvt. Ltd. in association with the HCM Rajasthan State Institute of Public Administration.
1) There are a number of obstacles to the socio-economic development of a country. They

are: limited resources, problems of food distribution, high rate of diseases, infant
mortality, lack of housing and proper sanitation, scarcity of capital investment, shortage
of educational facilities and shortage of employment opportunities. All these factors
affect the quality of life. All these factors are intensified if the population is very high.
Hence, in order to improve the quality of life, we have to control the growth of
population and it leads to the need for family planning.
UNIT 3 FAMILY PLANNING METHODS AND SPACING
BETWEEN LIVE BIRTHS

Prof. Mary Joseph, Kalamassery & Dr. Lizy James
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Family Planning Methods
3.3 Spacing Between Live Births
3.4 Religious Views and Spiritual Guidance
3.5 Preference for Male Child
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Key Words
3.0 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to provide an understanding about the different methods of family
planning, their advantages and disadvantages, spacing, religious viewpoints on family planning
methods especially abortion, and misconceptions regarding preference for male child. After
learning this unit you should be able to:
 understand the various methods of family planning being commonly used by people;
 know the advantages and disadvantages of using various family planning methods;
 understand various religious views on family planning; and
 understand the misconception regarding preference for a male child.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
You have learnt about the concept of the need for family planning and family planning policies
and family welfare programmes of the government of India in the previous unit. A detailed
discussion of the different family planning methods, their advantages and disadvantages follows
in this unit. Since there can be side effects, one must always seek the opinion of a qualified
physician before deciding to use any of the methods. Above all, the husband and wife should
seriously consider the issues and acquire accurate knowledge on the subject. Since some
religions have reservations on the use of family planning methods, the couple should also seek
necessary spiritual guidance.
3.2 FAMILY PLANNING METHODS
Family Planning Methods or contraceptive methods by definition are preventive methods to help
couples to avoid unwanted pregnancies. There are a number of methods which are commonly
used by the people. Let us discuss details of those methods one by one.
1) Condom
Condom is the most widely used barrier device for the males as well as females around the
world. In India, it is known by its trade name NIRODH, a Sanskrit word meaning prevention.
Condom is receiving new attention today as an effective simple “spacing” method of
contraception, without side effects. In addition to preventing pregnancies, condom protects both
men and women from sexually transmitted diseases.
There are two kinds of condoms latex and skin. Latex condoms are by far the most widely used.
The condom has to be fitted on the erect penis before intercourse. The air must be expelled from
teat end to make room for the ejaculation. The condom must be held carefully when withdrawing
it from the vagina to avoid spilling seminal fluid into the vagina after intercourse. A new condom
should be used for each sexual act. Condom prevents the semen from being deposited in the
vagina.
The advantages of condom are:

1) are easily available,
2) safe and inexpensive,
3) easy to use, do not require medical supervision,
4) no side effects,
5) Light, compact and disposable, and
6) They provide protection not only against pregnancy, but also against sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs).
The disadvantages are:

1) it may slip off or tear during intercourse due to incorrect use and
2) interferes with sex sensation locally about which some complain while others get used to
it, by repeated use, and
3) some users also suffer from latex allergy, so it is important to make sure either of the
partners isn’t allergic to latex.
Although there is much publicity about the use of condoms to avoid pregnancy and prevent
STDs and HIV/AIDS, you must remember that the condom does not guarantee hundred per cent
safety. There is certainly a risk involved. There are several reported and confirmed cases of
condom failure as a preventive method for pregnancy as well as HIV/AIDS infection.
2) Diaphragm
The diaphragm is a vaginal barrier. It was invented by a German Physician in 1882. It is a

shallow cap made of synthetic rubber or plastic material. It has a flexible rim made of spring or
metal. It is important that a woman be fitted with a diaphragm of the proper size.
The diaphragm is inserted before sexual intercourse and must remain in place for not less than 6
hours after sexual intercourse. A spermidical jelly is always used along with the diaphragm. Side
effects are practically nil.
Advantages
The primary advantage of the diaphragm is the almost total absence of risks and medical
contraindications.
Disadvantages
Initially a physician or some other trained person will be needed to demonstrate the technique of
inserting the diaphragm into the vagina to ensure a proper fit. After delivery, it can be used only
after involution of the uterus is completed. Hence it is not very useful in Indian families
especially in rural area where medical assistance and privacy hardly exist. Further repeated or
frequent pregnancy is a barrier to regular use of diaphragm.
3) Intra-Uterine Devices (IUDs)
The IUDs are devices used for the control of conception by introducing a foreign body into the
uterus. There are two basic types of IUD: ‘non- medicated’ and ‘medicated’. Both are usually
made of polyethylene or other poly moss. In addition the medicated or bioactive IUDs release
either metal ions (copper) or hormones (progestogens).
The IUDs are of different generations such as:

The non-medicated or insert IUDs - First generation IUDs
The copper IUDs - Second generation IUDs
The hormone releasing IUDs - Third generation IUDs
The medicated IUDs or the second and third generation IUDs were developed to reduce the
incidence of side-effects and to increase the contraceptive effectiveness. However, they are more
expensive and must be changed after a certain time to maintain their effectiveness.
The First Generation IUDs
The first generation IUDs comprise the inert or non-medicated devices. They appear in different
shapes and sizes- loops, spirals, coils, rings and bows. Lippes Loop, double-S-shaped device, is a
very commonly used IUD in India.
The Second Generation IUDs
A new approach was devised in 1970s by adding copper to the IUD. It was found that, metallic
copper had a strong anti-fertility effect. The addition of copper made it possible to develop
smaller devices which are easier to fit.
There are different types of copper IUDs – Copper-7, Copper-T and Nova-T. The Indian Council
of Medical Research in 1979 recommended to the Department of Family Planning the use of
Copper-T. According to the recent reports copper devices have become very popular in India.
Advantages
1) Low expulsion rate,
2) Lower incidence of side effects,
3) Easier to fit even in nulliparous women,
4) Better tolerated by nullipara,
5) Increased contraceptive effectiveness, and
6) Effective as post-coital contraceptives, if inserted within 3 to 5 days of unprotected sexual
intercourse.
The Third Generation IUDs
A third generation IUD is based on another principle that is release of a hormone. The most
widely used hormonal device is progestasert, which is a T-shaped device filled with
progesterone, the natural hormone. The hormone is released slowly in the uterus. Long-term
clinical experience with hormone releasing IUD has shown it to be associated with lower
menstrual blood loss and fewer days of bleeding than other copper devices. The hormonal
devices would be valuable for women in developing countries who have experienced excess
blood loss caused by inert devices and consequently suffered from significant anemia. But these
devices are too expensive, to be introduced on a wider scale.
Advantages
1) Simplicity, that is no complex procedures are involved in insertion; no hospitalisation is
required.
2) Insertion takes only a few minutes.
3) Once inserted IUD stays in place as long as required.
4) Inexpensive.
5) Contraceptive effect is reversible by removal of IUD.
6) Virtually free of systematic metabolic side-effects associated with hormonal pills.
7) Highest continuation rate.
8) There is no need for the continual motivation required to take a pill daily or to use a barrier
method consistently; only a single act of motivation is required.
4) Hormonal Contraceptives
Hormonal contraceptives when properly used are the most effective spacing methods of
contraception. They provide the best means of ensuring spacing between one child birth and
another. Hormonal contraceptives currently in use may be classified as follows:
i) Oral pills
o Combined pill
o Progestogen – only pill
o Post-coital pill
o Once-a-month (long acting) pill
o Male pill
ii ) Depot (slow release) formulations
o Injections
o Subcutaneous implants
o Vaginal rings
i) Oral Pill
The Pill is given orally for 21 consecutive days, beginning on the 5th day of the menstrual cycle,
followed by a break of 7 days during which period menstruation occurs. When the bleeding
occurs this is considered as the first day of the next cycle. The bleeding which occurs is not like
normal menstruation, but is an episode of uterine bleeding from an incompletely formed
endometrium caused by the withdrawal of exogenous hormones. Therefore, it is called
“withdrawal bleeding”, rather than menstruation. If bleeding does not occur, the woman is
instructed to start the second cycle one week after it was stopped. Ordinarily the woman
menstruates after the second course of pill intake.
The pill should be taken every day at a fixed time, preferably before going to bed at night. The
first course should be started strictly on the 5th day of the menstrual period, as any deviation in
this respect may not prevent pregnancy. If the user forgets to take a pill, she should take it as
soon as she remembers, and that she should take the next day’s pill at the usual time.
If taken according to prescription combined pills are 100 percent effective in preventing
pregnancy. There is the benefit of pregnancy prevention and risk of abnormal cycle bleeding.
The other types of pills are to be taken according to the prescription of a medical practitioner.
Adverse Effects
1) Cardio vascular effects
Based on some of the studies conducted in different parts of the world, it is reported that, women
who had taken the pill had a 40 percent higher death rate than women who had never taken the
pill. Virtually, all the excess mortality was due to cardio vascular causes, that is myocardial
infraction.
2) Carcinogenesis
Even though there is no clear evidence, the WHO multicentre Case Control Study on the possible
association between the use of hormonal contraceptives and neoplasia, indicated a trend towards
increased risk of cervical cancer with increasing duration of oral contraceptives.
3) Metabolic effect
The metabolic effects included the elevation of blood pressure, the alteration in serum lipids with
a particular effect on decreasing high density lipoproteins, blood clotting and the ability to
modify carbohydrate metabolism with the resultant elevation of blood glucose and plasma
insulin. These effects are positively related to the dose of the progestogen component.
4) Other adverse effects

1) Liver disorders,
2) Effect on lactation,
3) Effect on subsequent fertility,
4) Ectopic pregnancies, and,
5) Effect on foetal development.
5) Common unwanted effects
1) Breast tenderness, fullness and discomfort,
2) Weight gain,
3) Headache and migraine,
4) Bleeding disturbances.
Beneficial Effects
The single most significant benefit of the pill is its almost 100 percent effectiveness in
preventing pregnancy. Women taking oral contraceptives should be advised annual medical
checkup.
ii) Depot Formulations
The depot formulations are effective, long acting oestrogen free for spacing pregnancies, in
which a single administration suffices for several month or years. The injectable contraceptives,
subdermal implants, and vaginal rings come in this category.
a) Injectable contraceptives
They offer more reliable protection against unwanted pregnancies than the other barrier
techniques.
b) Subdermal (subcutaneous) implants
The Population Council, New York, has developed a subdermal implant known as ‘Norplant’ for
long-term contraception. The Norplant ® - 2, the Silastic capsules or rods are implanted beneath
the skin of the forearm or upper arm. Effective contraception is provided for 5 years. The
contraceptive effect of Norplant is reversible on removal of capsules. The main disadvantages,
however, appear to be irregularities of menstrual bleeding and surgical procedures necessary to
insert and remove implants.
c) Vaginal Rings
Vaginal rings containing levonorgestrel have been found to be effective. The hormone is slowly
absorbed through the vaginal mucosa, permitting most of it to bypass the digestive system and
liver and allowing a potentially lower dose. The ring is worn in the vagina for 3 weeks of the
cycle and removed on the fourth.
1) Post Conception Methods
i) Menstrual Regulation: It consists of aspiration of the uterine contents 6-14 days of

missed period, but before most pregnancy tests can accurately determine whether or not a
woman is pregnant. Some regard menstrual regulation as a very early abortion; others
view it as a treatment for delayed periods.
ii) Abortion: Abortion is theoretically defined as termination of pregnancy before the foetus
becomes viable (capable of living independently). This has been fixed administratively at
28 weeks.
Abortions are usually categorised as spontaneous and induced. Spontaneous abortions occur once
in every 15 pregnancies. They may be considered “Nature’s method of birth control”. Induced
abortions, on the other hand, are deliberately induced. They may be legal or illegal. Illegal
abortions are hazardous. They are usually the last resort of women determined to end their
pregnancies at the risk of their own lives.
1. Suction Method 2. D&C (Dilation & Curettage)

3. Injection of Saline 4. Surgical Operation or Caesarean Section
Abortion Hazards
Abortions, whether spontaneous or induced, whether in the hands of skilled or unskilled persons
are almost always filled with hazards; resulting in maternal morbidity and mortality.
The early complications of abortion include shock, septic condition, uterine perforation, cervical
injury, thromboembolism, anesthetic and psychiatric complications. The late complications
include infertility, ectopic gestation, and increased risk of spontaneous abortion and reduced
birth weight.
2) Other Methods of Family Planning

i) Abstinence
The only method of birth control which is completely effective is complete sexual abstinence.
It is sound in theory, in practice it amounts to repression of a natural force and is liable to
manifest itself in other directions such as temperamental changes and even nervous
breakdown. Therefore, it can hardly be considered a method of contraception to be advocated
to the masses.
ii) Coitus Interruptus

This is the oldest method of voluntary fertility control. It involves no cost or appliances. In
this method, the male withdraws before ejaculation, and thereby tries to prevent deposition
of semen into the vagina. Some couples are able to practice this method successfully, while
others find it difficult to manage. The chief drawback of this method is that, the precoital
secretion of the male may contain sperm, and even a drop of semen is sufficient to cause
pregnancy. Further, the slightest mistake in timing the withdrawal may lead to the
deposition of a certain amount of semen.
The alleged side-effects (e.g. Pelvic congestion, vaginismus, anxiety neurosis) were highly
magnified. It is better than using no family planning methods at all. It is admitted to be true
that coitus interruptus along with abstinence and abortion played a major role in reducing
birth rates in the developed world during the 18th and 19th centuries.
iii) Safe Period (Rhythm Method)
This is also known as the “Calendar method”, first described by Ogino in 1930. The method is
based on the fact that ovulation occurs from 12 to 16 days before the onset of menstruation
(see figure1). The days on which conception is likely to occur are calculated as follows:
Regulation of the period and Safe Period Method
Period
Non Fertile Days
Fertile Days
If you have irregular period, with a little treatment you can regulate your period. Then you divide
your cycle in 3 equal parts. The infertile days are the 1st and the last parts of cycle.
The shortest cycle minus 18 days gives the first day of the fertile period. The longest cycle minus
10 days gives the last day of fertile period. For e.g. if a woman’s menstrual cycle varies from 26
to 31 days, the fertile period during which she should not have intercourse would be from the
8th day to 12th day of the menstrual cycle, counting day one as the first day of the menstrual
cycle. Figure 1, shows the fertile period and safe period in a 28-day cycle.
The drawbacks of calendar method are:

1) Women’s menstrual cycles are not always regular. If the cycles are irregular, it is
difficult to predict the safe period.
2) It is only possible for this method to be used by educated and responsible couples with a
high degree of motivation and co-operation.
3) Compulsory abstinence of sexual intercourse for nearly one half of every month may be
called “programmed sex”.
4) This method is not applicable during the postnatal period.
5) A high failure rate.
Figure:1-The Menstrual Cycle

The Mucus Pattern of Fertility and Infertility
3) Natural Family Planning Methods
a) Basal body temperature (BBT) method,

b) Cervical mucus method,
c) Symptothermic method,
d) Breast feeding, and
e) Birth control vaccine.
Here the woman employs self-recognition of certain physiological signs and symptoms
associated with ovulation as an aid to ascertain when the fertile period begins. For avoiding
pregnancy, couples abstain from sexual intercourse during the fertile phase of the menstrual
cycle. They totally desist from using drugs and contraceptive devices. This is the essence of
natural family planning.
a) Basal Body Temperature Method
The BBT method depends upon the identification of a specific physiological event -- the rise of
BBT at the time of ovulation, as a result of an increase in the production of progesterone. The
rise of temperature is very small, 0.3 to 0.5 degree C. When no ovulation occurs (e.g. as after
menarche, during lactation) the body temperature does not rise. The temperature is measured
preferably before getting out of bed in the morning. The BBT method is reliable if intercourse is
restricted to the post-ovulatory infertile period, commencing 3 days after ovulatory temperature
rise and continuing up to the beginning of menstruation. The major drawback of this method is
that, abstinence is necessary for the entire preovulatory period.
b) Cervical Mucus Method
This is known as ovulation method. This method is based on the observation of changes in the
characteristics of cervical mucus. At the time of ovulation, cervical mucus becomes watery clear,
becoming raw egg white, smooth, slippery and profuse. After ovulation, under the influence of
progesterone, the mucus thickens and lessens in quantity. It is recommended that, the woman use
a tissue paper to wipe the inside of vagina to assess the quantity and characteristics of mucus.
This method requires a higher degree of motivation than most other methods. The
appropriateness of this method in countries like India, especially among the rural and poor is
doubtful.
c) Symptothermic Method
This method combines the temperature, cervical mucus and calendar techniques for identifying
the fertile period. If the women cannot clearly interpret one sign, she can ‘double check’ her
interpretation with another.
To sum up, natural family planning demands discipline, and understanding of sexuality. It is not
meant for everybody. The educational component is more important with this approach than with
other methods.
d) Breast-feeding
Field and laboratory investigations have confirmed the traditional belief that, lactation prolongs
post partum amenorrhea and provides some degree of protection against pregnancy. No more
than 5-10 percent of women conceive during lactational amenorrhea, and even this risk exists
only during the month preceding the resumption of menstruation. However, once menstruation
returns, continued lactation no long offers any protection against pregnancy.
e) Birth Control Vaccine
Several immunological approaches for men and women are being investigated. The most
advanced research involves immunisation with a vaccine prepared from beta sub-unit of human
chronic gonad tropic (HCG), a hormone produced in early pregnancy. Immunisation with HCG
would block continuation of the pregnancy. Antibodies appeared in about 4-6 weeks and reached
maximum after about 5 months and slowly declined reaching zero levels after a period ranging
from 6-11 months. The immunity can be boosted by a second injection. Research on birth control
vaccines continues and uncertainties are great.
4) Terminal Methods (Sterilisation)
Voluntary sterilisation is a well-established contraceptive procedure for couples desiring no more

children. Currently female sterilisations account for 85 percent and male sterilisations for 10-15
per cent of all sterilisations in India, in spite of the fact that, male sterilisation is simpler, safer
and cheaper than female sterilisation.
Sterilisation offers many advantages over other contraceptive methods. It is a one-time method.
It does not require sustained motivation of the user for its effectiveness. It provides the most
effective protection against pregnancy. The risk of complications is small if the procedure is
performed according to accepted medical standards. It is cost-effective.
i) Male Sterilisation
Male sterilisation or vasectomy being a comparatively simple operation can be performed even
in primary health centres by trained doctors under local anesthesia. In vasectomy, it is customary
to remove a piece of vas at least 1 cm after clamping. The ends are ligated and then folded back
on themselves and sutured into position so that, the cut ends, face away from each other. This
will reduce the risk of recanalisation at a later date. It is important to stress that the person is not
immediately sterile after the operation, and so usually for 8-12 weeks, another method of
contraception must be used. If properly used vasectomies are almost 100 percent effective.
Vasectomy is a simpler, faster and less expensive operation than tubectomy.
ii) Female Sterilisation
Female sterilisation can be done as an interval procedure; post partum or at the time of abortion.
There are two such commonly used methods.
a) Laparoscopy
This is a technique of female sterilisation through abdominal approach with a specialised

instrument called “laparoscope”. The abdomen is inflated with gas (carbon dioxide, nitrous
oxide or air) and the instrument is introduced into the abdominal cavity to visualise the
tubes. Once the tubes are accessible, the Falope rings (or clips) are applied to obstruct the
tubes. This operation should be undertaken only in those centres where specialist
obstetrician-gynaecologists are available. The short operating time, shorter stay in hospital
and a small scar are some of the attractive features of this operation.
b) Minilap operation
It is a modification of abdominal tubectomy. It is a much simpler procedure requiring a

smaller abdominal incision of only 2.5 to 3 cm conducted under local anaesthesia. It is
found to be a suitable procedure at the primary health centre. It has the advantage over
other methods with regard to safety, efficiency, and ease in dealing with complications.
Minilap is suitable for postpartum tubal sterilisation.
1) Discuss the terminal method of family planning.
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3.3 SPACING BETWEEN LIVE BIRTHS

Till now you have learnt the different methods of family planning. Now let us see what is
spacing and how does it affect the health of the mother and her child.
Spacing is the interval between two lives births. There are a number of social and cultural factors
which have tended to increase the spacing between two births. The segregation of women after
delivery, the taboo of sex relations when the child is young and abstinence on certain religious
days are some of them. Prolonged lactation which has been observed may also be an important
factor. The Hindu joint family has also helped in minimising the frequency of sexual
relationship. The prevalence of ‘purdah’ system did not allow the couples to meet very
frequently. The so called rigid rules of social behaviour prevalent in traditional families did not
allow undue sexual freedom to the couples. Social customs of the wife making frequent visits to
her parental home, having the first child in her mother’s house and such other customs have
helped to increase spacing between two births.
The above mentioned factors which helped to increase spacing are gradually changing. With
increased education, urbanisation and economic prosperity, social atmosphere is changing. All
these factors affect spacing. The birth of children is a voluntary decision of the couple rather
than a culturally oriented phenomenon.
3.4 RELIGIOUS VIEWS AND SPIRITUAL GUIDANCE

Our lives are profoundly influenced by advancement in the field of science and technology. As a
result of these advancements some people tend to consider religion and belief in God outdated and
irrelevant. For them the teachings and heritage of the great religions make little or no sense.
It is true to say that, the teachings and traditions of the important religions have been the
conscience keepers of the world. The ethical views of different religions have always condemned
the violation of natural law.
All religions accept regulating family size by way of self-control and regulating sexual union
between couples. The same way all religions condemn abortion and consider it as murder.
According to Hindu Vedas, abortion is considered to be a more serious sin than the killing of a
Brahman (Shatapada Brahmana, XII, 3-11, Katha Samhita 31.7).
The ‘Charka Samhita; a classical work on Hindu Medicine states that conception takes place in the
womb by the union of semen and ovum, when the soul, along with the mind, enters the zygote.
The embryo is of unique constitution, because it is a composite of the vital information it receives
from both parents. The humanisation of the individual takes place at the moment of conception
and all future growth is only the actualisation of conceptual potency.
Based of ‘Shastras’ and on the principle that the genetic components are complete at conception,
the modern Hindu belief is that life begins with conception.
Though Hindu ethics condemn abortions generally, it accepts abortion on the grounds of rape,
incest and when the mother is at the risk of grave injury or death. This is because Hindu ethics
place greater weight on the maternal rights rather than on the unborn child’s right.
The basic teaching of Islam is that, life is a gift of god. Hence the Koran warns men not to
interfere with the work of God. It is on this faith that, Muslims generally oppose abortion. The
laws of Islam prohibit abortion since the foetus is considered a living being. But as per the
doctors, foetus is only a human being after the fourth month. Hence abortion is allowed in
general during the first ninety days of pregnancy and it is prohibited immediately afterwards.
However, like Hindu ethics, Islamic ethics also permits abortion on the basis of pregnancy which
endangers the mother’s life, and where it is the result of a rape that does not result in marriage.
The Christian religion also condemns abortion. Christianity encourages couples to have self-
control and promote natural family planning methods. Christianity considers abortion a grave sin
and calls it murder. At the time of conception a new life has started and abortion is the killing of
that new life. The Holy Bible warns emphatically against abortion at any stage of conception.
There are certain myths regarding religious faith, population, growth and family planning. Hindu
religion promulgates monogamy and there is no law prohibiting family planning. But Muslim
religion allows polygamy and prohibits family planning and hence there is rate of increase in
population among them. These myths are to be examined in the light of studies conducted in
India.
When these above mentioned myths are examined based on scientific study, it is understood that
they remain as myths even now. Sample surveys conducted by Operations Research Group in
1983 and 1990 reports that, among Hindus 36 % accepted any one kind of family planning
methods in 1980 which increased to 46% (+10%) in 1989. Among Muslims it was 23% in 1980
and increased to 34% (+11%) in 1989. Similarly, among scheduled castes it was 28% (1980) and it
increased to 39% in 1989. Among Scheduled Tribes it was 33 % in 1980 and continued the same
pattern in 1989 also.
Muslims are politically and culturally against the attitude of western concept of sexuality and
abortion, rather than on family planning. Christians are very conservative about artificial family
planning methods. But it is deadly against abortion.
Even though, all these religious are not positively promoting family planning, in the State of
Kerala where literacy rate is very high, education of women is high and a high index of social
development exist, the small family norms has been accepted and has become a way of life
among people of different walks of life, no matter to what religion they belong.
3.5 PREFERENCE FOR MALE CHILD

In India sons are important from a religious point of view. According to Hindu religion, a man,
attains salvation only when a son performs certain rites at his funeral.
Preference for a son is not only a religious point of view, sons are considered as providers of
security in old age and during prolonged illness. There are many other reasons as well. Once
married, the girls are considered to belong to their husband’s family, and therefore, they cannot
be relied on for support in old age. In fact, there are strong taboos on taking any kind of help from
a married daughter.
According to Blaikie the reasons for the importance of sons in Indian culture are:
1) Sons are required to perform the last funeral rites (shraddha) of their parents. It is
interesting to note that in Sanskrit ‘put’ means hell and ‘putra’ means literally ‘one that
saves from hell’.
2) Sons, upon marriage, attract dowries for the parents.
3) Sons, provide economic and emotional security in old age. It is the son, not the daughter
who remains at the parent’s home after marriage.
4) Sons provide income and help in the house and in the fields from an early age.
5) Sons bring prestige and local political power (and even protection against the threat of
physical force in confrontational situations) to the household, the kinship group and caste.
The question of son survivorship is therefore, so vital that people do not feel satisfied with just
one son. They seek safety in numbers.
Women too have compelling reasons for desiring children, preferably sons. The most intense
hope of a young woman is that she proves her worth to her husband’s family by producing a
healthy male child. The birth of a son entitles a woman to respect and status. She and her baby
have been conditioned to see their success and destiny in terms of procreation especially of a
son. In actual practice it is found that, the above arguments for male child are myths. Now as a
result of the disintegration of joint family system and increase in the number of nuclear families,
the expectation on the son to provide security at old age is coming down. With regard to the
amount of work done by males and females, it is almost equal. Hence, the reasoning behind
preference for male child is baseless in the present scenario.

1) Discuss briefly the concept of spacing between live births.
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3.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit you have learnt the different family planning methods, including natural family
planning, their advantages and disadvantages. We also learnt the sterilisation methods used in
males and females as well as on abortion and religious views on abortion. The concept of
spacing between live births was explained and the mindset of son preference in India has been
discussed.
3.7 KEY WORDS

Condom : A latest contraceptive shaped like a deflated balloon.
Sperm : Sperms are produced in the testes and mature in the epididymides.
Vagina : The closed passage that connects the vulva with the uterus.
Vas deferens : Two long, narrow tubes that carry the sperm from each epidymis to
the seminal vesicles.
Alok, S. K., Family Welfare Planning: The Indian Experience, Inter India Publications, New
Delhi.
Lakshmana, Mamta, Population Control and Family Planning in India, Discovery Publishing
House, Delhi.
Park, J. E. and Park, K., Test Book of Preventive and Social Medicine, M/s. Banarasidas Bhanot
Publishers, Jabalpur.
Mathur, Hari Mohan (1995), The Family Welfare Programme in India, Vikas Publishing House
Pvt. Ltd. In association with the HCM Rajasthan State Institute of Public Administration.
1) Voluntary sterilisation is a well-established contraceptive procedure for couples

desiring no more children. Currently female sterilisations account for 85 percent and male
sterilisations for 10-15 per cent of all sterilisations in India, in spite of the fact that, male
sterilisation is simpler, safer and cheaper than female sterilisation.
Sterilisation offers many advantages over other contraceptive methods. It is a one-time

method. It does not require sustained motivation of the user for its effectiveness. It
provides the most effective protection against pregnancy. The risk of complications is
small if the procedure is performed according to accepted medical standards. It is cost-
effective. Sterilisation of a male is known as vasectomy and sterilisation of female is
known as tubectomy.
1) Spacing is the interval between two lives births. There are a number of social and cultural
factors which have tended to increase the spacing between two births. The segregation of
women after delivery, the taboo of sex relations when the child is young and abstinence
on certain religious days are some of them. Prolonged lactation which has been observed
may also be an important factor. The Hindu joint family has also helped in minimising
the frequency of sexual relationship. The prevalence of ‘purdah’ system did not allow the
couples to meet very frequently. The so called rigid rules of social behaviour prevalent in
traditional families did not allow undue sexual freedom to the couples. Social customs of
the wife making frequent visits to her parental home, having the first child in her
mother’s house and such other customs have helped to increase spacing between two
births.
The above mentioned factors which helped to increase spacing are gradually changing.
With increased education, urbanisation and economic prosperity, social atmosphere is
changing. All these factors affect spacing. The birth of children is a voluntary decision of
the couples rather than a culturally oriented phenomenon.
UNIT 4 MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY AND
ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH IT

Prof. Mary Joesph, Kalamassery & Dr. Lizy James
Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Abortion – Definition and Types
4.3 Methods of Procuring an Abortion
4.4 Liberalisation of Abortion Leading to Legalisation
4.5 Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 (MTP)
4.6 Issues and Controversies Associated with Legal Abortions
4.7 Religious Views
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.0 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to provide you with a comprehensive understanding of the legal
provisions of the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act and the various issues associated with
it. After reading this unit you should be able to:
 describe the stages of life from conception till birth;
 differentiate between the different types and methods of abortion;
 outline the various grounds for legal termination of pregnancy;
 appraise each of the issues associated with the Medical Termination of Pregnancy –
medical, social, emotional, religious and moral;
 discriminate the pros and cons of abortion; and
 suggest measures to prevent unwanted pregnancies.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
You are now in Block III. In the first unit you studied about the Indian family in transition. In the
second unit, you were introduced to the concept of family planning policies and in the third unit
you learnt about methods of family planning to avoid unwanted pregnancies. In this unit we shall
discuss about the different types and methods of abortion, the legal aspects surrounding
termination of pregnancy, the pros and cons of abortion and the measures to prevent unwanted
pregnancies.
4.2 ABORTION- DEFINITION AND TYPES
Abortion is made up of two Latin words - ab- meaning off or away oriri meaning to be born;
abortion means taking away a human life which would in the normal course of events be born.
Abortion has two meanings - medically it can describe a case of miscarriage, without any outside
intervention, occurring within the first three months of pregnancy. Abortions legalised by the Act
on the other hand, are those deliberately procured with the intention of terminating the
pregnancy, killing the unborn child.
The terms abortion and miscarriage are sometimes used as synonyms. They are also used to
describe the same happening at an earlier and at later stage of pregnancy. Abortion is restricted
so as to describe the case occurring in the first three months of pregnancy and miscarriage to
describe one during pregnancy from the beginning of the fourth month, until the foetus becomes
viable.
Types of Abortion
1) Spontaneous Abortion (Miscarriage) occurring naturally without any deliberate

attempt on the part of pregnant women or other persons.
2) Indirect Abortion: This is an abortion which occurs as a side effect of treatment given
to the mother for some diseases or haemorrhage which is endangering her life. The
purpose is not to take away the child’s life. It occurs as the result of the therapeutic
measures taken to save the mother.
3) Artificial or Induced Abortion is taking away of life for the main purpose of removing
the foetus or child. Induced abortion is the result of deliberate attempt on the part of the
pregnant women or others with the intention of terminating pregnancy.
1) What do you mean by viability of the foetus?
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2) What is abortion and what are the different types of abortion?
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4.3 METHODS OF PROCURING AN ABORTION
There are many ways of aborting an unwanted foetus. The method chosen depends mainly on the
duration of pregnancy to be interrupted as in the first or second trimester (3 months).
First Trimester
In the first trimester (up to 12 weeks) of pregnancy, two broad methods are used:
1) Medical
One single dose of Misetristone pills administered within 40 days of menstrual period, (within 10
days after missed period).
2) Surgical
i) Menstrual Regulation using MR Syringe (up to six weeks of pregnancy)

ii) Suction: The most frequently used method of abortion is suction, also called
Vacuum aspiration. It is used when the women is less than 3 months pregnant.
This technique involves sucking out the contents of the uterus through a tube
inserted into the uterus through the cervix. This operation can be performed while
the woman is awake, in five to ten minutes, with little blood loss and a low risk of
complications.
iii) Tent Evacuation with Laminaria Tent: slow dilatation is achieved and evacuation
is done later.
iv) Dilatation and Curettage (D&C): This procedure involves increasing the size of
the cervical canal by inserting a series of gradually – widening metal dilators.
When the opening is wide enough the physician uses a curette (small metal
surgical instrument) to scrape the embryo and placenta from the walls of the
uterus. Since the D and C operation takes longer and is more complicated than the
suction method, the women is put to sleep.
Second Trimester
In the second trimester of pregnancy, only very few methods are usually adopted:
i) Intra Uterine Saline Instillation: After twelve weeks, the foetus is large enough to be
removed safely by the suction or D&C methods. Pregnancies after this period are removed
by inserting a long needle along the abdominal and uterine walls into the cavity of the
uterus. A concentrated salt solution is inserted into the amniotic sac which destroys the
embryo, the uterus automatically contracts until the foetus is pushed out into the vagina.
Because saline abortion is a major surgical procedure, earlier termination of pregnancy by
the suction method or D&C is being recommended by the physicians.
ii) Hysterectomy: This is used in the later stages of pregnancy when the foetus is too large.
The mother is given a general anaesthetic and the uterus is cut open and the foetus is
removed. This is usually performed in cases where foetal abnormalities are detected and
when all the other methods have failed.
Two other methods of abortion are intra cervical prostaglandin E2 administration and oxytocin
induction.
4.4 LIVERALISATION OF ABORTION LEADING TO LEGISLATION
Prior to 1950s in many countries, laws governing abortions were very restrictive; i.e. abortions
were totally prohibited or permitted strictly on medical grounds. But laws could not prevent
illegal abortions which were done mostly by non- medical persons and in unhygienic conditions.
Consequences of Illegal Abortion
Illegal abortions frequently led to complications such as perforations of the uterus, haemorrhage
and infection requiring gynaecological care and hospitalisation. In countries such as Venezuela,
Nigeria, Chile and a few other countries sepsis due to illegal abortion was the leading cause of
maternal deaths. Illegal and incomplete abortion was a major strain on medical resources. It is
also reported that in countries with restrictive abortion laws, the poor were made to suffer more
than the affluent, the better educated and the urban elite. The poor, with no resources to obtain
safe but expensive abortions and with little contacts or knowledge about the places where such
services were available, were often driven into the hands of unqualified abortionists which
resulted in severe complications and deaths. Such loss of lives, impairment to mother’s health
and wastage of medical infrastructure as well as compassion for the poor led to the demand in
several countries for liberal abortion laws.
Attempts to Legalise Abortion
The Soviet Union was the first country to legalise abortion. In 1920, Lenin’s government enabled
women in first trimester pregnancy (less than 12 weeks of pregnancy) to obtain abortion on
request. Thereafter many countries introduced liberal clauses in their abortion laws from 1930
onwards. Presently, the laws on abortion vary from abortion on request at one extreme to total
prohibition on the other. The four largest countries which have liberalised abortion laws for
medical termination of pregnancy are China, India, USA and Soviet Union.
4.5 MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY ACT, 1971 (MTP)

In India, prior to 1972, abortion was illegal except to save the life of pregnant women. In 1964, a
committee under the Chairmanship of Shantilal Shah was constituted to study the question of
liberalising abortion laws. Based on the report submitted by this committee in 1966, the Medical
Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act was passed by the Parliament in 1971 and came in to force
all over the country in April 1, 1972 (except in Jammu & Kashmir where it came into effect from
November 1, 1976). This act is one of the most liberal in the world and has replaced one of the
most rigid laws Section 312 of Penal Code, 1860 and the Code of Criminal Procedure 1898.
The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act 1971 lays down three norms for terminating a
pregnancy.
a) The conditions under which a pregnancy can be terminated under the MTP Act 1971
There are 5 conditions that have been identified in the Act.
1) Medical – where continuation of the pregnancy might endanger the mother’s life
or cause grave injury to her physical or mental health.
2) Eugenic – where there is substantial risk of the child being born with serious
handicaps due to physical or mental abnormalities.
3) Humanitarian – where pregnancy is the result of rape.
4) Socio-economic-- where actual or reasonably foreseeable environments

(whether social or economic) could lead to risk of injury to the health of the
mother.
5) Failure of contraceptive devices – the anguish caused by an unwanted pregnancy

resulting from a failure of any contraceptive device or method can be presumed to
constitute a grave mental injury to the mental health of the mother. This condition
is a unique feature of the Indian Law virtually allows abortion on request, in view
of the difficulty of providing that a pregnancy was not caused by failure of
contraception.
The written consent of the guardian is necessary before performing abortion in women under 18
years of age, and in lunatics even if they are older than 18 years.
b) The person or persons who can perform abortion
The Act provides safeguards to the mother by authorising only a registered medical practitioner
having experience in gynaecology and obstetrics to perform an abortion where the length of
pregnancy does not exceed 12 weeks. However, where the pregnancy exceeds 12 weeks and is
not more than 20 weeks the opinion of two registered medical practitioners is necessary to
terminate the pregnancy.
c) Where abortion can be done
The Act stipulates that no termination of pregnancy shall be made at any place other than a
hospital established or maintained by the Government or a place approved for the purpose of this
Act by the Government.
Abortion services are provided in hospitals in strict confidence. The name of the abortion seeker
is kept confidential, since abortion has been treated as a statutory personal matter.
MTP Rules (1975)
Rules and Regulations framed initially were altered in October 1975 to eliminate time-
consuming procedures involved in MTP and to make services more readily available. These
changes have occurred in three administrative areas.
1) Approval by Board
Under the new rules, the Chief Medical Officer of the District is empowered to certify that a
doctor has the necessary training in gynaecology and obstetrics to do abortions. The procedure of
doctors applying to Certification Boards was removed.
2) Qualification required to do Abortion
The new rules allow for registered medical practitioners to qualify through on the spot training.
The doctor may also qualify to do MTPs under the new rules if he/she has one or more of the
following qualifications which are similar to the old rules:
a) 6 months housemanship in obstetrics and gynaecology.
b) a post-graduate qualification in OBG.
c) 3 years of practice in OBG for those doctors registered before the 1971 MTP Act was
passed.
d) 1year of practice in OBG for those doctors registered on or after the date of
commencement of the Act.
3) The Place where Abortion is Performed
Under the new rules, non-governmental institutions may also take up abortions provided they
obtain a license from the Chief Medical Officer of the district, thus eliminating the requirement
of private clinics obtaining a Board License.
Limitations of the Act
1) The provisions for abortion under the Act such as pregnancy caused by rape, failure of a
contraceptive, etc., need not necessarily constitute grave injury to her mental health.
2) Extending the period of pregnancy from 12 weeks to 20 weeks of pregnancy in certain
situations gives more scope for abortion takers.
3) The value of human life is challenged.
4) No consideration is given to the right of the foetus.
The New Act is indeed a liberal piece of legislation compared to the Old Act of 1860. The Act
has been mainly adopted to eradicate a large number of criminal and clandestine abortions,
which caused considerable mortality and morbidity among pregnant women. However, the utility
of the new act will depend to a large extent on the number of localities that are provided with
clinical facilities for abortion especially in rural areas, knowledge about such facilities among the
people and also on the attitude of the physicians. Due to inadequate data on the socio-economic
status of women who had legal abortions, it is not clear whether liberalisation has really helped
the poor sections of the society.
1) What are the different methods of procuring an abortion?
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2) What are the consequences of illegal abortions?

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4.6 ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES ASSOCIATED WITH LEGAL

ABORTIONS
Abortion has been a hotly debated issue. Both pro (for) and anti-abortion (against) groups have
lobbied intensively on the local, state, national, and international levels. Abortion raises some
difficult questions to which there are no simple answers. Abortion issues may be divided into:
1) Physical and Medical, 2) Emotional, 3) Social, and 4) Moral
Physical and Medical
A woman is made physically and psychologically for motherhood. This is the basic fact of her
life. If this process of becoming a mother is suddenly stopped, the shock will have its effect. This
effect may be physical or mental immediate or long-term.
If a pregnancy is to be terminated, it should be terminated as soon as possible. This is of special
necessity from a biological and medical point of view.
Medical complications arise due to patients spending so little time under observation after their
initial operation and therefore problems of infection tend to set in.
A woman who has undergone an abortion is also more likely to have subsequent children both
physically or mentally handicapped. Damage to the wall of the uterus can affect the normal
development of the placenta through which the baby takes its nourishment.
The commonest and gravest ill effect as a result of abortion is sterility and inability to carry
subsequent pregnancies through the term. There is a long-term medical effect of aborting first
pregnancy. Repeated abortions may be associated with a later inability to conceive or to carry a
child to full term and with various birth complications.
Abortion should only be a backup measure not the primary method of birth control and they urge
fuller usage of contraceptives among all sexually active person so that repeated abortions are not
necessary.
Emotional
There is emotional and physical unrest experienced during the first few weeks of pregnancy.
Most women even experience feelings of rejection of the pregnancy at this time. It is at this time
that the expectant mother may be subjected to maximum pressure to agree to an abortion.
Each individual is different. For some, abortion provides great relief with little or no disturbance.
For the others, the experience is upsetting. The key factor seems to be whether the woman wants
an abortion or whether she is hesitant. Being refused an abortion and forced to bear an unwanted
child can lead to psychiatric symptoms. But the woman who has health problems and has to have
an abortion or who is persuaded to have an abortion against her better judgement is also more
likely to show negative psychological reactions following the operation.
The common psychological reactions can be minimised if the decision is solely that of the
women. Therefore, ‘abortion counselling’ can assist her in making the best decision she can live
with and working her feelings ahead of time.
Social
Legalised abortion saves lives by reducing the number of illegal attempts.
Antiabortionists emphasise their fears that without any restriction, except the individual woman
and her conscience, an ‘Abortion Mentality’ develops so that abortion becomes too common and
are performed too easily or for reasons that are not serious: For example, teenage pregnancy has
become a common occurrence among college students in cities with a free access to abortion
facilities.
Even unplanned pregnancies in normal families, for want of spacing between children, especially
among the career women, are also some of the common groups taking up abortions.
Thus, the majority of abortions today are not for medical reason, but for personal, social and
economic reasons that have to do with woman’s life situations and not with her health.
Moral
Much of the controversy about abortion has centered around the moral issues involved. In
ordinary justice, the child has as much claim as the mother to life and should have even more
claim to legal protection of its right, since it is incapable of defending itself.
Rights of the Unborn Child
The UN declaration on the Rights of the Child maintains that “the Child by reason of his
physical and mental immaturity, needs special safeguards and care including appropriate legal
protection before as well as after birth”.
Members of the Right of Life Movement (USA) and others emphasise the rights of the unborn
child. They emphasise the ‘right to life’ of the foetus and point out that no individual or state
should deprive the foetus of its constitutional and moral right to live.
The anti abortionists claim that science has proven beyond any reasonable doubt that human life
begins at fertilisation. The foetus from the beginning has its own life, is a totally new human
being, a new person, with a genetic code quite distinct from the genetic code of its parents. The
only life generated by human beings is human life. That new life is completely there at
fertilisation, lacking only development and growth. Abortion always takes away an innocent
already existing life.
Human life is the highest form of life on earth. The next generation depends on the existing
society for its survival.
On the other hand, the pro-abortion lobby emphasises that the moral and legal rights of other
parties must also be considered, not just those of the foetus. What about the rights of the mother,
father, other family members? Should these lives be sacrificed for the sake of the child? Is it
right to let the foetus live but to let the mother die so that her husband and other children are
deprived of her love? The constitution guarantees equal protection under the law. Is it moral to
force a woman to bear a baby she doesn’t want, can’t care for, or that might be deformed? Is it
moral to insist that an unwanted child be born into the world and then to suffer all of its life
because it was never wanted. Who has the right to decide?
It is obvious for you to know that the moral dilemmas raised by the abortion issue are not easy to
solve.
1) What are the five conditions prescribed in the MTP Act, 1971, for the
termination of pregnancy?
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2) What are the rights of the unborn child?
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4.7 RELIGIOUS VIEWS
The entire gamut of laws related to life is of various types -- divine law, natural law, secular or
civil law, religious law and the like. The most important law related to life is the Divine Law or
the Law of God. God is the giver and the author of life. No human being on earth has the
authority to destroy life. Abortion is equal to murder of the human being, a person created in the
image and likeness of God and therefore a grave sin against God.
The ethical views of different religions have always condemned the violation of natural law, the
laws of the creator. Keeping this in view, let us examine the teachings of at least three major
religions on human life and related issues, specifically on abortion which has posed the most
serious ethical problems to the modern world.
i) The Hindu View
According to Hindu religion, a woman who undergoes an abortion in this life, becomes barren in
her subsequent lives. Hindu scriptures condemn abortion and consider it as murder. According to
Hindu Vedas, abortion is considered to be a more serious sin than killing of a Brahmin.
According to Shastras, life begins after the fourth month in the womb, when a ceremony is
performed, blessing the foetus which is already living. Though Hindu ethics condemn abortion
generally, it accepts abortion on the grounds of rape, incest, and when the mother runs the risk of
grave injury or death. But still some of the Hindu religious leaders oppose such abortion on the
ground that it is an act of interference with the Karmic development of the child.
ii) The Islamic View
The Holy Quaran warns men not to interfere with the work of God. It is one of the basic
teachings of Islam that life is a gift of God and as such, no man has any right to commit any kind
of act that is detrimental to, and extinguishing life. It is on this faith that Muslims generally
oppose abortion, as it is felt that it amounts to extinguishing of life. The laws of Islam under
certain circumstances prohibit abortion when the foetus is animated and considered a living
being. As per the doctors of the law, the foetus is only a human being after the fourth month.
Abortion is allowed in general during the first ninety days of pregnancy, and it is prohibited
immediately afterwards. However, like Hindu ethics, Islamic ethics also permit abortion on the
basis of pregnancy which endangers the mother’s life and where it is the result of a rape that does
not result in marriage.
iii) Christian Proposition
The Christian church in the first centuries after Christ, forbade abortion under all conditions from
the moment of conception and abortion at any time is considered a grave sin.
Direct abortion of a foetus before viability is never lawful because this is to kill an innocent
human being, who has a right to live.
Every human being, even a child in its mother’s womb has a right to life directly from God, and
not from parents or from any human society or authority. Hence there is no human authority, no
medical eugenics, social, economic or moral indication that can offer or produce a judicial title to
the deliberate disposal of an innocent human life.
There is an argument that the soul does not exist until the foetus really resembles a human being
‘in form’. But when the male sperm unites with the ovum fertilising it (conception), from that
very minute the embryo contains all the characteristics which will make it a unique person.
Hence the Christians believe that the soul enters at the moment of conception and so whatever be
the stage of growth, the new life is human.
View in Favour of and against Abortion
We have so far discussed the issues associated with the legal termination of pregnancy. The
views of the two groups: pro abortionists and anti abortionists are strong in their own ways and
the debate seems to be unresolvable. It is likely to persist for sometime generating high
sentiments on both sides. We will furnish here very briefly the views favouring legal abortion-
-- Women should have the right to control their own bodies.
-- No child should be brought into the world unwanted.
-- Legal abortion should be conducted in authorised medical settings in which considerable

care is taken to avoid harming the mother physically or psychologically.
-- Women must have the option of a safe, legal abortion if they desire.
Views against Legal Abortion
-- Foetus is a living being and therefore its right to life must be respected– no one has the
moral right to take that life.
-- Persons other than the mother have rights as far as the unborn child is concerned – child
itself and the father.
-- Because the foetus is unable to defend itself, opponents of abortion believe that others are
obligated to defend the foetus against the efforts of those who want to “kill it”.
The most important opposition to abortion is from organised religious groups who address
abortion issue as that of questioning the ultimate authority of God, the Almighty.
Viable Alternatives to Unplanned Pregnancies
1)Family Life Education should help the couples for a planned parenthood.
2)Make people realise the value of human life to protect it by instilling in them the love of
God.
3)Girls in moral danger should be protected.
4)Effective use of contraceptives should be promoted.
5)Teenagers should be helped to imbibe the spiritual values in them and be aware of the
consequences of ending countless innocent human lives through premarital sexual
experiences.
1)What are your reasons for favouring Medical Termination of Pregnancy?
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1) What are your suggestions to prevent unwanted pregnancy?
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4.8 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, first we introduced you to the human reproductive system and the process of
conception, so as to understand the beginnings of human life. Next we dealt with various types
and methods of procuring abortion.
Many countries including India liberalised the practice of abortion by legalising it. In this unit we
have dealt with in detail the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971. We then proceeded to
analyse the various issues associated with abortion – Physical, Emotional, Social, Moral and
Religious.
We have also attempted to summarise the supporting and opposing views on abortion.
Finally, we examined some alternative suggestions to prevent the termination of pregnancy.

Mascarenhas, Maric Mignon (1997), A Teenager’s Guide for Counselling Youth, I.J.A.
Publications, Bangalore.
The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 and the Medical Termination of Pregnancy
Regulations, 1975-Government of India.
The Abortion Law in India – A Blot on its Ethos -- The Voice of Delhi, July, 1999.
Abortion: In the Eyes of other Religions: The Voice of Delhi, May, 1999.
Mishra U.S., Mala Ramanathan and Irudaya Rajan, August 1997: Induced Abortion Potential
among Indian Women – Working Paper No. 279, Centre for Development Studies,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

1) The term viability of the foetus means that it is able to live and grow outside the mother.
A foetus is usually viable from the Twentieth week of pregnancy. But the foetus can
become viable earlier if there are facilities for it to live and grow outside.
2) Abortion means taking away a human life which would in the normal course of events be
born. There are different types of abortion:
1) Spontaneous Abortion
2) Indirect Abortion
3) Artificial or Induced Abortion

1) There are many ways of aborting an unwanted foetus depending upon the length of
pregnancy.
In the first trimester (3 months) of pregnancy abortion can be done by:
i) Medical- Oral pills
ii) Surgical
iii) Menstrual Regulation using MR syringe
iv) Suction
v) Tent Evacuation with Laminaria Tent
vi) Dilation & Curette (D & C)
In the second trimester (3-6 months) of pregnancy abortion can be done by:
i) Intra Uterine Saline Instillation and
ii) Hysterectomy
2) Illegal abortions lead to complications such as perforation of uterus, haemorrhage,

gynaecological infections and sepsis leading to maternal deaths.
1) The five conditions under which a pregnancy can be terminated under the MTP Act, 1971
are:
a) Medical – where continuation of the pregnancy might endanger the mother’s life or cause
grave injury to her physical or mental health.
b) Eugenic – where there is substantial risk of the child being born with serious handicaps
due to physical or mental abnormalities.
c) Humanitarian – where pregnancy is the result of rape.
d) Socio-economic-- where actual or reasonably foreseeable environments (whether social

or economic) could lead to risk of injury to the health of the mother.
e) Failure of contraceptive devices – the anguish caused by an unwanted pregnancy resulting

from a failure of any contraceptive device or method can be presumed to constitute a
grave mental injury to the mental health of the mother. This condition is a unique feature
of the Indian Law virtually allows abortion on request, in view of the difficulty of
providing that a pregnancy was not caused by failure of contraception.
2) Right to life means the rights of the unborn child. The right of the foetus to life means that
no individual or state should deprive he foetus of its constitutional and moral rights to live.
Right to Life Movement and UN Declaration of the Rights of the Child support this view.
1) Reasons for favouring Medical Termination of Pregnancy are:
a) Prevent the birth of unwanted children
b) Abortion in hygienic medical settings
c) Provision of legal abortion should be made available for the women to have the
options of a safe and legal abortion.
2) Suggestions to prevent unwanted pregnancy are:
a) Appropriate population education should be given for effective use of

contraceptives and for a planned parenthood.
b) Teenagers should be oriented towards healthy sexual behaviour to prevent

pregnancies in this age group.
c) Make the public realise the value of human life as a reflection of respect for God,
the creator.
BSW-126
Block
4
MAJOR PROBLEMS IN MARITAL LIFE
UNIT 1
Psycho-Social Effects of Divorce, Separation and Migration
UNIT 2
Dowry Demands and Dowry Deaths
UNIT 3
Legal Issues Involved in Marriage
UNIT 4
Domestic Violence: Its Causes and Impact
Prof. P.K. Gandhi Dr. Ranjana Sehgal Prof.
Jamia Millia Islamia Indore School of Social K.K.Mukhopadhyay
New Delhi Work, Indore University of Delhi
New Delhi
Work, Hyderabad

New Delhi Guwahati

Varanasi Delhi
Prof. Gracious Thomas Prof. A.B. Bose (Retd.) Prof. Prabha Chawla

IIPA, New Delhi

Department of Social Work, Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar School of Social Work,
University of Delhi College, IGNOU
University of Delhi

Department of Social Work, School of Social Work, School of Social Work,
Jamia Millia Islamia IGNOU IGNOU

Unit Writers
1. Ms. Jayanti Mohapatra, NOS, New Delhi
2. Shri George K. Jose, New Delhi

Prof. Thomas Kalam Dr. Gulab Jha, Prof. Gracious Thomas
St. John National Academy of New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
Unit Writers
1. Ms. Jayanti Mohapatra, NOS, New Delhi
4. Dr. Grace Donnemching, IGNOU, New Delhi
Course & Block Editor Programme & Course

Dr. Sayantani Guin, Coordinator
School of Social Work, IGNOU Dr. Sayantani Guin,
School of Social Work,
IGNOU
PRINT PRODUCTION
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
Welcome to Block 4 of the course on Social Work in Family Setting. This block deals with ‘Major
Problems in Marital Life.’ There are four units in this block. The first unit is on ‘Psycho-Social
Effects of Divorce, Separation and Migration’. In this unit, the meaning of divorce, causes of
divorce, and the effects of divorce have been described in simple language. Apart from this, we
have also described the meaning and causes of migration and separation and its impact on the
members of the family. The second unit is on ‘Dowry Demands and Dowry Deaths’. Under this
unit, we have explained the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 and the legislative efforts to curtail dowry
in the country. There is also a brief discussion on dowry deaths and the legal provisions to deal with
such issues. The third unit of this Block is on ‘Legal Issues Involved in Marriage’. The issues
described in this unit include the Christian marriage law, Muslim Marriage and Divorce Act,
Special Marriage Act, 1954 and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. Unit four is on ‘Domestic
Violence: Its Causes and Impact’. This unit describes the theories on domestic violence, impact of
domestic violence and the steps involved to reduce domestic violence.
All the four units of this block are very important, as they deal with special issues, which have a
bearing on families across the country. The information provided in this block will be highly useful
to people, who are involved in family counselling and social work.
UNIT 1 PSYCHO-SOCIAL EFFECTS OF DIVORCE, SEPARATION
AND MIGRATION
*
Ms. Jayanti Mahapatra
Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of the Term ‘Divorce’
1.3 Causes of Divorce
1.4 Divorce and Its Effects
1.5 Meaning and Causes of Migration and Separation
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Key Words
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to familiarise you with the various psychological and social effects of
divorce, separation and bereavement. This unit will acquaint you with the causes, which are
aggravating the practice of divorce and you will get to know about the consequences of divorce,
separation and bereavement. This unit will also highlight some aspects which will, hopefully, help
to reduce the rate of divorce.

 explain the term ‘divorce’ and the various forms of divorce;
 state the psycho-social consequences of divorce on partner, children and family;
 state various psychological and behavioural changes due to divorce;
 explain bereavement, separation, and migration; and
 state the consequences of separation, migration and bereavement.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The present society is characterised, among other things, by the declining importance of all primary
groups including the family. The family acts simultaneously as an educative unit and a socio-
cultural agency. The sex and hunger urges, economic compulsions and the cultural traditions have
provided the theoretical justification for the existence of the family. The famous philosopher,
*
Ms. Jayanti Mahapatra, NOS, New Delhi
Confucius, thought that happiness and prosperity would prevail if everyone would behave
‘correctly’ as a family member. You must have read about the importance of family as a unit in
Block 1 of this course. A family does not consist simply of a number of individuals. Rather, it
includes the complex interactions taking place among them.
The traditional image of ‘home’ and family as a cozy nest of love, security, togetherness and never
ending happiness has been severely battered in recent times. This is also proved by an abundance of
statistical evidence based on empirical studies that family discord and divorce is continuously on the
rise. Undergoing the process of divorce and the consequences of divorce is a mentally as well as
economically shattering experience for the partners. The after- effects of divorce, especially for the
children, have a damaging effect when the issue of taking the custody arises. The practice of
awarding custody primarily to one parent is bad for everyone involved the child, father and the
mother.
Studies have proved that the emotional experience for the children leads them towards deviant
behaviour, which may lead even to crime. In a study by Kirkpatrick in 1951, it was found that
parental divorce showed greater influence than bereavement on the marital adjustment of grown
up offspring. This study shows that the children face long term effect on their life because of
parental discord and dissolution of the marriage.
1.2 MEANING OF THE TERM ‘DIVORCE’
Divorce is the socially and legally recognised dissolution of a marriage. Like marriage, it is
governed by a variety of cultural and legal regulations that show how difficult it is to
accomplish and the social and personal consequences it produces. Sometimes, the dissolution
is by stages, for example, in a sequence of avoidance, suit for separate maintenance, legal
separation, and finally an absolute divorce. A couple with high expectations of marital bliss,
but relatively little marital organisation, may seek divorce as an exit from marriage. The
demographic approach stresses the changing prevalence of divorce in various countries. In a
finding by M. Le Balance in 1997, it was found that youths were more violent than they were
thirty years ago and one reason for that was the breaking down of the family unit.
Sociologists have pointed out the similarities in the process of adjustment that are required by
divorce or bereavement. In both, a set of role relations has been found to be disrupted and
adjustments are required throughout the family network.
Each marriage relationship is unique in many ways. It is not always possible to find an
appropriate replacement for the missing partner. Apparently, in all societies, the death of spouse
creates an obligation for kinfolk and friends to help the bereaved person, to offer solace, to make
small or large gestures of support. In divorce, even when one spouse is very unhappy about the
divorce, only a few very close friends may feel any obligation to offer emotional solace.
Divorce in Various Cultures and Tribes

Obtaining divorce varies from culture to culture. Among Muslims, divorce is only the husband’s
privilege; and he can have it even without assigning a cause. Divorce can be obtained by merely
repeating three times the formula of repudiation (Talaq) in the presence of at least two witnesses.
A husband has to pay ‘meher’, which is a settlement, to the wife out of his property to
compensate her in the event of divorce. Under certain circumstances, Islamic law does give a
wife the permission of unilateral action.
Are you interested in knowing about the process of divorce among the tribes?
In the case of Khasis, a tribe from Meghalaya, divorce is permitted for reasons of adultery,
barrenness and incompatibility of temperament. The separation can take place only after mutual
consent. There is no possibility of remarriage between two such people who have separated by
divorce. The divorce is obtained in a public ceremony.
Among the Gonds (tribe), divorce can be obtained on grounds of marital infidelity, carelessness
in household work, barrenness and quarrelsome disposition. The initiative may be taken either by
a husband or wife.
The Kharias (tribe) allow divorce on grounds of marital infidelity, sterility, laziness, refusal of
the wife to live with her husband and theft.
Among the Hindus, divorce can be obtained with the help of law--the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
Among the Christians, there are two popularly known denominations, namely the Catholics, who
owe allegiance to the Pope and the Protestants. Catholics do not officially accept the possibility
of divorce, though they accept the possibility of declaring a marriage annulled. This means that
the marriage was right from the beginning null and void due to certain reasons like prior
impotence, serious deception, etc. Protestants are more lenient with regard to the question of
divorce and remarriage.
1) What is the meaning of divorce?
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1.3 CAUSES OF DIVORCE
After having read about divorce, let us try to find out the causes of divorce.
Some people are less tied to marriage than others. Family functions, religious taboos or life-long
commitment to parental roles may simply have less meaning for them. The door of divorce is more
open to certain couples than to others because of lenient laws, encouragement of relatives,
opportunities for remarriage and, in general the prospect of freedom without the economic, religious
and psychological penalties, which pose a threat for others. Let us analyse some of the major causes.
1) Modernisation
The disintegration of the family has been hastened by free sex relations made possible by changing
notions about morals and by birth control techniques. The religious sanctions behind family and
marriage are becoming diminished/have vanished, making dissolution easier.
In the past, the marriage ceremony used to be a family function, where the bond was between the
two families. With modernisation, the concept of couples going in for marriages by their own
choice is becoming increasingly prevalent. With this type of marriage, though parents ultimately
give their consent, the natural bond between the families do not always take place. This type of
selecting one’s own partner has its advantages and disadvantages with regard to the stability of
marriage.
2) Growing Acceptance of Change
Priorities have shifted even in a country like India where hidebound traditions exist. Where the
priority was the husband, it has now shifted to careers as far as the woman is concerned. Previously,
the gender roles were defined and it was easier to conform to a pattern. The inevitable liberation of
the woman, her economic independence and western influences have given marriage a new outlook,
especially among the educated urban dwellers.
3) High Personal Aspirations
In modern industrial society, people are more ambitious than the people of traditional societies.
At the cost of their family life, they pursue their career. Thus, family has taken a back seat. There
has been a tremendous growth in individualism (happiness of oneself) at the cost of the family.
4) Growth of the Nuclear Family
As a result of urbanisation and industrialisation, the nuclear family came into existence. In the
Indian perspective, the concept of family was always thought to be in terms of a joint family
system. In the joint families, children were given better attention. The attitude towards parents
was mostly of respect and regard and the younger looked towards their elders for guidance. All
the family members were consulted on all important family matters. The joint family did not allow
the neglect or disregard of elders. Individualism was not preferred and in this context, taking the
option of divorce was not a hurried and individualised one. The parents played the role of a
mediator between the husband and wife. The beginning of the dissolution of the joint family
system has brought about many larger issues and divorce is one of them.
5) Declining Values
There has been a noted decline in the value system among the people. You have already studied
about Moral, Ethical and Personal values in some of the previous blocks of this programme of
study.
6) Physical Separation
With more and more job opportunities abroad, people are giving up the village life and migrating
to big cities within and outside the country. It is well known that housing facilities is a big
problem in the big cities and people cannot afford to take their families along with them. To
satisfy their sexual urges, men tend to take the help of other services like visiting brothels, which
are easily available.

1) What are the reasons behind the growth of the nuclear family?
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1.4 DIVORCE AND ITS EFFECTS
Any change from the present situation to another situation creates disruptions in life. Divorce is a
devastating situation for both the partners. The partners, who got united because of a shared goal
or for proximity, when faced with the actual situation of divorce, take some time to adjust to the
new situation. While the divorce process is in progress, and for some time afterward, both parties
are likely to feel personally rejected, cheated in the economic arrangements, misrepresented
legally, bitter about the co-partner arrangements, lonely because they have lost a friend, and
afraid of living alone.
This disrupting process gives rise to many behavioural changes among the partners and those
who are also affected directly or indirectly by it. Let us analyse some of these effects one by one.
1) Stress
Stress can be defined as a bodily reaction that can occur in response to either internal, cognitive
stimuli or external environmental stimuli. A stimulus that causes stress is known as a stressor.
The stress, which is experienced, consists of bodily responses, increased heart rate and blood
pressure, dry mouth, rapid breathing and so forth. The stressors producing these responses are
our own internal reactions or comments of our friends and neighbours. Significant events, such
as marriage, death of a family member and divorce disrupt normal life and cause more stress.
These stressful life events may have negative effects on health. In a scale developed for ranking
the stressful life events, divorce acquires the second rank; it has been rated as a chronic stressor.
As stated earlier, stressful events lead the body to undergo several minor or major physiological
changes. These changes are very important to understand because they can lower the body’s
resistance to disease. The fact that many diseases are either caused by or made far worse by
stress, has been accepted by the medical practitioners as well. Even before the divorce is
legalised, the partners have to undergo many legalities, which are painful for them. All the more,
it is a human tendency that after the process has been initiated, there’s no turning back because it
hurts the ego of the partners. The process of divorce somehow makes the partners think about
their past in which they remember the happy times as well. It creates mental stress among the
partners, which is sometimes followed by physical stress.
2) Low Self-esteem and a Feeling of Failure
The divorce sometimes leaves a negative effect of reduced self-esteem on the partners. It can
affect one’s performance in day-to-day activities.
3) Rise in Aggressiveness or Anger
Many a times, the negative emotions may lead to mental imbalance of the people, which can
result in raised anger or aggression in the temperament.
4) Depression
Divorce has been rated as the second main cause of stress for the partners and their children. The
process tires a person mentally as well as physically, sometimes resulting in depression and
sense of regret.
5) Rise in Delinquency
It has been found through various studies that the major percentage of the delinquents and rise in
crime among the young people result from children coming from broken homes or a single
parent family.
Marriage is strongly institutionalised, not just in India but everywhere in the world and is a
preferred context for intimate relations. It is the cornerstone of family life. Marriage offers
stability, providing an atmosphere of love, encouragement, acceptance and trust. With the
practice of divorce, all of these lose their meaning as well as leave a negative impact on the
partners as well as the children. The close relatives of the partners also get affected by its
negative impact.
Effects of Divorce
We will discuss the effects of divorce under the three broad headings given below:
i) Effect on the children
ii) Effect on the partners
iii) Effect on the family
i) Effect on the Children
Children are the direct sufferers by the dissolution of the marriage. The incapability of the adults
to get along well affects the child negatively. Single parenting is a difficult situation for the child
in all the stages of his/her growth. In the infancy stage, the child misses the affection of both the
parents, as one of the parents is not present and one parent may not be able to substitute the
other. Children are distressed when their parents divorce. Children under the age of five may
react with rage and grief. The older children grasp the situation better, but sometimes tend to
blame themselves. The adolescents, who themselves are in a situation of identity crisis; feel
socially embarrassed by the breakup.
This deprivation of an affectionate relationship is most damaging in early childhood. Deprivation
can ruin the self-concept of the child in childhood. It can show its implication in late adulthood
too. Like a person who is hungry for food, a person starving for affection becomes irritable and
unreasonable. Sometimes, these emotional behaviours vary from mild irritability to severe
psychoses.
The specific effects of emotional deprivation have been reported to be:
Physical – The physical symptoms are restlessness, loss of appetite, quietness, general apathy
and psychosomatic illness.
Social – The social behaviour of the child gets affected, which results in handicaps in learning
how to get along with people, lack of responsiveness to the advances of others, lack of co-
operation and hostility towards others.
Emotional – The children of the divorced parents lack emotional responsiveness. They
sometimes develop deep rooted feelings of insecurity, anti-social behaviour, restlessness,
anxiety, temper tantrums and many other forms of maladaptive behaviours. Apart from these,
many delinquents are found to be children from broken homes.
ii) Effect on the Partners

As stated earlier, divorce causes a devastating experience for both the partners. The two persons,
who have been hitherto sharing a common goal, separate, which gives an emotional as well as
social shock to both of them. Emotional shock in terms of the sudden and abrupt change in the habit
of staying together, fulfilling the needs of each other, caring and the bond of love, which
suddenly comes as a shock. Though the capability of adjusting oneself to a particular situation
is a typical feature of the human species, divorce takes time and many a times, the vacuum
remains for a lifetime.
In Indian society, divorce is not welcomed whole heartedly by most people. The process of
divorce for a middle class family becomes socially intolerable. Among the lower socio-
economic strata of the Indian society, divorce is not very common. Usually, one does not face
the society’s disapproval even if one leaves his/her present partner and starts living with
another. Very often, they do not go for the legal process to obtain divorce.
For middle class people, informal sanction of the society becomes very important. Queries
about partner and children can be a source of mental tension for some time.
iii) Effect on the Family
Divorce is predominantly an urban phenomenon. Regarding marriage, Kirkpatrick says, “the

essence of the contract is consent with full expectation of exclusiveness and indissolubility”. In
other words, the idea of marriage as sacred made it dissoluble. Though divorce takes place
between the two partners, who united as a result of marriage, the family is also affected in the
process.
The growing rate of divorce and the breaking down of the family unit is posing as a societal
threat. Family, which is the basic unit of the society, is negatively affected by the quitting of the
partners from the marriage bond.
Children, an important part of the family, are the worst sufferers of divorce. Even the parents of
the divorced partners also face difficulty to cope up with the situation.
Other than the causes discussed above, some other factors like migration and subsequent
separation also lead to divorce. In the following subunits, we will examine these factors.
1) What are the behavioural changes, which take place in a person due to divorce?
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2) What are the specific effects of emotional deprivation?
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1.5 MEANING AND CAUSES OF MIGRATION AND SEPARATION
Migration
Migration is ordinarily defined as the relatively permanent movement of persons over a

significant distance from their place of residence – usually place of birth. With respect to
international migration, the United Nations has recommended stay for one year or more as
“permanent” migration, while a stay for a shorter period is classified as a visit. In most of the
supposed models of migration, it is presumed that movement is generated mainly by economic
forces, and job opportunities. In both national and international movements, adolescents and
young adults dominate. The young not only adapt easily to a new environment, but can more
readily take advantage of new opportunities. Due to migration, there has been a significant
increase in the urban population over the years. In recent decades, the urban population has
grown at an accelerating rate.
Urbanisation has been a contributing factor to divorce. There are various causes for which
migration and separation take place. Let us see the causes of separation and then we will analyse
the consequences:
Causes of Separation
i) Economic Factors
India has been a country of villages. Where there are no other means of improving one’s
economic condition other than the traditional ways and means of livelihood, one may opt for
migration. People find more options for the betterment of one’s economic conditions in the
cities.
ii) Opportunities
More and more young people are migrating to urban places where they can utilise their potential
and earn more. Job opportunities and choice of a job of one’s interest are more readily available
in urban areas.
iii) Modernisation
Most of the people residing in the villages are bound by the family traditions and customs. In
order to adapt to changed outlook and break away from customs and traditions, some people
migrate.
iv) Job Transfers
Job transfers are also a major cause of migration or separation, especially for employed people.
In most cases, when job transfers in government services and allied sectors like the banking
sector take place, the employees have to leave behind the spouse and children and occasionally
visit them. The family life gets disturbed and transfers also affect children’s education.
Difference between Separation and Bereavement
Death of a spouse or bereavement is surrounded by rituals, ceremonies and obligations in part

because death has always been viewed as an unwilled intrusion, an unwanted tragedy. Unlike
divorce, bereavement does not create hostility towards the former spouse.
Bereavement is a natural phenomenon, whereas separation from one’s spouse is intentional and
has specific implications. Separation can take place due to many factors.
a) Job Transfers
Separation due to transfer happens in most of the cases. Government as well as private sector
jobs are transferable. It is not always possible to take the family along while on transfer. For
example, in the armed forces, the individuals are transferred to non-family stations, which keep
the person away from his/her family.
b) Procedure before Divorce
It is a legal procedure that a couple has to remain separated for a particular period of time before
actually obtaining divorce. This is known as intentional separation. During this period, efforts
can also be made to re- unite the couple.
c) Mental Incompatibility
With growing urbanisation and changes taking place in societies, lots of changes have occurred
in lifestyles, expectations and aspirations, which lead to separation. This changing attitude in
one’s life has a negative effect on the lifestyle of people, especially in countries being affected
by globalisation.
d) Job Opportunities
With growing population, availing jobs within one’s locality has become difficult due to which
more and more people are migrating to different places within and outside the country. These
people leave their family behind and stay alone. Some in-service personnel may go on study
leave to a faraway place for a year or so.
Consequences of Separation and Bereavement
Separating from anything, which is close to our heart is painful and, many a time, can be very
frustrating. Separation and bereavement have many consequences, which harm a person
emotionally, socially and economically. Let us study some of these consequences one by one:
1) It causes frustration among the partners, as absence of the other partner causes
disturbances in the normal routine and also increases work load. It will also affect
children’s study. If one falls sick, the trauma can be worse.
2) There is loss of mental support which the other partner used to provide, thus causing
stress.
3) Bereavement or loss of one spouse is ranked as the topmost factor causing stress.
4) Feelings of failure and loss of identity develop among the partners in case of
bereavement.
5) It has been observed that children of the separated or divorced parents are more prone to
be intolerant and hence violent, thus getting involved in crime.
6) Depression in one or both spouses as well as the other family members.
7) Social unacceptance to some extent.
8) Economic troubles.
9) Extramarital relations, which can lead to acquiring emerging and re- emerging diseases.
1) List some of the consequences of separation and bereavement.
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1.6 LET US SUM UP
In the first part of this unit, you have studied how the family unit is facing a threat in the present
day society. The traditional image of home and family has been seriously battered with a rise in
the rate of divorce. Divorce is the social and legal dissolution of marriage. The process of divorce
varies from culture to culture.
We also analysed the causes of divorce and how divorce affects the entire system, i.e., the
husband, wife and the family. The various behavioural changes, which take place as a result of
divorce like stress, low self-esteem, depression, rise in the crime rate among the children, have
also been described.
Another contributing factor for divorce can be migration and separation. The latter part of the unit
dealt with the meaning and factors of migration and separation. Towards the end of the unit, the
consequences of separation and bereavement were listed out.
1.7 KEY WORDS
Bereavement : Deprivation of a relation or a friend, etc., by death.
Catholic : Among the Christians, Catholics are those who owe allegiance to
the Pope.
Ceremony : A formal religious or public occasion, especially celebrating a

particular event or anniversary.

Ahuja, Ram (1993), Indian Social System, Rawat Publications, Jaipur and New Delhi.
Broom, et. al, Leonard (1981), A Text with Adapted Readings, Harper and Row Publishers
Inc., New York.
Singh, Man Das and Panos D. Bardis (1978), The Family in Asia, Vikas Publishing House
Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
1) Divorce is the socially and legally recognised dissolution of a marriage. The partners call
it an exit from the marriage with mutual understanding.
1) Urbanisation and industrialisation is drawing more and more people towards the cities
and causing disintegration of the family unit. Modernisation and growth of individualism
are also the reasons for the disintegration of the joint family system, leading to the growth
of the nuclear family.
2) Physical separation is a cause of divorce because when people leave their spouses behind,
they face difficulty in getting adjusted to the changed situation. The human basic urges
like sexual urges can lead them towards seeking other means of satisfying their urges
with new partners. The easy means of satisfying one’s urges and being away from the
traditional atmosphere become causes for seeking divorce.
1) The behaviourial changes that take place are stress, low self-esteem and a feeling of
failure, rise in aggressiveness and anger, depression, rise in delinquency, etc.
2) The effects of emotional deprivation have been reported to be restlessness, loss of

appetite, quietness, general apathy, and psychosomatic illness, handicaps in learning how
to get along with people, lack of responsiveness to the advances of others, lack of
cooperation and hostility towards others.
i) It causes frustration among the partners, as absence of the other partner causes
disturbances in the normal routine and also increases work load. It will also affect
children’s study. If one falls sick, the trauma can be worse.
ii) There is loss of mental support which the other partner used to provide, thus causing
stress.
iii) Bereavement or loss of one spouse is ranked as the topmost factor causing stress.
iv) Feelings of failure and loss of identity develop among the partners in case of
bereavement.
v) It has been observed that the children of the separated or divorced parents are more prone
to be intolerant and hence violent, this getting involved in crime.
vi) Depression in one or both spouses as well as other family members.
vii) Social unacceptance to some extent.
viii) Economic troubles.
ix) Extramarital relations, which can lead to acquiring emerging and re- emerging diseases.
UNIT 2 DOWRY DEMANDS AND DOWRY DEATHS
Shri George K. Jose
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Dowry Prohibition Act,1961
2.3 Legislative Efforts to Curtail Dowry
2.4 Dowry Deaths
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Key Words
2.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will help you to understand what dowry and dowry death mean, the important legal
provisions of the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, certain legislative efforts to strengthen the laws
meant to eliminate dowry, and the amendments made in the Indian Penal Code, the Indian
Evidence Act and Criminal Procedure Code. At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 describe the various important provisions in Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961;

 describe the important changes brought into the Indian Penal Code, Indian Evidence Act,
etc., to deal with the menace of dowry and dowry deaths;
 understand the significance of Sections 498-A and 304-B of the IPC and Section 113-A
& B of the Evidence Act and how the Courts have been using the same to control the evil
of dowry; and
 understand a dowry related cruelty or a dowry death in your neighbourhood and what
advice can be given by you to the affected parties.
2.1 INTRODUCTION

Shri George K. Jose, New Delhi
Dowry is a deep-rooted evil in society. In the olden days, it was customary to give presents to the
bridegroom and his family at the time of the marriage. This used to be a provision for the couple
to fall back upon in case of need. This system started at a time when girls were generally not
educated or employed and had less opportunities to supplement family income. There was also
another reason for giving such customary gifts. As girls were not entitled to the share in the
family property, the father, out of affection and other considerations, used to give some cash or
kind to the daughter at the time of marriage. Unfortunately, slowly a new practice of demanding
such gifts by the boy or his family evolved as a matter of right. The Dowry Prohibition Act,
1961, was an effort by the government to curb this custom, but the evil has increased to alarming
proportions. After the dismal performance of the Dowry Prohibition Act, the Government made
certain amendments in the Indian Penal Code and Indian Evidence Act to bring the guilty to
book. This unit will be looking at the important provisions of the Dowry Prohibition Act, the
relevant sections of the Indian Penal Code and the Evidence Act, giving you the exact provisions
as given in the statute books as well as examples on how the courts have dealt with dowry related
cruelty and suicides/deaths.
2.2 DOWRY PROHIBITION ACT, 1961
The object of this Act is to prohibit the evil practice of giving and taking dowry. Since the
problem is basically a social one, the government has tried to tackle it by conferring improved
property rights upon women through Hindu Succession Act, 1956. However, need for a law was
felt to make the practice punishable and, at the same time, ensure that if any dowry is given, then
its benefit goes to the women. This Act also aimed at educating the public and eradicating the
evil of dowry system.
What is Dowry?
Section 2 of the Dowry Prohibition Act (Act for short) defines dowry to mean any property or
valuable security given or agreed to be given either directly or indirectly by one party to the
marriage to the other party to the marriage or by the parents of either party or by any other
person to either party to the marriage or to any other person at or before or any time after the
marriage in connection with the marriage of the parties. But this does not include dower or mahr
in case of Muslims.
It is either cash or jewelry or valuables, given at the time or before or after the marriage to one of
the parties to the marriage, generally to the bride, by the parents or relations of the bride, in
connection with the marriage.
Penalty for giving or taking dowry
1) If any person, after the commencement of this Act, gives or takes or abets the giving or
taking of dowry, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term, which shall not be
less than five years, and with fine, which shall not be less than 15,000/- or the amount of
the value of such dowry, whichever is more.
2) However, nothing shall apply to, or in relation to:
a) Presents, which are given at the time of a marriage to the bride, provided that such
presents are entered in a list maintained in accordance with the rules made under
the Act.
b) Presents, which are given at the time of a marriage to the bridegroom, provided
that such presents are entered in a list maintained in accordance with the rules
made under this Act.
Dowry and Central Government Staff
The Central Government staff has been barred from giving or accepting dowry. The following rule
prohibiting the taking or giving of dowry was incorporated in February, 1976, in the Central Civil
Services (Conduct Rules, 1964, w.e.f. 13.2.1976).
No government servant shall give or take, or abet the giving or taking of dowry or demand,
directly or indirectly, from parents or guardians of a bride, any dowry.
Any violation of the provisions of this rule will be good and sufficient cause for taking
disciplinary action against government servants.
Penalty for Demanding Dowry
If any person demands, directly or indirectly, from the parents or other relatives or guardian of a
bride, as the case may be, any dowry, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term,
which shall not be less than six months, but which may extend to two years and with fine, which
may extend to ten thousand rupees.
Ban on Advertisement
If any person offers, through any advertisement in any newspaper, periodical, journal or through
any other media, any share in his property or of any money or both or a share in any business or
other interest as consideration for the marriage of his son or daughter or any other relative, he
shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term, which shall not be less than six months, but
which may extend to five years, or with fine, which may extend to fifteen thousand rupees.
Section 5 of the Act declares any agreement for the giving or taking of dowry to be void.
The Beneficiaries of the Dowry
Section 6 states that dowry is given for the benefit of the wife or her heirs. Where any dowry is
received by any person other than the woman in connection with whose marriage it is given, that
person shall transfer it to the woman:
a) if the dowry was received before the marriage, within three months after the date of the
marriage; or
b) if the dowry was received at the time of or after the marriage, within three months after the
date of its receipt; or
c) if the dowry was received when the woman was a minor, it must be given to her within
three months after she becomes eighteen years old, and pending such transfer, shall hold it
in trust for the benefit of the woman.
Punishment
1) If any person fails to transfer any property as required by sub-section (1) within the time
limit specified therefore or as required by sub-section (3), he shall be punished with
imprisonment for a term, which shall not be less than six months, but which may extend to
two years or with fine, which shall not be less than five thousand rupees, but which may
extent to ten thousand rupees or with both.
In case of death
When the woman is entitled to dowry property:
1) When she dies before receiving it, the heirs of the woman shall be entitled to claim it from
the person holding it for the time being.
Provided that where such woman dies within seven years of her marriage, such property
shall-
a) if she has no children, be transferred to her parents, or

b) if she has children, be transferred to such children and pending such transfer, be held in
trust for such children.
Right of Court
Section 7 of the DP Act provides as to who shall take cognisance of the offences
1) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973:
a) no court inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate of the First

class shall try any offence under this Act;
b) no court shall take cognisance of an offence under this Act except upon--
i) it’s own knowledge or a police report of the facts, which constitute such offence,
or
ii) a complaint by the person aggrieved by the offence or a parent or other relative of
such person, or by any recognised welfare institution or organisation.
c) it shall be for a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate of the First class to pass
any sentence authorised by this Act on any person convicted for any offence under this
Act.
The Act also provides for the appointment of Dowry Prohibition officers, lays down their
jurisdiction and their duties and the power of the Central Government to make rules for the purpose
of carrying out this Act.
Most of the States have made their own amendments to this Central Act to effectively face the
local situation. All of them have made the provisions more stringent. However, the incidents of
harassment, torture, abetted suicide and dowry deaths continue unabated. Lack of education and
economic dependence of women have encouraged the greedy perpetrators of the dowry crime.
The Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 has been amended from time to time, but this piece of social
legislation does not appear to have served much of the purpose, as dowry seekers are hardly
brought to book and the convictions are rather few.

1) Describe what is dowry.
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2) What is the penalty for demanding dowry?
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2.3 LEGISLATIVE EFFORTS TO CURTAIL DOWRY
The abject failure of the Dowry Prohibition Act to eradicate or even to curtail the evil prompted
our legislature to enact The Criminal Law (Second Amendment) Act, 1983. In order to deal
effectively not only with cases of dowry death, but also with cases of cruelty to married
women by their in-laws, amendments were made in the Indian Penal Code, the Code of
Criminal Procedure and the Indian Evidence Act.
Section 498-A IPC
Put in a simple language Section 498-A of IPC means:
Cruelty to a woman by her husband or any relative of the husband is punishable (a) with
imprisonment for a term, which may be extended to three years and also (b) with fine.
Cruelty means:
1) willful conduct of such nature by the husband or any relative of the husband that is
likely to drive the woman to commit suicide, or cause serious physical or mental,
moral injury to her, and
2) harassment of a woman by her husband or any relative of her husband, with view to
coercing her or any of her relatives to meet any unlawful demand for property.
The offence is cognisable if information relating to the commission of the offence is given:
a) to the officer in charge of a police station
b) by the victim of the offence
c) or a relative of the victim of the offence
d) or in the absence of any such relative, any public servant authorised in this behalf by the
state government.
A Court shall take cognisance of the offence upon---
a) a police report or
b) a complaint made by the victim of the offence,
c) or her relatives or any person related to her.
Section 113-A of the Evidence Act (Presumption As to Abetment of Suicide by a Married

Woman)
According to Section 113 – A of the Evidence Act:

1) if a woman commits suicide within a period of seven years from the date of her marriage,
and
2) it is shown that her husband or any relative of her husband had subjected her to cruelty.
In this case, the court may presume that such suicide had been abetted by her husband, or
such relative of her husband.
2.4 DOWRY DEATHS
In Indian society, woman has always been viewed as an ideal. She is the ultimate force in the
family and also the protector of culture, heritage and religion. But in reality, this image has been
shattered due to the unfortunate and disturbing phenomenon of incidents of bride burning that are
on the rise at an alarming rate.
In most of the cases, the harassment and killing of the bride can be traced to the abominable
practice of demanding and extracting dowry and the failure on the part of the bride’s parents to
adequately satisfy the greed of the husband’s family. Nothing can be more barbarous and more
heinous than this kind of murder.
Dowry killing is also a crime of its own kind. It becomes an immediate necessity for the husband
and his family members to make the groom available in the marriage market. Thus, inconvenient
brides have to be eliminated if they cannot feed the greed and avarice of their in-laws. In a
murder, there may be a motive or not. But in dowry deaths, it is inherent. The courts only have to
examine as to who translated it into action.
In a Delhi case (Laxman Kumar Vs State- Delhi Admn), the Hon’ble High Court pointed out that
“once economic independence comes to women, the evil of dowry will die a natural death.
Without education, the economic independence cannot be achieved. And therefore, education at
all levels of the society is a must. We hear of no wife burning cases in western countries,
obviously because women are economically independent”.
Bride burning is a shame on our society. Unfortunately, the price rise and ever- increasing cost of
living, coupled with enormous growth of consumer goods effecting the difference between
luxury and essential goods, lure the new generation to easy money, i.e., dowry. The brides are
unintended victims of the glorious march of consumerism. The husband and his family members
look towards the wife and her family to meet the market needs.
Nature of Death
A death can either be natural, accidental, suicidal or homicidal. It is for the court to conclude
whether the death was homicidal / suicidal on the basis of the facts on record.
Framing of Charges against Accused
It is the duty of the judge to consider judicially, whether on consideration of the materials on
record, it can be said that the accused has been reasonably connected with the offence alleged to
have been committed, and on the basis of the said materials, there is a reasonable probability or
chance of the accused being found guilty of the offence alleged. If the answer is in the
affirmative, the judge will be at liberty to presume that the accused has committed the offence.
The court is entitled to consider the evidence on record as to whether or not a prima facie case
against the accused has been made out. The court is not expected to frame the charge
mechanically, but has to exercise its judicial mind to the given facts of the case.
Discharge of an Accused
In cases of bride burning, it has become the normal practice to involve every member of the
family of the in-laws of the girl even if they are not in any way connected to the offence.
However, the court is not expected to be swayed by the sentiments of the complainant family and
try to rope in the innocent. It is the duty of the court to sift the evidence justifying the
involvement of the real culprits.
Sections 304-B, IPC & 113-B, Evidence Act
Section 304-B was inserted in the IPC by Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act, 1986 with effect
from November 19, 1986. It is a special provision inserted to deal with dowry deaths. Practically,
the presumption under Section 113-B of the Evidence Act has also been incorporated into
Section 304-B IPC.
Section 304-B of the IPC
Thus, if a woman dies within seven years of her marriage, and it is caused by any burns or bodily
injury or occurs otherwise than under normal circumstances, and it is shown that before her
death, she was subjected to cruelty or harassment by her husband, or any of his relatives for
securing any property or valuable security from her or her relatives, it would come under ‘dowry
death’, provided it is in connection with any demand for dowry. Such husband or relative would
be deemed to have caused her death.
Whether such person is directly responsible for the death of the deceased or not by virtue of
presumption, he is deemed to have committed the dowry death, if there was such cruelty or
harassment, and the unnatural death occurred within seven years of the marriage. If there is proof
of the person having intentionally caused her death, then it would attract Section 302 IPC, which
deals with murder.
Evidence of Dowry Death
Since the crimes of dowry deaths are generally committed in the privacy of residential homes
and in secrecy, independent and direct evidence is not easy to collect. This is the reason why the
Parliament introduced Sections 113-A (Presumption as to abetment of suicide by a married
woman) and 113-B (Presumption of dowry death) in the Evidence Act to strengthen the
prosecution by permitting presumption to be raised if certain basic facts are established and the
said death took place within seven years of the marriage.
The words “it is shown” in Section 304-B places the initial burden of providing the
circumstances envisaged by the section on the prosecution.
The term “soon before her death” does not necessarily mean “immediately before her death”.
The expression ‘deemed to’ has been used in the section with a view to create legal fiction.
The offence under Section 304-B is triable by the Court of Session. It a cognisable and non-
bailable offence.
To draw a presumption under 113-B of the Evidence Act, the necessary ingredient is to show
that soon before her death, she was subjected to cruelty or harassment in connection with the
demand for dowry. Only when these facts are proved, then, by virtue of the deeming provision of
Section 304-B, IPC, the court shall presume that the husband or any of his relatives had caused
the dowry death.
The expression “shall presume” in the Section 113-B indicates that it is mandatory and
obligatory for the court to draw the inference, and no option is left to the court, but to take for
granted and proceed on the supposition that the husband and other relatives have committed the
dowry death.
The court is bound to take the fact of dowry death as proved until very strong and positive
evidence is given in rebuttal by the accused.
1) Write a brief note on evidence of dowry death.
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2.5 LET US SUM UP
Marriage is a social event for families and friends to come together. However, it is now used to
show off the financial capacity of the families concerned. The money for this lavish show has to
come from the bride’s family. Huge sums are spent and money changes hands. This may be all
right when the parties are well placed and the wealth so exchanged is out of good will. But today,
dowry has become a curse and people from every stratum suffer from this plague.
The Dowry Prohibition Act was an effort by our legislature to put an end to this social evil, but it
did not succeed, as women were seen as economic liabilities. Parents of girls considered them to
be burden to be got off from their backs at any cost. The unnecessary expenses on the occasion
of marriages are considered as a prestige issue for the bride’s family. The groom’s family insists
on a lavish party and the number of persons to be invited keeps increasing. If any gifts are given
voluntarily to the bride or the groom, the same are welcome. However, as soon as there is an
element of compulsion, it becomes anti-social and illegal. The Dowry Prohibition Act provides
various punishments for demanding, giving or taking dowry. It clearly states who the
beneficiaries should be in case there is voluntary dowry given to the bride. This has been an
absolute failure as social sanctions did not accompany the provisions of law.
Dowry harassment, mental and physical cruelties, bride burnings and murder of the wife for the
simple reason that she is unable to bring more dowry so that the man can marry again for more
dowry, etc., has become a cruel joke of daily lives. Sections 498-A IPC, dealing with cruelty and
304-B dealing with dowry deaths, etc., are efforts by the legislature to bring an end to the curse.
However, the growing consumerist needs will only increase the dowry demands, as the groom’s
family sees the bride as a source of income to meet all their material luxuries.
Only education of girls and their economic independence can change this situation. It is also
important to see women as human beings worthy of dignity and respect. Our socio-religious
attitudes and the media play a big role in this regard. Marriage should be treated as a holy bond
or sacrament or an alliance of two persons for life. If one looks at it as a business deal aiming at
maximum profits, then the legislature or the police and the courts together cannot save the
society from the scourges of dowry curse. The change in social and personal attitudes will be the
real answer to the dowry problems, as we witness today.
2.6 KEY WORDS
Congnisable : To take notice and action.
The words “it is shown” in Section 304 –B places the initial burden of providing the
circumstances envisaged by the section on the prosecution.
The term “soon before her death” does not necessarily mean “immediately before her death.
The expression “deemed to” has been used in the Section with a view to create legal fiction.
Dayal R. (1995), Law relating to dowry, Premier Publishing Company, Allahabad.
Mayne John D., Mayne’s Hindu Law and Usage (Revised by Justice Alladi Kuppuswami, 13 ed
1993) Bharat Law House, New Delhi.
Purohit Nishi (1998), The Principles of Mohamadan Law (2nd ed), Orient Publishing Company,
Allahabad.
Dowry means any property or valuable security given or agreed to be given either
directly or indirectly by one party to the marriage to the other party to the marriage or by
the parents of either party or by any other person to either party to the marriage or to any
other person at or before or any time after the marriage in connection with the marriage
of the parties. But this does not include dower or mahr in case of Muslims.
It is either cash or jewelry or valuables, given at the time or before or after the marriage
to one of the parties to the marriage, generally to the bridegroom by the parents or
relatives of the bride, in connection with the marriage.
1) If any person demands, directly or indirectly, from the parents or other relatives or
guardian of a bride, as the case may be, any dowry, he shall be punishable with
imprisonment for a term, which shall not be less than six months, but which may extend
to two years and with fine, which may extend to ten thousand rupees.
1) Since the crimes of dowry deaths are generally committed in the privacy of residential
homes and in secrecy, independent and direct evidence is not easy to collect. This is the
reason why the Parliament introduced Sections 113-A (Presumption as to abetment of
suicide by a married woman) and 113-B (Presumption of dowry death) in the Evidence
Act to strengthen the prosecution by permitting presumption to be raised if certain basic
facts are established and the said death took place within seven years of the marriage.
To draw a presumption under 113-B of the Evidence Act, the necessary ingredient is to
show that soon before her death, she was subjected to cruelty or harassment in connection
with the demand for dowry. Only when these facts are proved, then, by virtue of the
deeming provision of Section 304-B, IPC, the court shall presume that the husband or any
of his relatives had caused the dowry death.
The expression “shall presume” in the Section 113-B indicates that it is mandatory and
obligatory for the court to draw the inference, and no option is left to the court, but to
take for granted and proceeds on the supposition that the husband and other relatives have
committed the dowry death.
The court is bound to take the fact of dowry death as proved until very strong and
positive evidence is given in rebuttal by the accused.
UNIT 3 LEGAL ISSUES INVOLVED IN MARRIAGE
Shri George K. Jose
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Christian Marriage Law
3.3 Muslim Marriage and Divorce Act
3.4 Special Marriage Act, 1954
3.5 Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Key Words
3.0 OBJECTIVES
Times are changing and what was sacred in earlier times, no more has the social sanction to
retain that position any longer. Marital relations break up faster today and it throws up various

Shri George K. Jose, New Delhi
issues that need to be settled in a definite manner. The widespread breakdown in marriage
relations make it necessary for us to know and understand the painful situations one may have to
face in married life and what are the remedies available to the parties in law. After studying this
unit, you will have a clear picture of certain problems that may crop up in marriage and how they
are taken care of by laws. The unit will help you to:
 understand the provisions in the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955;

 understand the provisions in the Christian Marriage Act, 1872;
 understand the provisions of Special Marriage Act,1954; and
 understand the issues regarding Muslim marriage, divorce and custody of children.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Marriage is treated as a sacred bond by our society since ancient times. Strict rules were laid
down about female morality, kinds of marriage, marriage ceremonies, monogamy as a rule,
marital duties, roles and duties of sons, etc., by the Hindu society. After India became
independent in 1947, various laws were enacted by our Parliament to amend and codify laws
relating to various groups within the country. The important ones amongst the said Acts are:
Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872

Muslim Dissolution of Marriage Act, 1937, etc.
The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
Special Marriage Act, 1954
Divorce Act, 1869 (Previously known as Indian Divorce Act)
Parsis Marriages and Divorce Act, 1936
Of these, the Hindu Marriage Act is definitely the most important in its reach, as it governs more
than 85 per cent of our population. It covers all people who are not Muslims, Christians, Parsis
and Jews. Issues that come up for consideration under this Act are: Restitution of Conjugal
Rights, Judicial Separation, Divorce, Maintenance, Custody of Children, etc.
3.2 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE LAW
The provisions of Christian personal law in regard to marriage are to be found in the Indian
Christian Marriage Act, 1872. The Act applies to all Christian marriages solemnised in India,
whatever be the nationality or domicile of the parties. Section 4 of the Act provides that every
marriage between persons “one or both of whom is or are Christian or Christians” shall be
solemnised in accordance with Section 5 of the Act. Otherwise, the marriage shall be void.
Persons Authorised to Solemnise Marriage

Marriages under the Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872 can (under Section 6) be solemnised –
a) by a person who has received Episcopal ordination,

b) by a clergyman of the Church of Scotland,
c) by a licensed Minister of religion,
d) by a Marriage Registrar appointed under the Act, or
e) by a person licensed under the Act to grant a certificate of marriage between Indian
Christians.
Forms of Marriage
A reading of several provisions of the Indian Christian Marriage Act will show that the Act
contemplates forms of marriage, which are purely religious or purely secular, as well as
marriages, which are of a mixed character.
Marriage Registrars
The State government appoints one or more Christians either by name or by office, to be
Marriage Registrar for any district under the Indian Christian Marriage Act.

1) Who can solemnise a Christian marriage?
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3.3 MUSLIM MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE ACT
In general, Muslim law is applied to every Muslim by the courts. A Muslim is one who believes
that there is only one God and that Muhammad is His Prophet.
Marriage: Concept and Ceremonies
In Muslim law, marriage or nikah is a civil contract, which has for its object the procreation of
children. Marriage, according to the Mahomedan Law, is not a sacrament by a civil contract. All
the rights and obligations it creates arise immediately and, are not dependent on any condition
precedent, such as payment of dower by a husband to a wife.
Ceremony
The essential ceremony of a Muslim marriage is a proposal from one side and its acceptance by
the other side (ijab wa Kabul), or declaration and acceptance. The proposal and acceptance must
be made at one and the same meeting. No particular form is prescribed for the proposal and the
acceptance. The proposal and acceptance can be made orally.
Religious Ceremonies
No religious ceremonies are required for the legal validity of a Muslim marriage, though it is a usual
practice to recite some verses from the Quran.
The presence of a priest is not essential for a Muslim marriage. A Muslim marriage is not
required to be registered.
Witnesses Necessary for Solemnising
According to the Hanafi school of Muslim law, witnesses are required. They must be two males,
or one male and two females. A marriage not solemnised in the presence of witnesses is
“irregular”, though not invalid. The irregularity is cured by consummation. According to the
other schools of Muslim law, the presence of witnesses is not essential.
Rules as to Polygamy and Polyandry
A Muslim male can have four wives. This is the legal position. However, there are religious
mandates that the husband should treat all his wives equitably and if that is not possible, he
should not have more than one wife. A Muslim female cannot have more than one husband.
Annulment of Marriage
Though there is no Muslim Matrimonial Causes Act as such in force in India, a spouse, who can
prove that a marriage is void by reason of some rule of Muslim law, can file a civil suit in the
competent civil court for a declaration to that effect. The right to get such relief is conferred by
the Specific Relief Act, 1963.
Judicial Separation
Muslim law does not provide for such a relief, and there being no statutory provision to that
effect applicable to Muslims, it is believed that a court cannot grant a decree of judicial
separation to a Muslim wife or husband.
Divorce
Muslim law as administered in India provides for:

a) extra-judicial divorce at the instance of the husband unilaterally and without requiring any
ground;
b) extra-judicial divorce at the initiative of the husband under the “constructive” category;
c) extra-judicial divorce by mutual consent as confirmed by statute – the Dissolution of
Muslim Marriages Act, 1939; and
d) judicial divorce at the instance of the wife, on grounds specified in statute – the
Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939.
Extra-judicial divorce at the husband’s instance – category (a) above – is popularly known as
Talaq and has received the widest notice. In several oriental countries, restrictions have been
placed on this right of the husband.
Formula for Pronouncing Talaq
Talaq is generally described as in approved form (Talak-i-sunna) or in unapproved form (Talak-

ul-bidaat). But the approved form of divorce itself has two sub-soecues – ahsan (simple) and
hasan (not so simple). The unapproved form also has many varieties. A Muslim wife cannot
divorce the husband by Talaq. The forms of divorce described in Muslim law as Khula and
Miebaraat provide for divorce by mutual consent. Conversion from (Islam) automatically results
in the dissolution of marriage in the case of the husband.
This position continues even today. As per the Muslim law, Talaq means that the marriage
comes to an end in case of the wife. But now, she has to sue for divorce under the Act of 1939
and must prove a ground laid down in that Act. The Muslim wife can sue the husband for
divorce in the competent court under the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act, 1939.
Custody of Children on Divorce
The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939, though provides for judicial divorce at the
instance of the wife, does not empower the court to pass orders regarding the custody of children
of the marriage. For getting such relief, the party interested in getting custody will have to move
the competent court separately by way of a petition under the Guardians and Wards Act.
Temporary Marriage
Shia law permits a male Muslim to contract a Muta marriage with a Muslim female, or with a
female who is a Kitabia or a fire-worshipper. A Shia woman may contract a Muta marriage with
a Muslim male only. The period of cohabitation should be fixed (a day, a month, a year, or a
term of years), and in some, dower should be specified. A Muta marriage creates no rights of
inheritance between the spouses. The children conceived during Muta marriage are legitimate
and can inherit from both parents.
3.4 SPECIAL MARRIAGE ACT, 1954
Special Marriage
A special marriage (popularly known as a civil marriage or a registered marriage) is a marriage

solemnised under the Special Marriage Act, 1954. The main object of the Act is to provide a
form of marriage, which is secular in character. Its ceremonies do not depend on the religion of
the parties. The entire law relating to the marriage can be gathered from the Act, and there is no
need to consult the religious law for deciding questions as to the validity of the marriage or the
availability or matrimonial relief. Marriage under the Act is:
a) secular;
b) statutory;
c) uniform throughout India; and
d) uniform for all persons who avail themselves of the Act, whatever be their race, religion
or caste.
A person marrying under the Special Marriage Act cannot have any other spouse, while the
marriage is subsisting. The marriage can be terminated only by a petition to the court filed on
one of the specified grounds. Remarriage after death of a spouse is, of course, permissible.
Persons belonging to different religions can marry under the Special Marriage Act. Persons
belonging to the same religion can also marry under the Special Marriage Act. Persons within
prohibited degrees of relationship cannot marry. Now such marriages are permitted by an
amendment made in 1976. The minimum age of marriage under the Special Marriage Act for
bridegroom is 21 years and for bride 18 years. Breach of this requirement renders a special
marriage null and void (apart from its being an offence under the Child Marriage Restraint Act).
Formalities
A special marriage is solemnised after 21 days’ notice is given, so that objections, if any, to the
proposed marriage may be considered by the Marriage Registrar. Thereafter, the marriage is
solemnised in the presence of witnesses by the Marriage Registrar, requiring both the parties to
sign the statutory declaration.
Registration
Registration of a special marriage is automatic at the time of its solemnisation, since a certificate
is issued on its solemnisation.
Annulment of Marriage
A special marriage may be annulled by the court on the grounds of impotency, insanity,
pregnancy of wife at the time of marriage, coercion or fraud.
Restitution of Conjugal Rights
The aggrieved party can file petition for a decree for restitution of conjugal rights. Such a decree
calls upon the other party to resume cohabitation. Non- resumption of cohabitation after such a
decree becomes a ground for divorce in itself if one year has elapsed since the decree.
Judicial Separation
A wife or husband, who does not want immediate dissolution of the marriage but desires to live
separately, can seek judicial separation through court, instead of seeking divorce. The grounds
for judicial separation under the Special Marriage Act are generally the same as the grounds of
divorce.
Grounds for Divorce
Under the Special Marriage Act, divorce can be obtained by one spouse through court on the
ground of the following types of conduct or circumstances of the other spouse:
1) adultery;
2) treating with cruelty;
3) desertion for at least two years;
4) incurable insanity or mental disorder (as defined in the section) being such that the
petitioner cannot be reasonably expected to live with the opposite party;
5) leprosy not contracted from the petitioner;
6) venereal disease in a communicable form;
7) opposite party not being heard of for seven years;
8) opposite party undergoing a sentence of imprisonment of seven years or more for an

offence under Indian Penal Code;
9) non-resumption of cohabitation after a decree of judicial separation, for at least one year;
10) non-compliance with a decree of restitution of conjugal rights, for at least one year;
11) husband being guilty of rape or unnatural sex after marriage;
12) husband failing to pay the wife maintenance ordered by a court.

Divorce by Mutual Consent
Divorce by mutual consent is available under the Special Marriage Act, 1954. The parties must
present a joint petition to the competent court and must have lived apart for at least one year. On
such a petition, the court does not grant divorce immediately. The court has to wait for the
specified period and the parties must then again apply to the court for the grant of divorce and, in
that matter, re-affirm their joint determination to end the marriage. On these formalities being
completed, the court can dissolve the marriage by a decree of divorce.
The court must be satisfied that consent to divorce has not been obtained by force, fraud or under
influence. The second motion must be made not less than six months and not more than 18
months after the initial petition.
Jurisdiction of Courts
A petition for matrimonial relief under the Special Marriage Act can be filed in the competent
court within whose jurisdiction the marriage was solemnised, or within whose jurisdiction the
spouses reside together. In addition, if the opposite party (respondent) is residing outside India or
has not been heard of for seven years, the petition can be filed in the competent court within
whose jurisdiction the petitioner resides.
Appeals
Against the decree passed by the competent court (granting divorce, judicial separation,
restitution of conjugal rights or nullity of marriage), an appeal can be filed before the High
Court.
Maintenance of Spouses
A court competent to grant matrimonial relief under the Act is empowered to award maintenance
(interim or permanent) in favour of the wife and against the husband for such sums as the court
thinks reasonable in the circumstances. Such an order can be passed by the court whether the
relief claimed is annulment of marriage, restitution of conjugal rights, judicial separation or
divorce.
Children
Under the Special Marriage Act, the court has jurisdiction to make suitable orders regarding the
custody, education and maintenance of children, and also orders as to who shall bear the
expenses of maintenance.
heck Your Progress II

1) Mention a few grounds for divorce according to Special Marriage Act, 1954.
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3.5 THE HINDU MARRIAGE ACT, 1955
The Hindu law of marriage is contained in the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, which is an Act of the
Parliament of India. The Act came into force on May 18, 1955.
The Hindu law does not allow polygamy or polyandry. After 1955, no Hindu male can have
more than one wife and no Hindu female can have more than one husband.
Other Acts governing Hindu way of life are the following:
1) The Hindu Succession Act, 1956

2) The Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956
3) The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956
There are other enactments in the States as well, apart from the above Acts and local customs.
Under this Act, the expression, “Hindu” includes any person who may not be Hindu, but may be
a Sikh, Jain and Buddhist. It leaves out the Muslims, Christians, Parsis and Jews from the Hindu
fold. Marriage under the Hindu Marriage Act (HMA) is both a sacrament and a contract and it
can be solemnised in accordance with customary rites and ceremonies of either party to the
marriage. Monogamy is the law and bigamy is punishable under the penal code. Prohibited
degrees of relationships are illustrated and marriages that are null and void are clarified. As the
marriage is sacred, the law enjoins the spouses to have the company of each other.
A Hindu and a non-Hindu cannot marry under the Hindu Marriage Act. But they can enter into
what is popularly known as a “civil marriage”. This is performed by the Marriage Registrar
appointed by the State Government under the Special Marriage Act, 1954.
The Hindu Marriage Act applies to Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs also. However, the Act itself
permits customs to operate regarding marriage ceremonies.
The bridegroom should have completed 21 years and the bride 18 years of age at the time of
marriage. However, violation of this condition does not invalidate the marriage, though the
persons infringing the law become punishable in a criminal court.
Parties are free to perform Sastric ceremonies or to follow any customary ceremony, which
prevails in the caste or community to which, one of the parties belongs. If the Sastric ceremonies
are followed, performance of saptapadi (taking seven steps) is essential and the marriage
becomes binding on taking the seventh step.
A Hindu marriage need not be registered except in those States where the State Government has
made it compulsory. Even in such States, non-registration does not invalidate the marriage,
though it may attract criminal penalties.
Restitution of Conjugal Rights
Section 9 of the Hindu Marriage Act deals with the situation when either the husband or the wife
withdraws from the company of the other without reasonable cause. As marriage is sacred, the
Hindu law enjoins on the spouses to have the company of each other. Section 32 of the Divorce
Act and Section 22 of the Special Marriage Act deal with the same situation. The term
“Restitution of Conjugal Rights” in the normal sense means restoration of conjugal rights, which
were enjoyed by the parties previously. Whether there was reasonable excuse to withdraw from
the society of the other is to be proved by the party who withdraws. This withdrawal involves a
mental process besides physical separation. Failure to render conjugal duties, refusal to stay
together or have marital intercourse with the other person would normally constitute the
withdrawal from the society of the other spouse.
What would be a reasonable excuse cannot be reduced to a formula. It would vary with times and
circumstances and it has to be decided in each individual case. The expression, “any other
justifying cause” used in Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956, and “just ground” used in
Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code, are relied upon in the interpretation of “reasonable
excuse”. Under the old Hindu law, the husband was the breadwinner and the wife used to look
after the household duties. The wife used to move to the husband’s family from the time of
marriage and the husband used to decide matrimonial home. But times have changed today and
now both the husband and the wife have to earn their bread, sometimes working in different
places. This leads to tricky situations as to matrimonial homes and the withdrawal without
reasonable excuses.
Cruelty, both mental and physical, will be reasonable excuses under this section. From the
behaviour of the husband, if the wife fears for her life, it amounts to reasonable excuse. Grounds
like impotency of the husband or the refusal of the wife to have intercourse with him are
considered “just grounds” under this section.
The aggrieved party can file petition for a decree for restitution of conjugal rights. Such a decree
calls upon the other party to resume cohabitation. Non- resumption of cohabitation after such a
decree becomes a ground for divorce if one year has elapsed since the decree.
Judicial Separation
A wife or husband, who does not want immediate dissolution of the marriage but desires to give
to the other party some time, can seek judicial separation (through court) instead of divorce.
Under the Hindu Marriage Act, the grounds of judicial separation are the same as the grounds of
divorce.
After a decree of judicial separation, the parties are not bound to cohabit with each other. The
marriage as a legal relationship continues, subject to the above modification. If there is no
resumption of cohabitation between the parties for one year after the decree of judicial
separation, then either party can petition the court for divorce. This time, no other ground for
divorce need be proved and the non-resumption of cohabitation itself constitutes a ground for
divorce.
Grounds for Divorce
Under the Hindu Marriage Act, divorce can be obtained by one spouse through court on the
ground of following types of conduct or circumstances of the other spouse:
1) adultery;
2) treating with cruelty;
3) desertion for at least two years;
4) conversion to another religion (of the other spouse);
5) incurable insanity or mental disorder;
6) incurable and virulent leprosy;
7) venereal disease in a communicable form (not contracted from the petitioning spouse);
8) renouncing the world and becoming a Sanyasi;
9) not being heard of for seven years;
10) non-resumption of cohabitation after a decree of judicial separation, for at least one year;
11) non-compliance with a decree of restitution of conjugal rights for at least one year;
12) husband being guilty of rape or unnatural sex after marriage;
13) husband failing to pay the wife maintenance ordered by a court; and
14) mutual consent.
Besides the above, there can be customary divorce.
Explanation of the Terms Used
Adultery
“Adultery” means voluntary sexual intercourse between persons not married to each other.
Cruelty
“Treating with cruelty” is a ground for divorce. Cruelty is not defined in the Act. However,
according to current judicial interpretation, it means the conduct of a spouse, which is of such a
nature that the other spouse cannot be reasonably expected to live with him or her. Cruelty can
be physical or mental. It is not necessary that there should be danger to life or limb. Trifling acts
in isolation may not amount to cruelty, but, in their totality, they may.
Conversion
If one spouse, who is a Hindu, embraces any other religion, the other spouse can petition for
divorce on that ground. The converted spouse cannot remarry unless divorce is granted to the
other spouse. The reason why conversion is recognised as a ground for divorce is that the entire
personality of a person undergoes change after conversion and it would not be reasonable to
expect the other spouse to live with him or her after conversion.
Mutual Consent
Since 1976, a Hindu couple can, by mutual consent, obtain divorce through court. The parties
must present a joint petition to the competent court. Divorce is not granted immediately. The
court has to wait for the specified period and then, the parties must again apply to the court for
grant of divorce, i.e., they must reaffirm their determination to seek divorce. Once this is done,
the court will grant a decree of divorce.
The district court is the competent court for divorce and other matrimonial proceedings. In cities
where there is a City Civil Court, that court is vested with this jurisdiction. The State
Government can, by notification, invest courts subordinate to the district court with this
jurisdiction.
A petition for matrimonial relief can be filed in the district court within whose jurisdiction the
marriage was solemnised, or within whose jurisdiction the spouses reside or last resided together.
Besides this, if the opposite party (respondent) is residing outside India or has not been heard of
for seven years, the petitioning party can file the petition in the district court within whose
jurisdiction the petitioner resides.
A party whose marriage is dissolved under the Hindu Marriage Act can remarry after the period
of appeal against the decree has expired. If an appeal has already been filed, the party cannot
remarry until the appeal is disposed of.
Against the decree of divorce, judicial separation, restitution of conjugal rights or nullity of
marriage passed by the district court, an appeal can be filed before the High Court.
Against the appellate decree passed by the High Court, there can be an appeal to the Supreme
Court in certain cases. The High Court must have certified that the case involves a substantial
question of law, which needs to be decided by the Supreme Court. Alternatively, the Supreme
Court must have given special leave to appeal.
Maintenance of Spouses
While passing any decree for matrimonial relief (divorce, judicial separation, nullity of marriage
or restitution of conjugal rights), the court can make appropriate orders regarding the
maintenance to be paid by one spouse to the other.
On the grant of divorce or other matrimonial relief, the court can order either the husband to pay
maintenance to the wife or the wife to pay maintenance to the husband, taking into account their
respective circumstances.
In making an order for maintenance (in a proceeding for divorce, etc.), the court takes into
account the financial capacity of the parties (income as well as property), ability to pay, needs of
the respective parties, their conduct, etc.
The Hindu Marriage Act does not lay down any limit in this matter. The amount depends on the
circumstances of the case.
Maintenance orders can be varied or rescinded by the court on a change of circumstances. This
can be done at any time.
An order for maintenance can be rescinded by the court if it is shown that the party in whose
favour such order was made has remarried, or is leading an immoral life.
If an order for maintenance is not complied with, an application can be made to the court for
executing the order by attachment and sale of the property of the person bound to pay
maintenance under the order.
An order for maintenance by a matrimonial court can be passed only against the spouse. Where
maintenance is ordered, its payment can be secured by the court by ordering that the amount
ordered shall be charged on specified immovable property of the party ordered.
The Hindu Marriage Act empowers the court to direct that during the pendency of the
proceeding, the wife or the husband shall pay to the other party as interim maintenance such
amount as the court considers reasonable in the circumstances. The amount can be varied if
circumstances change.
Custody of Children
Under the Hindu Marriage Act, the court has jurisdiction to make suitable orders regarding the
custody, education and maintenance of children, and also orders as to who shall bear the
expenses of maintenance.
The paramount consideration according to current judicial attitudes is the welfare of the child.
The court will take into account to which parent the child is deeply attached, which parent will
be able to bring up the child properly, what are the facilities available for looking after the child,
and so on. If the child is old enough to express its preference, the court will take into account that
preference, though the court is not bound to follow it in every case. It is permissible to ask for
the child to be produced in the court for the purpose.
The court will have to take into account all the circumstances of the case before awarding
custody to any parent. There are no hard and fast rules.
The court sometimes makes an order that while the child will remain in the custody of the
mother, the father will have a right to visit the child (say, once a week and spend few hours with
the child) or vice versa. This is called the right of “visitation” or “access” to the child.
All orders of the court regarding custody, education and maintenance of children can be varied or
rescinded if there is a change in the circumstances. The paramount consideration is the child’s
welfare.
The Hindu Marriage Act provides that the annulment of a marriage does not make the children
already born or conceived illegitimate. But such children cannot inherit the property of any
person except the parents whose marriage is annulled.
Proceedings
The court is required by the Hindu Marriage Act to attempt reconciliation between the spouses
(who are parties to a matrimonial proceeding), consistently with the circumstances of the case.
Under the Hindu Marriage Act, the court must sit behind closed doors if either party so desires or
the court so orders. When the court sits behind closed doors (in camera), the press cannot publish
the proceedings without prior permission of the court.
Family Courts are special courts to be established under the Family Courts Act, 1984. They are
intended to be manned by specially experienced judges expected to follow a less formal
approach than ordinary courts. When a family court is established for an area, the jurisdiction
under the Hindu Marriage Act will be transferred to that court.
The creation of a family court does not enlarge the grounds of divorce as available under the law.
It only modifies the jurisdiction and procedure as explained above.
In family courts, lawyers can appear only with the permission of the court.

1) Which are the religious communities to whom the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
is applicable?
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2) What do you understand by restitution of conjugal rights?
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3.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, legal issues involved in marriage are examined. The main focus of the discussion was
centered on the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. Some of the main aspects examined included the
restitution of conjugal rights, judicial separation and grounds for divorce. Towards that end, an
effort was made to describe details regarding maintenance during the case and expenses involved
for proceedings. A brief note on permanent alimony and maintenance as well as custody of minor
children was another feature of the discussion.
3.7 KEY WORDS
Hindu : Under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, the expression

“Hindu” includes any person who may not be Hindu, but
may be a Sikh, Jain and Buddhist.
Pendente Lite : During the process of litigation.
Alimony: The money payable by a man to his wife or former wife or

by a woman to her husband or former husband after they
are separated or divorced.
Mental Disorder : The expression “mental disorder” means mental illness,

arrested or incomplete development of mind, psychopathic
disorder or any other disorder or disability of mind and
includes schizophrenia.
Psychopathic Disorder : The expression “psychopathic disorder” means a persistent

disorder or disability of mind, which results in abnormally
aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct on the part of
the patient.
Desertion : The expression “desertion” means the desertion of the

petitioner by the other party to the marriage without
reasonable cause and without the consent or against the
wish of such party, and includes the willful neglect of the
petitioner by the other party to the marriage.
Dayal, R (1995), “Law Relating to Dowry,” Premier Publishing Company, Allahabad.
Mayne, John D, “Mayne’s Hindu Law and Usage” (13th ed. 1993) (Revised by Justice Alladi,
Kuppuswami) Bharat Law House, New Delhi.
Nishi Purohit,. “The Principles of Mohammadan Law,” (2nd ed. 1998), Orient Publishing
Company, Allahabad.
1) Christian marriage can be solemnised by a person who has received Episcopal ordination;
a clergyman of the Church of Scotland; a licensed Minister of religion; a Marriage
Registrar appointed under the Act; or a person licensed under the Act to grant a
certificate of marriage between Indian Christians.
1) As per the Special Marriage Act, 1954, a few grounds for divorce are as follows:
Adultery, treating with cruelty, desertion for at least two years; incurable insanity or
mental disorder (as defined in the section) being such that the petitioner cannot be
reasonably expected to live with the opposite party; leprosy not contracted from the
petitioner; venereal disease in a communicable form; opposite party not being heard of for
seven years; opposite party undergoing a sentence of imprisonment of seven years or
more for an offence under Indian Penal Code; non-resumption of cohabitation after a
decree of judicial separation, for at least one year; non-compliance with a decree of
restitution of conjugal rights, for at least one year; husband being guilty of rape or
unnatural sex after marriage; husband failing to pay the wife maintenance ordered by a
court.
1) Jains, Budhists and Sikhs.
2) The term “resolution of conjugal rights” in the normal sense means restoration of
conjugal rights, which were enjoyed by the parties before. As marriage is sacred, the
Hindu law enjoined on the spouses to have the society or the company of each other.
UNIT 4 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: ITS CAUSES AND IMPACT
Grace Donnemching
Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Theories on Domestic Violence
4.3 Categories and Causes of Domestic Violence
4.4 Impact of Domestic Violence
4.5 Steps to Reduce Domestic Violence
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Key Words
4.0 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to understand various aspects of domestic violence and to acquaint
you with means of tackling this evil. Domestic violence is seldom reported by women who suffer

Dr. Grace Donnemching, IGNOU, New Delhi
silently protecting the reputation of their husband and also out of fear at the expense of their
mental and physical health.
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 understand the theories and categories of domestic violence;

 explain the impact of domestic violence; and
 describe the steps to reduce domestic violence.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
“Violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men
and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to
the prevention of the full advancement of women…” states the United Nations Declaration on
the elimination of Violence against Women, General Assembly Resolution, December, 1993.
Domestic violence is the willful intimidation, physical assault, battery, sexual assault, and/or
other abusive behavior as part of a systematic pattern of power and control perpetrated by one
intimate partner against another. It includes physical violence, sexual violence, psychological
violence, and emotional abuse. The frequency and severity of domestic violence can vary
dramatically; however, the one constant component of domestic violence is one partner’s
consistent efforts to maintain power and control over the other.
Domestic violence is a family problem affecting individuals in every community, regardless of

age, economic status, sexual orientation, gender, race, religion, or nationality. It is often
accompanied by emotionally abusive and controlling behavior that is only a fraction of a
systematic pattern of dominance and control. Domestic violence can result in physical injury,
psychological trauma, and in severe cases, even death. The devastating physical, emotional, and
psychological consequences of domestic violence can cross generations and last a lifetime.
Domestic violence can involve a wide array of physical, sexual and emotional abuse.
Domestic violence can be described as the power misused by one adult in a relationship to
control another. It is the establishment of control and fear in a relationship through violence and
other forms of abuse. This violence can take the form of physical assault, psychological abuse,
social abuse, financial abuse or sexual assault. The frequency of the violence can be on and off,
occasional or chronic. ‘Domestic violence is not simply an argument. It is a pattern of coercive
controls that one person exercises over another. Abusers use physical and sexual violence,
threats, emotional insults and economic deprivation as a way to dominate their victims and get
their way’ (WHO, 2007).
Domestic violence is a burden on numerous sectors of the social system and quietly, yet
dramatically, affects the development of a nation … batterers cost nations fortunes in terms of
law enforcement, health care, lost labor and general progress in development. These costs do not
only affect the present generation; what begins as an assault by one person on another
reverberates through the family and the community into the future (Zimmerman, 1994). In broad
terms, domestic violence occurs when one person in an intimate relationship behaves in a way
that causes fear or harm to another person. Within the general community this is the most
common term.
Domestic violence is a global issue reaching across national boundaries as well as socio-
economic, cultural, racial and class distinctions. This problem is not only widely dispersed
geographically, but its incidence is also extensive, making it a typical and accepted behaviour.
Domestic violence is wide spread, deeply ingrained and has serious impacts on women’s health
and wellbeing. Its continued existence is morally indefensible. Its cost to individuals, health
systems and society is enormous. Yet no other major problem of public health has been so
widely ignored and so little understood.
The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005(in India) says that any act,
conduct, omission or commission that harms or injures or has the potential to harm or injure will
be considered domestic violence by the law. Even a single act of omission or commission may
constitute domestic violence—in other words, women do not have to suffer a prolonged period
of abuse before taking recourse to law. The law covers children also. Domestic violence is
perpetrated by, and on, both men and women. However, most commonly, the victims are
women. Even in the United States, it has been reported that 85 per cent of all violent crimes
experienced by women are cases of intimate partner violence, compared to 3 per cent of violent
crimes experienced by men.
Domestic violence in India is the interplay between socio-cultural factors, such as the widespread
acceptance of violence as part of marital life, and of male entitlement, the equation of
masculinity with dominance and control over women, and individual factors such as low self-
esteem, suspicion and negativism amongst the women. As it is not only individual men who are
involved in acts of domestic violence but also female kin such as mother or sister-in-law, it gives
credence to the power and control and the implicit mandate of the socio-economic context of
power relations rather than to male violence.
4.2 THEORIES ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
Resource Theory
Resource Theory was first espoused by Goode (in 1971) and suggests that the more resources a
husband brings to a relationship, the more power he has, but the less likely he will actually resort
to violence. When, however, a man’s superior power is threatened by a wife’s access to
educational or job-related resources, he may resort to violence to re-establish himself as
dominant.
Exchange Theory
Exchange theory suggests that domestic violence will be particularly high in societies where its
benefits to perpetrators are high and particularly low in societies where the costs to perpetrators
are low. In many societies costs of violence are low because of inadequate social controls placed
on such behaviour and because an emphasis on male aggressiveness actually encourages it.
The Patriarchal Theory
This theory submits that, throughout history, males have dominated society and women were to
be treated as men’s possessions. Patriarchal norms protect men’s ability to control their wives
and justify their use of violence to do so.
Modernisation Theory
Modernisation frequently leads to a valuing of universalistic over particularistic norms and

achievement over ascription. Hence, we expect women (and men) to be freed from traditional
gender norms as a country modernises.
Economic Dependency Theory

Economic dependency has frequently been associated with decrease in women’s access to
educational, economic and political resources.
4.3 CATEGORIES AND CAUSES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
Although physical violence is often identified by the community as the main form of domestic
violence, there are equally damaging non-physical behaviours that must be categorised as
abusive and be identified. The categories of violence are:
1. Physical abuse
This includes directly assaulting a person like pushing, slapping, punching, kicking, choking,
biting, shaking, inflicting burns, hair pulling, using a weapon, for example, belting, stoning,
flogging with a stick, spearing, etc.
2. Sexual abuse
Trying to force someone to have sex or take part in sexual acts against their will, or using an
object or body part to penetrate the vagina, mouth or anus without permission or consent, injuring
sexual organs, intentionally hurting someone during sex, forcing someone to have unsafe sex,
without protection against pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases, forcing someone to take
their clothes off or remain naked against their will, being made to pose for pornography or being
made to look at pornography against their will, being forced to watch, observe or take part in
sexual activities, voyeurism or exhibitionism, criticising sexually or making sexually degrading
comments or names and any other type of sexual harassment.
2. Verbal and emotional abuse
Verbal abuse includes the intent to humiliate, degrade, demean, threaten, coerce or intimidate,
and includes the use of derogatory language or continual ‘put-downs’ to highlight a particular
part of a person’s being or their societal role. Consequently, the person may experience this
abuse as an attack on their identity resulting in psychological harm. As a result, verbal abuse is
closely related to emotional abuse. Emotional or psychological abuse can leave a person feeling
that they are to blame for the problems in the family or in a relationship.
3. Spiritual or cultural abuse
It is when power and control is used to deny a partner or family member their human, cultural or
spiritual rights and needs. It can also include using religion or culture as an excuse to commit
particular abuses to justify the behaviour.
4. Social abuse
Social abuse and isolation is commonly used by perpetrators to separate the victim from
supportive friends, family and community agencies. This has particular relevance for women in
rural and remote areas where there is limited access to cheap transportation, where firearms are
more common, there is increased isolation from neighbours and support services, and
communities are small. This abuse may also be more prevalent for women from culturally and
linguistically diverse communities.
6 Economic or financial abuse
This involves the unequal control of finances in a relationship or family and the deprivation of
basic necessities.
Causes for Domestic Violence
There is no one single factor to account for violence perpetrated against women. Several complex
and interconnected institutionalised social and cultural factors have kept women particularly
vulnerable to the violence directed at them, all of them manifestations of historically unequal
power relations between men and women. Factors contributing to these unequal power relations
include: socio-economic forces, the family institution where power relations are enforced, fear
and control over female sexuality, belief in the inherent superiority of males and legislation and
cultural sanctions that have traditionally denied women and children an independent legal and
social status. Lack of economic resources underpins women’s vulnerability to violence and their
difficulty in extricating themselves from a violent relationship. The link between violence and
lack of economic resources and dependence is circular. On the one hand, the threat and fear of
violence keeps women from seeking employment, or, at best, compels them to accept low-paid,
home-based exploitative labour, and on the other hand, without economic independence women
have no power to escape from an abusive relationship. The reverse of this argument also holds
true in some countries; that is, women’s increasing economic activity and independence is
viewed as a threat which leads to increased male violence. This is particularly true when the
male partner is unemployed, and feels his power undermined in the household. Excessive
consumption of alcohol and other drugs has also been noted as a factor in provoking aggressive
and violent male behaviour towards women and children. The isolation of women in their
families and communities is known to contribute to increased violence, particularly if those
women have little access to family and local organisations.
Domestic violence against women is an age-old phenomenon. Women were always considered
weak, vulnerable and in a position to be exploited. Violence has long been accepted as
something that happens to women. Cultural mores, religious practices, economic and political
conditions may set the precedence for initiating and perpetuating domestic violence, but
ultimately committing an act of violence is a choice that the individual makes out of a range of
options. Although one cannot underestimate the importance of macro system- level forces (such
as cultural and social norms) in the aetiology of gender- based violence within any country,
including India, individual-level variables (such as observing violence between one’s parents
while growing up, absent or rejecting father, delinquent peer associations) also play important
roles in the development of such violence. The gender imbalance in domestic violence is partly
related to differences in physical strength. Moreover, women are socialised into their gender
roles in different societies throughout the world. In societies with a patriarchal power structure
and with rigid gender roles, women are often poorly equipped to protect themselves if their
partners become violent. However, much of the disparity relates to how men- dependence and
fearfulness amount to a cultural disarmament. Husbands who batter wives typically feel that they
are exercising a right, maintaining good order in the family and punishing their wives’
delinquency— especially the wives’ failure to keep their proper place (WHO, 2001).
Women’s Task Force Report, 2000, reveals that ‘work related stresses, gambling and financial
debt, the use of drugs/alcohol, and access to firearms have also been identified as additional
causal factors for domestic violence, though they may also be linked to poor impulse control’.
The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Women’s Task Force Report on violence indicated that
alcohol often facilitated violence by providing a socially acceptable excuse for the negative
behaviour.
Jejeebhoy (1998) is of the view that not only wife beating is deeply entrenched, but also people
justify it. Thus, domestic violence is simply not a personal abnormality but rather it roots in the
cultural norms of the family and the society.
Again, looking from another angle, it is found that many of the victims of domestic violence has
either refused to name the perpetrator of the assault or attributed the injuries to other reasons
(Daga et al., 1999).
Murthy et al. (2004) are of the view that number of family members, type of marriage and
husband’s education besides menstrual problems have significant influence on domestic
violence.
Check Your Progress
1) Explain any three categories of domestic violence?
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2) What are the main causes of domestic violence?
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4.4 IMPACT OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Violence not only causes physical injury, it also undermines the social, economic,
psychological, spiritual and emotional well-being of the victim, the perpetrator and the society as
a whole. Domestic violence is a major contributor to the ill health of women. It has serious
consequences on women’s mental and physical health, including their reproductive and sexual
health. These include injuries, gynaecological problems, temporary or permanent disabilities,
depression and suicide, amongst others.
Many forms of verbal and psychological abuse appear relatively harmless at first, but expand and
grow more menacing over time, sometimes gradually and subtly. As victims adapt to abusive
behavior, the verbal or psychological tactics can gain a strong ‘foothold’ in victims’ minds,
making it difficult for them to recognise the severity of the abuse over time. (National Centre for
Elderly Abuse, 2005)
These physical and mental health outcomes have social and emotional sequelae for the individual,
the family, the community and the society at large. Over both the short term and long term,
women’s physical injuries and mental trouble either interrupts, or ends, their educational and
career paths leading to poverty and economic dependence. Family life gets disrupted which has a
significant effect on children, including poverty (if divorce or separation occurs) and a loss of
faith and trust in the institution of the family. These sequelae not only affect the quality of life of
individuals and communities, but also have long-term effects on social order and cohesion
(WHO, 2001). The physical health consequences of domestic violence are often obscure, indirect
and emerge over the long term. For example, women who were subject to violent attacks during
childhood are bothered by menstrual problems and irritable bowel syndrome in later life (WHO,
2001).
Domestic violence is the most common form of violence against women. It affects women across
the life span from sex selective abortion of female foetuses to forced suicide and abuse, and is
evident, to some degree, in every society in the world. The WHO (2007) reports that the
proportion of women who had ever experienced physical or sexual violence or both by an
intimate partner ranged from 15 to 71 per cent, with the majority between 29 and 62 per cent.
India’s National Family Health Survey-III, carried out in 29 states during 2005– 2006, has found
that a substantial proportion of married women have been physically or sexually abused by their
husbands at some time in their lives. The survey indicated that nationwide, 37.2 per cent of
women ‘experienced violence’ after marriage. Bihar was found to be the most violent, with the
abuse rate against married women being as high as 59 per cent. Strangely, 63 per cent of these
incidents were reported from urban families rather than the state’s most backward villages. It
was followed by Madhya Pradesh (45.8 per cent), Rajasthan (46.3 per cent), Manipur (43.9 per
cent), Uttar Pradesh (42.4 per cent), Tamil Nadu (41.9 per cent) and West Bengal (40.3 per cent).
Even these alarming figures are likely to be significantly under estimated given that violence
within families continues to be a taboo subject in both industrialised and industrialising countries
(Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, 2006).
Gender-based violence imposes obstacles to the full participation of women in social, economic
and political life. Illustrating the importance of this issue is the call of the UN Millennium
Project Task Force on Education and Gender Equality for a global campaign on violence against
women under the leadership of the UN Secretary-General. The UN Millennium Project affirms
that ‘freedom from violence, especially for girls and women’ is a core right and essential to the
ability to lead a productive life (UNO, n.d.). Gender-based violence directly jeopardises the
achievement of the MDGs related to gender equality and the empowerment of women, infant and
maternal health and mortality. It is in this context that studies needs to be conducted regarding
the perspectives of women towards gender-based violence. A clear understanding of this will
help in tackling the problem effectively. For decades, women’s rights advocates and international
agencies such as the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) have worked to
promote a culture of zero tolerance for violence against women. An increasing number of
communities, coalitions and countries are mobilising around the cause. Still the problem persists.
It is the time to change the strategies to address the issue (UNICEF, n.d.).
Impact on Children
Children who have witnessed domestic violence or have themselves been abused, exhibit un-
healthy behaviour problems, including problems with their weight and their eating and sleep
habits. They may have difficulty at school and find it hard to develop close and positive
friendships. They may try to run away or even display suicidal tendencies.
4.5 STEPS TO DECREASE VIOLENCE ON WOMEN
Several efforts are being made to address the issue. Two important measures are legal measures
and awareness campaigns targeting women asking them to develop zero tolerance. Gender-based
violence is entrenched in the culture of developing nations; hence it is the time to change that
culture. There is lot of awareness programmes conducted regarding the issue. In almost all the
awareness programmes the contents are legal issues, counselling facilities and measures to take
the support of the police. In large majority of the cases the audience is women. There is a need
for change in this way of thinking and believing. In fact, the men and women are integral part of
the society. Some of the steps to decrease violence on women are:
1. Attitude of men towards women
Most of the men are made to believe their masculinity is established only when they are able to
achieve supremacy over the women in their lives. It is expected that the men must treat the
women in their lives with dignity considering them as a separate individuals having their own
aspirations and choices in life.
2. Attitude of women towards men
In the process of socialisation itself women are made to accept the superiority of their male
counterparts. She is always made to believe that the ‘male members in her life will take major
decisions regarding her life’. Women are actually responsible for their lives. It is here that the
change in the attitude is required.
3. Attitude of women towards women
Women are generally made to think that they are weak, they have to accept whatever their male
counterparts decide. In many cases, the mothers and mothers-in-law will try to pass on such
thinkings to their daughter/daughters- in-law. However, it is the responsibility of all like minded
women to alter such attitudes and make the women to take responsibility for her life. More and
more efforts must be made to bring changes in the said areas which will in turn reduce the rate of
domestic violence.
4. Social Networks
Women’s participation in social networks has been noted as a critical factor in lessening their
vulnerability to violence and in their ability to resolve domestic violence. These networks could
be informal (family and neighbours) or formal (community organisations, women’s self-help
groups or affiliation to political parties).
5. Quality of Family Life
Most important measure is to enhance the quality of family life. While discussing about the
causes we have understood that individuals at times become violent due to some other stressors
in life and in large majority of the cases work life stress or economic factors. The most important
things that are required in their life are proper life skills and right attitude towards life. It is in
this area that people are in need of training. Hence efforts in this direction must be increased.
Such changes will lay a strong foundation for a healthy society where men and women treat each
other with love, affection, respect and dignity. This is what is required for a healthy society. Not
merely the absence of violence but the presence of positive emotions towards their female
counterparts.

1) What are some of the steps to reduce domestic violence?
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4.6 LET US SUM UP
Women and men form an inseparable whole whether in a family, a society or a nation as a whole.
Both need to work together to have a healthy family, healthy society and healthy nation. Hence
efforts must be made to enhance the quality of life of the individuals which will in turn bring
changes in many ways. Any other effort without doing the base work will address the issue at the
surface level and the problem will always persist underneath.
4.7 KEY WORDS
Domestic Violence : Domestic violence is violence committed by someone in

the victim’s domestic circle. This includes partners and
ex-partners, immediate family members, other relatives
and family friends.
Millennium Development Goals : The United Nations Millenium Development Goals

(MDGs) are 8 goals that UN members have signed in
2000 which they agreed to try to achieve by 2015.
Sequela : A condition which is the consequence of a previous

disease or injury.
B.Susmitha (2016), Domestic Violence: Causes, Impact and Remedial Measures in Social
Change, Volume 46,4: pp 602-610, Sage Publications.
Daga A.S., Jejeebhoy S., & Rajgopal S. (1999). Domestic violence against women: An
investigation of hospital causality records, Mumbai. Journal of Family Welfare, 45(1), 1–11.
Duvvury Nata, Carney Patricia, & Minh Nguyen Huu. (2013). Estimating the Cost of Domestic
Violence Against Women in Viet Nam. New York, US: United Nations Entity for Gender Equality
and the Empowerment of Women, UN Women. Retrieved from http://www.unwomen.org/en/
digital-library/publications/2013/2/estimating-the-cost-of-domestic-violence-against-
women-in-viet-nam#sthash.0kAsC5Ru.dpuf Google Scholar
Arthur, Christine and Clark, Roger, “Determinants of Domestic Violence: A Cross-National

Study” International Journal of Sociology of the Family, Vol.35, No.2 (Autumn 2009)pp.147-
167
Jejeebhoy S. (1998). Wife beating in rural India: A husband’s right? Evidence from survey data.
Economic and Political Weekly, 33(15), 855–862.
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. (2006). Govt. of India; Fact Sheet: National Family
Health Survey NFHS-III 2005–06.
Mouzos J., & Makkai T. (2004). Women’s experiences of male violence: Findings from the
Australian component of the International Violence against Women Survey (IVAWS). Research
and Public Policy Series, 56. Canberra ACT: Australian Institute of Criminology.
Murthy M.S.R., & Ganesh P., Srivirajarani J., Madhusudan R. (2004). Proximate determinants of
domestic violence: An exploratory study on role of menstrual problems and life style of men.
Demography India, 33(1), 85–105.
National Center for Elderly Abuse. (2005). Washington DC: Fact Sheet: Domestic violence:
Older women can be victims too.
UNICEF (2000) Domestic Violence against women and girls, Innocent digest, No.6, June 2000.
UNO. (2002). Millennium Development Goals. Retrieved from www.uno.org/
millenniumdevelopmentgoals.
WHO (2001). Domestic violence: A priority public health issue in Western Pacific region.
Western Pacific Regional Office.
WHO (2007). Multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women.
Geneva: World Health Organization.
WHO (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: prevalence and health
effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. Geneva: World Health
Organisation. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1cBnTlC.
Zimmerman C. (1994). Plates in a basket will rattle: Domestic violence in Combodia, Phnom
Pehn. Cambodia: The Asia Foundation.
http://ncadv.org/learn-more/what-is-domestic-violence
1) The three categories of domestic violence are:
1) Physical abuse
This includes directly assaulting a person like pushing, slapping, punching, kicking,
choking, biting, shaking, inflicting burns, hair pulling, using a weapon, for example,
belting, stoning, flogging with a stick, spearing, etc.
2) Sexual abuse
Trying to force someone to have sex or take part in sexual acts against their will, or using
an object or body part to penetrate the vagina, mouth or anus without permission or
consent, injuring sexual organs, intentionally hurting someone during sex, forcing someone
to have unsafe sex, without protection against pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases,
forcing someone to take their clothes off or remain naked against their will, being made to
pose for pornography or being made to look at pornography against their will, being
forced to watch, observe or take part in sexual activities, voyeurism or exhibitionism,
criticising sexually or making sexually degrading comments or names and any other type
of sexual harassment.
3) Verbal and emotional abuse
Verbal abuse includes the intent to humiliate, degrade, demean, threaten, coerce or
intimidate, and includes the use of derogatory language or continual ‘put-downs’ to
highlight a particular part of a person’s being or their societal role. Consequently, the
person may experience this abuse as an attack on their identity resulting in psychological
harm. As a result, verbal abuse is closely related to emotional abuse. Emotional or
psychological abuse can leave a person feeling that they are to blame for the problems in
the family or in a relationship.
2) Several complex and interconnected institutionalised social and cultural factors have kept
women particularly vulnerable to the violence directed at them, all of them manifestations
of historically unequal power relations between men and women. Factors contributing to
these unequal power relations include: socio-economic forces, the family institution where
power relations are enforced, fear and control over female sexuality, belief in the inherent
superiority of males and legislation and cultural sanctions that have traditionally denied
women and children an independent legal and social status. Lack of economic resources
and even women’s increasing economic activity and independence is viewed as a threat.
Excessive consumption of alcohol and other drugs has also been noted as a factor in
provoking aggressive and violent male behaviour towards women and children. Women
having little access to family and local organisations.
Husbands who batter wives typically feel that they are exercising a right, maintaining
good order in the family and punishing their wives’ delinquency— especially the wives’
failure to keep their proper place (WHO, 2001).
Women’s Task Force Report, 2000, reveals that ‘work related stresses, gambling and
financial debt, the use of drugs/alcohol, and access to firearms have also been identified
as additional causal factors for domestic violence, though they may also be linked to poor
impulse control’. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Women’s Task Force Report
on violence indicated that alcohol often facilitated violence by providing a socially
acceptable excuse for the negative behaviour.
1) Some of the steps to decrease violence on women are:
i) Attitude of men towards women
Most of the men are made to believe their masculinity is established only when they are
able to achieve supremacy over the women in their lives. It is expected that the men must
treat the women in their lives with dignity considering them as a separate individuals
having their own aspirations and choices in life.
ii) Attitude of women towards men
In the process of socialisation itself women are made to accept the superiority of their
male counterparts. She is always made to believe that the ‘male members in her life will
take major decisions regarding her life’. Women are actually responsible for their lives. It
is here that the change in the attitude is required.
iii) Attitude of women towards women
Women are generally made to think that they are weak, they have to accept whatever
their male counterparts decide. In many cases, the mothers and mothers-in-law will try to
pass on such thinkings to their daughter/daughters- in-law. However, it is the
responsibility of all like minded women to alter such attitudes and make the women to
take responsibility for her life. More and more efforts must be made to bring changes in
the said areas which will in turn reduce the rate of domestic violence.
iv) Social Networks
Women’s participation in social networks has been noted as a critical factor in lessening
their vulnerability to violence and in their ability to resolve domestic violence. These
networks could be informal (family and neighbours) or formal (community organisations,
women’s self-help groups or affiliation to political parties).
v) Quality of Family Life
Most important measure is to enhance the quality of family life. While discussing about
the causes we have understood that individuals at times become violent due to some other
stressors in life and in large majority of the cases work life stress or economic factors.
The most important things that are required in their life are proper life skills and right
attitude towards life. It is in this area that people are in need of training. Hence efforts in
this direction must be increased. Such changes will lay a strong foundation for healthy
society where men and women treat each other with love, affection, respect and dignity.
This is what is required for a healthy society. Not merely the absence of violence but the
presence of positive emotions towards their female counterparts.

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BSW-126

Social Work in Family Setting

Dr. P. D. Mathew Dr. Jerry Thomas Dr. R.P. Singh

Dr. Alex Vadakumthal Prof. Surendra Singh Dr. Richa Chaudhary

Prof. A.P. Barnabas (Retd.)

Expert Committee (Revision)

Dr. R.R. Patil, Prof. Gracious Thomas, Dr. G. Mahesh,

Course Preparation Team (Original)

Content Editor Language Editor Block & Course Editor

Course Preparation Team (Revised)

Content Editor Language & Block Editor Programme & Course

1.2 The Social Institutions of Family and Marriage

1.3 Concept of Family in UN Declarations

1.4 Family Life in Indian Context

1.5 Relationship and Bonding in Family Life

1.6 Let Us Sum Up

1.7 Key Words

1.8 Suggested Readings

1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

 understand the concept to family as a basic unit of society;

1.2 THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS OF FAMILY AND MARRIAGE

According to Anthony Giddens, ‘a family is a group of persons directly linked by kin

 Physical maintenance and care of member,

 Addition of new members through procreation or adoption,

 Social control of members,

 Production, consumption, distribution of goods and services, and

Marriage is being open-minded. Marriage is walking a mile in another’s shoes. Marriage is

David Brandt Berg

Interrelationship between Family, Kinship and Marriage

1.3 CONCEPT OF FAMILY IN UN DECLARATIONS

 These human rights have human dignity as their basis.

 They cannot be changed by political will or majority decisions.

 They are natural laws, pre-political and apolitical.

Attempts to re-define family

The importance of families

Check Your Progress II

1.5 RELATIONSHIP AND BONDING IN FAMILY LIFE

Motherhood, Fatherhood and Parenthood

1.6 LET US SUM UP

1.7 KEY WORDS

Euthanasia : The bringing about of a gentle and easy death in case of

Family : The members of a household, especially parents and their

Marriage : The legal union of a man and a woman recognised by the

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Grugni, Anthony (1997), Exercise in Education to Love, Tej Prasarani, Mumbai.

UN Declaration of Human Rights 1948.

UN Convention on Rights of Child 1989.

Check Your Progress I

Check Your Progress II

Check Your Progress III

2.2 Defining Family Life Education

2.3 Contents of Family Life Education

2.4 Traditional Indian Values Related to Family Life Education

2.5 Importance of Different Types of Values in Family Life Education

2.6 Advantages of Family Life Education

2.7 Let Us Sum Up

2.8 Key Words

2.9 Suggested Readings

2.10 Answers to Check You Progress

After reading this unit you will be able to: