Chapter 1

Electric charges and fields

1. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, glass rod becomes positively
charged and silk negative.
When a plastic rod is rubbed with fur, plastic rod becomes negatively
charged and fur positive.
2. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, charges appear on both. Explain
how this observation is consistent with law of conservation of energy.
When two bodies are rubbed ,the body which loses electrons, will become
positively charged and which gains electrons becomes negatively charged.
The two bodies thus acquire equal and opposite charges . The charge is
only transformed from one form to another.
3. Write the basic properties of electric charge
• Quantization of charge : According to quantisation of electric charge,
charge of a body is an integral multiple of electronic charge.
q=± ne ; where, n=1,2,3.........
• Charge is conserved: It means that total charge of an isolated system
remains constant.
• Additivity of charge: The total charge on a surface is the algebraic sum
of individual charges present on that surface.
𝒒 = 𝒒𝟏 + 𝒒𝟐 + 𝒒𝟑 + .................. + 𝒒𝒏
4. What do you mean by quantisation of charge
Charge of a body is always an integral multiple of one electronic charge
Q=±ne where n=1,2,3…….
5. How many electronic charges form 1 C of charge?
q=±ne,
𝑞
n= 𝑒
1
n= =6.25 x1018
1.602 x 10−19
6. How many electrons constitute an electric charge of -16𝝁 C of charge?
q=±ne,
𝑞
n= 𝑒
−16x10−6
n= =1014
−1.6 x 10−19
7. State coulomb’s law.
The force of attraction or repulsion between two stationery electric charges
is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them
1 q1q2
F= 2
4π𝝴0 r
8. What is the force between two small charged spheres having charges
2 x10-7C and 3x10-7C placed 30cm apart in air.
1 q q
F= 1 2
2
4π𝝴0 r
9 2 x10−7 𝑥 3 x10−7
= 9𝑥 10 = 6x10−3𝑁
(0.3)2

9. A body of mass m is charged negatively. State whether the following

statements are true or false.
a) During charging, there is change in mass of body. True
b) The body can be charged to 2.5e where ‘e’ is the charge of an electron.
False
c) While charging the body by induction new charges are created in it.
False
d) The force between two charged objects is less when there is a
medium between them (than in vacuum) True
10. Define electric field.
Electric field is the region around a charge where its effect can be felt.
𝐹
E=
𝑞
11. Write the unit of electrc field.
𝑁 𝑉
or
𝐶 𝑚
12. Derive the equation for Electric field due to a point charge

1 q1q2
By Coulomb’s law, F=
4π𝝴0 r2
F
E=
q0
1 q
E=
4π𝝴0 r2
13. Write any four properties of electric field lines
An electric field line is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent to it at
each point is in the direction of the net field at that point.
▪ Electric Field lines start from positive charge, end at negative charge.
▪ Electric field lines of a positive charge are radially outwards and
that of a negative charge is radially inwards
▪ Electric field lines Do not form closed loops.
▪ Two field lines never intersect.( two directions for electric field is
not possible at a point)
14. Draw the electric field lines of a positive charge

15. Draw the electric field lines of a negative charge

16. Draw the electric field lines of two positive charges

17. Draw the electric field lines of a dipole

18. Define Electric Flux. Write its unit.

𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸 ⋅ ⅆ𝑆
𝛟 = ∫ E dS cosθ
Unit- Nm2/C
19. Define electric dipole
An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a
distance
20. Define electric dipole moment. Write its unit
Electric dipole moment is the product of magnitude of one of the charges
and the distance between charges
p=q x 2a
Unit -Cm (coulomb metre)
21. Write the difference between polar and non polar molecules.
In non polar molecules the centres of positive and negative
charges coincide. Eg: CO2, CH4,
In polar molecules the centres of positive and negative charges
do not coincide. Eg ∶ H2O
22. Derive the equation for electric field due to a dipole along the axial line

1 q
E+q = - ----------- (1)
4π𝝴0 (r−a)2
1 q
E−q = - ---------- (2)
4π𝝴0 (r+a)2
E =E+q − E−q
𝑞 4𝑎𝑟
𝐸 = 1 [(𝑟2−𝑎2)2 ]------------------ (3)
For r≫ 𝑎 ,we get E⃗→ = 4𝜋𝗌0 2p⃗→
[ ] ----------- (4)
4π𝝴0 r3
23. Obtain the equation for electric field due to a dipole along equatorial line

1 q
E+q = - ---------------(1)
4π𝝴0 r2+ a2
1 q
E−q = - -----------------(2)
4π𝝴0 r2+ a2
E =𝐸+𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐸−𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
E =2𝐸+𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 --------------(3) ( 𝐸+𝑞 = 𝐸−𝑞)
𝑎
Cos𝜃= 1
(𝑟2+𝑎2) ⁄2
 1 𝑞 𝑎
E =2 𝑥 𝑥 1
𝟏4𝜋𝗌0 𝑟2+ 𝑎2 (𝑟2+𝑎2) ⁄2
For r≫ 𝑎 ,we get 𝑬⃗⃗→ = 𝒑⃗→
⃗ - -------------- (4)
[ ]
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟑
24. Relation connecting Axial field and Equatorial field of a Dipole
1 2𝑝→
EAxial= [ ]
4𝜋𝗌0 𝑟3
1 𝑝→
EEquatorial = [ ]
4𝜋𝗌0 𝑟3
EAxial = 2 x EEquatorial
EAxial : EEquatorial =2:1 or EEquatorial: EAxial =1:2
25. Two point charges q1 and q2 of magnitude 10-8C and -10-8C respectively
are placed 0.1m apart. Calculate the electricfields at points A, B and C as
shown in figure.

At point A
E1A (to right) and E2A (to right) have same direction
EA= E1A + E2A
1 10−8 1 10−8
= +
4π𝝴0 (0.05)2 −8 4π𝝴0 (0.05)2
10 10−8
= 9x10 x 9 + 9x109 x
(0.05)2 (0.05)2
= 3.6 x104N C-1 + 3.6 x104N C-1
= 7.2 x104N C-1
EA is directed towards the right
At point B
E1B (to left)and E2B (to right) have opposite direction
EB= E1B - E2B
10−8 10−8
= 9x109 x - 9x109 x
(0.05)2 (0.15)2
= 3.6 x104N C-1 - 0.4 x104N C-1 = 3.2 x104N C-1
EB is directed towards the left (as E1B has greater magnitude)
At point C
E1C and E2C have same magnitude.
10−8
E1C = E2C = 9x109x
2 = 9x10 N C
3 -1
(0.1)
EC = E1C cos 60+ E2C cos 60
=2 E1C cos 60
=2x 9x103 x 0.5 = 9 x103N C-1
EC is directed towards the right.
26. What will happen when a dipole is placed in a uniform external electric
field?
In a uniform electric field there will be a net torque on the dipole, and
hence it rotates. But the net force will be zero.
27. What will happen when a dipole is placed in a non uniform external
electric field?
In a non uniform electric field the dipole experiences a net force as well as
a net torque. So there will be both translational and rotational motion.
28. Derive the expression for torque acting on a dipole placed in a uniform
external field, at an angle θ with it.

Torque, τ = one of the forces x perpendicular distance between them.

τ = qE x 2a sinθ
τ =pE sinθ
𝛕⃗→⃗ = 𝐏⃗⃗→ × 𝐄⃗⃗→

29. What is the condition for maximum torque in the above case?
Torque is maximum , when p and E are perpendicular. (θ=90)
τ =pE sin90 =pE

30. State Gauss’s theorem.

Gauss’s theorem states that the total electric flux through a closed
1
surface is equal to times the total charge enclosed by the surface.
𝗌0
q
𝛟 = ∮ E ⋅ dS =
𝝴0
31. Give proof for Gauss’s theorem
Consider a sphere of radius r enclosing a point charge q. the
electric flux through the surface dS
𝛟 = ∫ E ⋅ dS
𝛟 = ∫ E dS cos0 = ∫ E dS =𝐸∫ dS
𝛟 = ES
1 q
𝛟= x 4πr2
4π𝝴0 r2
𝐪
𝛟=
𝛆𝟎

32. Derive the equation for electirc field due to a uniformly charged
infinitely long wire

33. Derive the equation for electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite
plane sheet

34. Derive the equation for electric field due to a uniformly charged
spherical shell
35. Features of Gauss’s Law
• Gauss’s law is true for any surface irrespective of the size and shape.
• The charge includes the sum of all charges enclosed by the surface.
• The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss’s law is called
the Gaussian Surface.
• Gauss’s law is applicable to both symmetric and asymmetric system,
but it will be much easier if the system has some symmetry.
• Gauss’s law is based on inverse square dependence on distance
contained in the Coulomb’s law.
36. What is meant by a Gaussian surface?
The surface which we choose for the application of Gauss’s law is called
Gaussian surface. It is an imaginary three dimensional surface enclosing the
charge.
37. The electric flux through any closed spherical surface enclosing a
𝑞
charge q is given by --------
𝗌0
38. A point charge of 2 c is placed at the centre of a cubic Gaussian
surface of side 0.5 cm. What is the next flux through the surface?
𝟐 𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝛟= 𝟖.𝟖𝟓 𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
=2.25 x106 Nm2/C
39. Imagine that a charge ‘Q’ is situated at the centre of a hollow cube.
What is the electric flux through one side of the cube?
1Q
𝛟= (cube has 6 sides)
6 𝝴0

40. A point charge of +10𝝁 Cis at a distance of 5cm directly above the centre
of a square of side 10cm as shown in figure. What is the electric flux
through the square?

The given charge can be imagined to be at the centre of a cube.

So electric flux through the square
1 q
𝛟=
6 𝝴0
1 10𝑥10−6 5 2 -1
= 6 𝑥 8.85𝑥10−12 =1.88x10 N m C
41. A closed surface encloses an electric dipole. What is the electric flux
through the surface?
Zero

42. Find electric field due two plane sheets of charge in regions I ,II and III
 Chapter 2
Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

1. Define electrostatic potential energy . Write its unit .

Electric potential energy at a point P in an electric field is defined as the
work done by the external force in bringing the charge q from infinity to
that point.
𝐏⃗
𝐔 =− ∫ 𝐅 . 𝐝𝐫 unit -joule ( J )
∞

2. Define electrostatic potential. Write its unit

Electrostatic Potential at a point P in an electric field is the work done by an
external force in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
𝐏⃗
𝐕 = − ∫ 𝐄⃗ . 𝐝𝐫 unit - volt ( V )
∞
3. One coulomb of charge initially at rest is accelerated through a potential
difference of 1 volt. During this process the kinetic energy acquired by the
charge is ………………….
KE =W=qV =1 x1 =1J
4. Write the relation connecting electric field and potential.
P −𝑑𝑉
V = − ∫ E . dr or E=
∞ 𝑑𝑟
5. Define electrostatic potential between two points.
Electrostatic Potential difference between two points in an electric field is
the work done by an external force in bringing a unit positive charge from
one point to other in that field.
P
VP − VR = − ∫R E . dr
6. Obtain the equation for electric field due to a point charge.
7) a) calculate the potential at a point P due to a charge of 4 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕𝐂,
located 9 cm away
b) Hence obtain the work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 C from
infinity to the point P. Does the answer depend on the path along
which the charge is brought?
(a) 1 𝑄
V=
4π𝝴0 𝑟
4 𝑥 10−7
= 9 × 109 x
0.09
V = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟒V
(b) W= qV
= 2 𝑥 10−9 x 4 𝑥 104
W = 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 J
No, work done will be path independent.
8. Derive the expression for potential due to an electric dipole

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
− = 𝐫𝟐
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
𝐪𝟐 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
V=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟐
𝟏 𝐩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝐕=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟐
9. Obtain the expression for potential due to a system of charges
V = V1 + V2 + ⋯ + Vn
1 q1 1 q2 1 q𝚗
V = + + ……………+
4π𝝴0 r1 4π𝝴0 r2 4π𝝴0 r𝚗
𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 𝐪𝐧
𝐕 = ( + + ……………+ )
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝐧
10. Two charges 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖C and –𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 C are located 15 cm apart. At
what point on the line joining the two charges is the electric potential zero?
Take the potential at infinity to be zero.
Let P lies between O and A at a distance x from O,

Potential at P due to charge 3 𝑥 10−8C

1 3 𝑥 10−8
𝑉1 =
4π𝝴0 𝑥

Potential at P due to charge −2 𝑥 10−8C

1 −2 𝑥 10 −8
𝑉2 =
4π𝝴0 15−x

Total potential at P , V=𝑉1 + 𝑉2=0

1 3 𝑥 10−8 1 2 𝑥 10−8
− =0
4π𝝴0 𝑥 4π𝝴0 15−x
1 3 𝑥 10−8 2 𝑥 10−8
[ − ] =0
4π𝝴0 𝑥 15−x
3 2
[x − 15−𝑥
] =0
3 2
=
x 15−𝑥
45-3x=2x
45=5x
x=9cm
If P lies on the extended line OA,

1 3 𝑥 10−8 1 2 𝑥 10−8
- =0
4π𝝴0 𝑥 4π𝝴0 x−15
3 2
=
x 𝑥−15
3x-45=2x
x=45cm
Thus, electric potential is zero at 9 cm and 45 cm away from the positive
charge on the side of the negative charge.
11. Derive the expression for potential energy of a dipole placed in an
external field.

The workdone by the external torque

dW =τ dθ
dW= pEsinθ dθ
W=∫ pEsinθ dθ
W=− pEcosθ
W=−𝑝 ⋅ 𝐸
This work is stored as potential energy
U=−𝒑⃗ ⋅ 𝑬⃗
12. Define Equipotential Surfaces
An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of potential at all
points on the surface.
13. Write the properties of an equipotential surface
• Constant value of potential at all points on the surface.
• No work is required to move a test charge on the surface.
• Equipotential surface through a point is normal to the electric field at
that point
14. The workdone to move a test charge on an equipotential surface is ……..
Zero
15. What is the amount of workdone in moving a 2C charge between two
points at 3cm apart of an equipotential surface?
Zero
16. Draw the equipotential surfaces for a single point charge
17. Draw the equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field.

18. Electrostatics of conductors

1. Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero
2. At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field must be normal
to the surface at every point.
3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static
situation.
4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the
conductor and has the same value (as inside) on its surface.
5. σ
Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor E =
𝝴0
19. Explain electrostatic shielding
The electric field inside a cavity of any conductor is zero. This is known as
electrostatic shielding. All charges reside only on the outer surface of a
conductor with cavity.
20. Why it is safer to be inside a car during lightning?
Due to Electrostatic shielding, electricfield E=0 inside the car.
So it is safer to sit inside a car than standing outside during lightening.
21. Define capacitance. Write its unit.
Capacitance is the ratio of charge to potential
Q
C=
V
The SI unit of capacitance is farad (F).
22. Obtain the equation for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

23. How capacitance changes if the distance between the plates of a parallel
plate capacitor is halved?
𝗌 𝐴 𝗌 𝐴
C= 0 =2 0 Capacitance doubled
𝑑/2 𝑑
24. What is the area of plates of a 0.1𝝁F parallel plate capacitor ,given that
the separation between the plates is 0.1mm

25. A dielectric slab is placed between the plates of a parallel plate

capacitor. What change will happen to its capacitance?
When dielectric medium of dielectric constant K is placed between the
plates, the capacitance ,
K𝝴 A
Cmed = 0 d
𝐂𝐦𝐞𝐝 =K 𝐂𝐚𝐢𝐫
The capacitance increases K times, where K is the dielectric constant.
26. Define dielectric constant in terms of capacitance.
Kε0A
Cmed d
Cair
= ε0A =K
d
𝐂𝐦𝐞𝐝
K= 𝐂𝐚𝐢𝐫
The dielectric constant of a substance is the factor by which the capacitance
increases from its vacuum value, when a dielectric is inserted between the
plates.
27. A parallel plate capacitor with air between plates has a capacitance of
8𝛍F. What will be the capacitance if distance between the plates is reduced
by half and the space between is filled with a medium of dielectric
constant 5.
𝗌 𝐴
C= 0 = 8μF
𝑑
𝐾𝗌0𝐴 𝗌 0𝐴
C’= = 2K =2 x 5 x 8μF=80 μF
𝑑/2 𝑑
28. Obtain the equation for effective capacitance when capacitors are
connected in series.

V = V1 + V2
Q Q Q
= +
C C1 C2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐂 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐
29. Obtain the equation for effective capacitance when capacitors are
connected in parallel.

Q = Q1 + Q2
CV = C1V + C2V
C = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐
30. You are given two capacitors of 2 𝝁 F and 3 𝝁 F. What are themaximum
and minimum values of capacitance that can be obtained by combining
them?
Maximum value is obtained when capacitors are connected in parallel
Cmax = C1 +C2 =2 𝜇 +3𝜇 =5 𝜇𝐹
Minimum value is obtained when capacitors are connected in series.
𝐂 𝐂 2 𝑥3 6
Cmin = 𝟏 𝟐 = = 𝜇𝐹
𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 2+3 5

31. Find the equivalent capacitance of capacitors given in the network

32. Three capacitors are connected to a 12Vbattery as shown in figure.

33. Obtain the expression for energy stored in a capacitor

dW= V dq
𝑞
dW= dq
𝐶

𝐐𝟐
𝐔=
𝟐𝐂

34. Obtain the expression for energy stored in a capacitor using Q-V graph
35. Where do capacitor store energy ?
Capacitor store energy in the electric field.

3.Obtain the expression for energy density of a capacitor

Energy density is the energy stored per unit volume.

𝐔
u=
𝐀𝐝
 Chapter 3
Current Electricity
1. State Ohm’s law
At constant temperature ,the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference between the ends of the
conductor
V =R
I
Unit of resistance is Ω(ohm)
2. Which material has more resistance?

Slope of V-I graph gives Resistance. Slope of A is greater than that of B.

So material A has more resistance than B.
3. Define conductance
The reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance.
1
C=
R
Unit of conductance is ohm−1(Ω−1or mho) or =siemens
4. What are the factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends?
i) The material of the conductor
ii) Length of the conductor , R ∝ 𝑙
iii) 1
The area of cross section of the conductor, R ∝
A

5. What do you mean by resistivity of a conductor. Write its unit.

The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to length 𝑙 of the
conductor and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, A.
RA
ρ=
𝑙

Unit of resistivity is Ωm.

Resistivity depends on the material of the conductor but not on its
dimensions.
6. What happens to the resistivity of the material ,if the conductor is
stretched to double its length.
Resistivity does not depend on the dimensions of material.
So resistivity of material does not change.
7. What do you mean by relaxation time?
The average time interval between two successive collisions of free
electrons is called relaxation time(τ)
8. Define drift velocity
The average velocity attained by electrons in a conductor due to an electric
field is called Drift velocity.
𝐞𝐄⃗
𝐯𝐝 = − 𝛕⃗
𝐦
9. Obtain the expression for drift velocity of an electron in an external
electric field
Force, F = qE = −eE
F −eE
Acceleration , a=m = m
If τ is the relaxation time,
Drift velocity, vd = a τ
𝐞𝐄⃗
𝐯𝐝 = − 𝛕⃗
𝐦
10. Obtain the relation connecting drift velocity and current

Distance travelled by an electron in time Δt = vd Δt

Volume of conductor = A vd Δt
Let n be the number of electrons per unit volume of conductor
The number of electrons in the conductor= n A vd Δt
Total charge of electrons in the conductor , q= n e A vd Δt
q
Current I =
Δt
n e A vd Δt
I= Δt
I= n e A 𝐯𝐝
11. Define mobility .
Mobility µ defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric
field.
eE
𝐯𝐝 τ
𝛍= m
𝐄⃗ = E
𝐞
𝛍 = 𝛕⃗
𝐦
12. Define current density. Write its unit.
Current per unit area ,taken normal to the current is called current density.
𝐈
j=𝐀
Unit -A/m2
13. Define conductivity
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity
1
𝜎=
𝞀
Unit – Ω-1m-1

14. Write Ohms law in vector form

𝚥→ = 𝜎𝐸⃗→
15. Write the limitations of Ohm’s Law
▪ Some materials and devices used in electric circuits do not obey
Ohm’s law and are called Non – Ohmic conductors.
▪ V-I graps of non – ohmic conductors not linear.
▪ Eg:- Semi conductors, Diodes , Transistors.

16. Differentiate Ohmic and non ohmic Conductors

Ohmic Conductors
Conductors which obey Ohm’s law are called Ohmic
conductors.The Voltage – Current graph of such
conductors will be linear .
Eg:- metals ,Nichrome
Non - Ohmic Conductors
The materials and devices which do not obey Ohm’s law are called Non –
Ohmic conductors. So V-I grapis not linear.
Eg:- Semi conductors, Diodes , Transistors.

17. Write the expression for temperature co-efficient of resistivity. Write its
unit and dimension.
ρT = ρ0[1 + α(T − T0)]
𝛒 −𝛒
𝛂= 𝐓 𝟎
𝛒𝐨(𝐓−𝐓𝟎)
α is called the temperature co-efficient of resistivity
The dimension of α is [Temperature]−1 and unit is K−1.

18. How the resistivity of metals vary with temperature?

For metals 𝛂 is positive, i.e.,when temp increases, the
resistivity of metals increases,
19. How the resistivity of semiconductors and insulators vary with
temperature?
For semiconductors and insulators 𝛂 is negative,
i.e.,when temp increases, the resistivity of
semiconductors and insulators decreases.

20. Why Nichrome, Constantan and Manganin are used as standard

resistors?
For Nichrome, Constantan and Manganin 𝛂 ≈ 𝟎,i.e.,
resistivity does not vary considerably with
temperature. So these materials are are used as
standard resistors.

21. What do you mean by internal resistance of a cell ?

Resistance offered by the electrolytes to the flow of current through it is
called internal resistance of the cell
22. Write the relation connecting emf and terminal potential difference
V = ε – Ir
23. Differentiate emf and terminal voltage of a cell
The emf ε is the potential difference between the positive and negative
electrodes of a cell in an open circuit, i.e., when no current is flowing
through the cell.
The terminal voltage (V) is the potential difference between the positive
and negative electrodes of a cell in a closed circuit, i.e., when current is
flowing through the cell.
24. A battery of emf10V and internal resistance 3 Ω is connected to an
external resistor. If the current in the circuit is 0.5A,
a) what is the value of the external resistance?
b) What is the terminal voltage of the battery when the circuit is closed?
a) V = ε – Ir
IR = ε – Ir
𝝴 – Ir
R= 𝐼
10 – 0.5x3 8.5
= = =17 Ω
0.5 0.5

b) V=IR=0.5x17=8.5V
25. State Kirchhoff’s junction rule or current law.
At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the
sum of currents leaving the junction . ∑ I = 0

26. State Kirchhoff’s loop rule or voltage law.

The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop is
zero. ∑ ΔV = 0
27. Obtain Wheatstone bridge principle.

For a balanced Wheatstone’s bridge, current through the galvanometer

Ig= 0.
At junctions B, I2 = I4 ------------------- (1)
At junctions D , I1 = I3 ------------------- (2)
For loop ABDA , I1 R1= I2R2 -----------------------(3)
For loop CBDC , I3 R3= I4R4----------------------- (4)
eq (3) I 1R 1 I2R2
----- =
eq (4) I3R3 I4R4
R1 R2
Using eq(1) and(2) =
R3 R4
𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟒
=
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟑
28. What is the principle behind the working of meter bridge. State the
principle.
Wheatstone bridge principle
Wheatstone principle says thatRwhen
R4
the Wheatstone bridge is balanced,
2
i.e., when I = 0, = .
g R1 R3
 Chapter 4
Moving Charges and Magnetism

1. Write Lorentz force equation.

F = q[E + (v x B)]
2. Write the equation for magnetic Lorentz force.
F=q(vxB)
3. Write the expression for magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor
F = I( 𝑙× B )
4. A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A. It
is suspended in mid-air by a uniform horizontal magnetic field B . What is
the magnitude of the magnetic field?

There is an upward force F, of magnitude I 𝑙 B,. For mid-air suspension,

this must be balanced by the force due to gravity:
m g = I 𝑙B
mg 2 x 9.8
B= = = 0.65 T
I𝑙 2 x1.5
5. A charged particle moving in the direction or opposite direction of
magnetic field moves …………………. undeflected.
6. A charged particle entering perpendicular to a magnetic field moves in
a ………………. path. Circular.
7. A charged particle moves at an arbitrary angle 𝛉 with the manetic field.
What will be the shape of its path?
It move in a helical path.

8. State Biot-Savart Law

The magnetic field at a point due to a small

element of a current carrying conductor is
directly proportional to the current (I) ,
the length of the element ⅆ𝑙 , sine of the
angle between r and ⅆ𝑙 and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance r.
𝝁𝟎 𝑰 ⅆ𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
ⅆ𝑩 = 𝒓𝟐
𝟒𝝅
9. Write the vector form of Biot-Savart Law in vector form
μ I d̅̅̅̅ 𝒍×r
dB = 4π0 r3

10. a)Name the law which explains the the relation

between current and the magnetic field produced by the current
b) Using this Law, obtain the expression for Magnetic Field on the Axis
of a Circular Current Loop.
c) Also obtain the magnetic field at the centre of this loop.
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
a) Biot-Savart Law , ⅆ𝐵 = 0
4𝜋 𝑟2
b)

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 90
ⅆ𝐵 =
4𝜋 2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑟
ⅆ𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑅2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
ⅆ𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑥2+𝑅2
𝑅 𝑅
cos 𝜃 = =
𝑟 (𝑥2+𝑅2)1/2
Total field B =∫ ⅆ𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝜇
B =∫ 0 2𝐼𝑑𝑙 2 𝑅
4𝜋 𝑥 +𝑅 (𝑥2+𝑅2)1/2
𝜇0
B= 𝐼𝑅 ∫ ⅆ𝑙
4𝜋 (𝑥 +𝑅2)3/2
2
𝜇 𝐼𝑅
B= 0 𝑥2𝜋𝑅
4𝜋 (𝑥 +𝑅2)3/2
2

𝜇0𝐼𝑅2
B=
2(𝑥2+𝑅2)3/2

c) At the centre x=0

𝜇0𝐼𝑅2
B= 2𝑅3
𝝁𝟎𝑰
B=
𝟐𝑹
11. State Ampere's Circuital theorem.
The line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop is equal to 𝜇0
times the total current passing through the surface.
∮ 𝑩⃗⃗⃗→. ⅆ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒍→ = 𝝁𝟎𝑰
12. a) Using Ampere's Circuital theorem ,obtain the expression for the
magnetic field due to a straight infinite current-carrying wire .
b) Draw the graph showing the variation on intensity of magnetic field
with the distance from the axis of this conductor
a)

By Ampere's Circuital Law

∮ B⃗→. ⅆ𝑙→ = μ0I
∮ Bd𝑙 cos 0 = μ0I
B∮ d𝑙 = μ0I
B x 2πr = μ0I
𝟎 𝛍 𝐈
𝐁 = 𝟐𝛑𝐫
b)

13. Using Ampere’s circuital theorem obtain the expression for mangnetic
field due to a solenoid.

∮ B⃗→. ⅆ𝑙→ =∮ B⃗→. ⅆ𝑙→+∮ B⃗→. ⅆ𝑙→+∮ B⃗→. ⅆ𝑙→+∮ B⃗→. ⅆ𝑙→ ---------- (1)
abcd ab bc cd da
∮ B⃗→. ⅆ𝑙→ = B𝑙 + 0 + 0 + 0
abcd
∮ B⃗→. ⅆ𝑙→ = B𝑙-------------- (2)
abcd
By Ampere's Circuital Law for N turns of solenoid
∮ B. ⅆ𝑙→ = μ0NI ---------------- (3)
From eqns (2) and (3)
B𝑙 =μ0NI
μ NI
B = 0𝑙
𝐍
𝐁 =𝛍𝟎𝐧𝐈 where n=
𝑙
14. A long straight conductor carries 35A current. Find the magnetic
field produced due to this conductor at a point 20cm away from
the centre of the wire.
μ0I 4π𝑥10−7x 35
B= = =13.5 𝑥0−5T
2πr 2π x0.2
15. A solenoid of length 0.5 m has a radius of 1 cm and is made up of 500
turns. It carries a current of 5 A. What is the magnitude of the magnetic
field inside the solenoid?
N
The number of turns per unit length , n=
𝑙
500
= = 1000
0.5
B = μ0nI
= 4π × 10−7x1000x5 =6.28 ×10−3 T
16. a)Obtain the expression for force per unit length between two
parallel current carrying condutors.
b) Use the above relation to define the unit of current ampere)
a)
μ0Ia
Ba =
2πd

Force acting on conductor b due to

this field Ba,
𝐅→ = I(𝑙→ × 𝐁⃗→ )
Fba= Ib LBa
μ0Ia
Fba = Ib L 2πd
μ0IaIb L
Fba = 2πd
The force Fba per unit length,
𝛍𝟎𝐈𝐚𝐈𝐛
𝐟𝐛𝐚= 𝟐𝛑𝐝

b)Definition of ampere
μ 0 Ia Ib
fba = 2πd
If Ia = Ib = 1A and , d=1m
μ0 4π x 10 −7
f = = =2 x 10−7N/m
ba 2π 2π

The ampere is that current which, when flaws through two very long,
straight, parallel conductors placed one metre apart in vacuum, would
produce a force equal to2 x 10−7N/m on each other.
17. A rectangular current loop carrying current is placed in a uniform
magnetic field. Obtain the expression for the torque acting on the loop.

Force on AD and BC is zero

Force on AB =Force on CD = IbB sin 90=IbB
Forces on AB and CD are equal and oppsite and produces a torque.
Torque , τ =Force x perpendicular distance
τ =IbB x a
When the plane of the loop, makes an angle with the magnetic field.
τ = IbB x asin θ
τ = IAB sinθ
We define the magnetic moment of the current loop as, m = I A
𝜏→ = mB sinθ
𝝉⃗⃗→ = 𝒎⃗⃗⃗→⃗ × 𝑩⃗→
18. Write the principle of a moving coil galvanometer.
A current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque and
it deflects. The deflection produced in the coil is directly proportional to the
current through the coil.
𝛟 ∝I
19. Explain the working of a moving coil galvanometer
Torque on the coil due to current
τ = NI AB --------------(1)
The counter torque in the spring,
τ = k𝛟----------------- (2)
where k is the torsional constant of the spring; i.e. the restoring torque per
unit twist.
In equilibrium, k𝛟 = NI AB ------------- (3)
𝐍 𝐀𝐁
𝛟=( )𝐈
𝐤
𝛟 ∝I
Thus the deflection produced in the coil is directly proportional to the
current through the coil.
20. What is current sensitivity of the galvanometer
Current sensitivity of the galvanometer is defined as the deflection per unit
current.
𝛟 N AB
=( )
I k
Current sensitivity can be increased by increasing the number of turns N.
21. What is voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer?
Voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer is defined as the deflection per unit
voltage.
𝛟 N AB I N AB 1
=( ) =( )
V k V k R
𝛟 N AB 1
=( )R
V k

22. Increasing the current sensitivity may not necessarily increase the
voltage sensitivity. Justify.
If N → 2N, i.e., we double the number of turns, then current sensitivity,
𝛟 2N AB 𝛟
=( ) →2 I
I k
Thus, the current sensitivity doubles.

If N → 2N, then R → 2R then the voltage sensitivity,

𝛟 2N AB 1 N AB 1 𝛟
=( ) =( ) =
V k 2R k R V
Thus, the voltage sensitivity remains unchanged.
23. How will you convert a galvanometer to ammeter?
To convert a Galvanometer to an Ammeter ,a small resistance , called shunt
resistance S ,is connected in parallel with the galvanometer coil.
 IgG = (I − Ig)S
𝐈𝐠𝐆
S=
𝐈−𝐈𝐠
24. How will you convert a galvanometer to voltmeter?
To convert a Galvanometer to a volteter a high resistance , R is connected
in series with the galvanometer coil.

V = Ig(R + G)
V
R+G=
Ig
𝐕
R = –G
𝐈𝐠
25. A galvanometer with coil resistance 12𝛀 shows full scale deflection for
a current of 2.5mA. How will you convert it into an ammeter of range
0 – 7.5 A?
IgG
S=
I−Ig
2.5 x 10−3 x 12
S= 7.5−2.5 x 10−3
2.5 x 10−3 x 12
S= =4 x 10−3 Ω
7.5−0.0025
A resistance of 4 x 10−3 Ω is to be connected in parallel to the galvanometer
coil to convert it into an ammeter.
26. A galvanometer with coil resistance 12𝛀 shows full scale deflection for
a current of 3mA. How will you convert it into a voltmeter of range 0 – 18V?
V
R = –G
Ig
18
R = – 12
3 x 10−3
=6x 103-12
=6000-12 =5988 Ω
A resistance of 5988 Ω is to be connected in seriesl to the galvanometer coil
to convert it into a voltmeter.
 Chapter 5
Magnetism and Matter
1. Write the properties of Magnetic Field Lines
▪ The magnetic field lines of a magnet form continuous closed loops.
▪ The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction
of the net magnetic field B at that point.
▪ The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the
stronger is the magnitude of the magnetic field B.
▪ The magnetic field lines do not intersect.
2. The Dipole Analogy
Electrostatics Magnetism
1 μ0
ε0
Dipole moment p⃗→ m⃗→
Axial Field for a short dipole 1 2p⃗→ μ0 2m⃗→
4πε0 r3 4π r3
Equatorial Field for a short 1 p⃗→ μ0 m⃗→
dipole 4πε0 r3 4π r3
Torque in an external field τ⃗→ = p⃗→ × E⃗→ τ⃗→ = m⃗→ × B⃗→
Energy in an external field U⃗→ = −p⃗→ . E⃗→ U⃗→ = −m⃗→ . B⃗→

3. Define magnetic flux

Magnetic flux through a plane of area A placed in a uniform magnetic field B
can be written as
𝝓𝑩= B . A = BA cos
The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb) or tesla meter squared (T m2 ).
4. State Gauss’s Law in magnetism.
Gauss’s law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any
closed surface is zero.
𝝓 = ∮ 𝑩⃗→ ⋅ ⅆ𝒔⃗→ = 𝟎
5. Why does Gauss’s Law in magnetism give a null result.
Gauss’s Law in magnetism give a null result as isolated magnetic
poles(monopole) do not exist.
6. Define Magnetisation(M). Write its unit and dimension.
The net magnetic dipole moment developed per unit volume of a material
is called Magnetisation(M).
𝑚
𝑀 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 unit is Am−1,dimensions AL−1
𝑉
7. Define Magnetic intensity or Magnetising field(H). Write its unit and
dimension.
B
H = −M unit is Am−1,dimensions AL−1 (same as magntisation)
μ0

8. Define Magnetic Susceptibility

𝑀
𝜒= (no unit and dimension)
𝐻
9. Define magnetic permeability
B
μ=
H
10. Obtain the relation connecting relative permeability and magnetic
susceptibility.
Consider a long solenoid of n turns per unit length and carrying a current I.
B = μ0(H + M)
B = μ0(H + χH)
B = μ0(1 + χ)H) -------------- (1)
B = μ0μrH -------------------- (2)
B = μH
From (1) and (2)
μr = 1 + χ
𝛘 = 𝛍𝐫 − 𝟏
11. Write the differences between dia, para and ferro magnetic materials.

12. How will you classify magnetic materials in terms of their susceptibility.
Diamagnetic - χ is negative. χ < 0
Paramagnetic - χ is positive and small, χ > 0
Ferromagnetic - χ is large and positive, χ >> 1
13. How will you classify magnetic materials in terms of their relative
permeability.
Diamagnetic - μr < 1
Paramagnetic - μr > 1
Ferromagnetic - μr >> 1
14. Write two examples each for diamagnetic, paramagnetic and
ferromagnetic materials.
Diamagnetic- water , sodium chloride, diamond, gold.
Paramagnetic - aluminium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, platinum,
tungsten
Ferromagnetic - iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium,Fe2O3
15. The behaviour of magnetic field lines inside two magnetic materials are
given in figure. Identify the materials as diamgetic and paramagnetic .

---------------------- --------------------
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic
16. Mention the behaviour of a dia and ferromagnetic materials when they
are placed in a non uniform magnetic field.
▪ Diamagnetic substances move from stronger to the weaker part of the
external magnetic field.
▪ Ferromagnetic substances move from weaker to stronger part of the
external magnetic field.
17. What are super conductors
These are metals, when cooled to very low temperatures ,exhibits both
perfect conductivity and perfect diamagnetism.
χ = –1 and μr = 0 for super conductors.
32. Differentiate hard ferromagnets and soft ferromagnets
The ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation persists, ,even
when the external field is removed are called hard ferromagnets. Such
materials are used to make permanent magnets.
Eg: Alnico, lodestone
The ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation disappears on the
removal of the external field are called soft ferromagnets.
Eg: Soft iron .
33. At high enough temperature, a ferromagnet becomes ……………..
paramagnet.
 Chapter 6
Electromagnetic Induction

1. State Faraday’s Law of Induction

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude of
the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic
flux through the circuit.
− 𝐝𝛟
𝛆=
𝐝𝐭
2. State Lenz’s law
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which
opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.
𝐝𝛟
𝛆=−
𝐝𝐭
3. Lenz’s Law is in accordance with the law of Conservation of Energy.
Justify.
The current induced in the coil is opposite to the direction of changing
magnetic flux. Then the bar magnet experiences a repulsive force due to the
induced current. Therefore, a person has to do work in moving the magnet.
This energy(work) is dissipated by Joule heating produced by the induced
current. Thus Lenz’s law is in accordance with law of conservation of
energy.
4. What is motional emf?
When a conducting rod is moved through a constant magnetic field, an emf
is developed between the ends of the rod. This emf is known as Motional
Emf. 𝜺 = 𝑩𝒍𝒗
5. Derive the expression for Motional Electromotive Force

The magnetic flux , 𝛟= 𝐵𝑙𝑥

d𝛟 d
𝜀=− B= (𝐵𝑙𝑥)
dt dt
𝑑𝑥
𝜀 = −𝐵𝑙
𝑑𝑡
− dx
v= is the speed of the conductor
dt
𝜺 = 𝑩𝒍𝒗
6. Define self induction
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in an isolated coil by
varying current through the same coil is called self-induction.
7. Define self inductance of a coil
The flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current through the coil.
𝜙α I
𝜙=LI
where L is called self-inductance or coefficient of self-induction of the coil.
8. Write the unit of inductance.
Henry(H)
9. The self inductance of a coil is 2mH. If a current of 1A is switched off in a
time of one millisecond, what is the induced emf in it?
dI
ε=L
dt
L = 2x10−3H
dI =1-0=1A
dt = 1x10−3
1
ε = 2x10−3 𝑥
−3 =2V
1x10

10. The current in a circuit falls from 5A t0 1A in 0.1second. If an average

emf of 200 volts is induced,find the self inductance of the coil.
dI
ε=L
dt
ε = 200V
dI=5-1=4A
dt=0.1s
4
200 = L
0.1
200x0.1
L= =5H
4

11. Obtain the expression for self inductance of a long solenoid

The total flux linked with the solenoid ,
𝜙 = 𝑁𝐵 𝐴
𝜙 = 𝑛𝑙 (𝜇0 n I ) 𝐴
𝜙 = 𝜇0 n2 A𝑙I ------------ (1)
But, 𝜙 = LI ------------------ (2)
From eq (1) and (2)
LI = 𝜇0 n2 A𝑙I
L= 𝝁𝟎 𝐧𝟐 𝐀𝒍--------------(3)
12. Obtain the energy stored in an inductor
dW =LI dI
I
W =∫0 LI dI
1
W = LI2
2
This work is stored in the magnetic field as energy in an inductor
𝟏
U = 𝐋𝐈𝟐
𝟐
Where do an inductor store energy?
An inductor store energy in the magnetic field.
13. Calculate the energy stored in an inductor of inductance 50mH when a
current of 2A is passed through it.
1
U = LI2
2
1 −3 2
= 50𝑥10 𝑥 2 =0.1J
2
14. Define mutual induction
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a coil by varying the
current through a neighbouring coil is called mutual-induction.
15. The coefficient of mutual inductance of two coils is 1H. Current in one of
the coil is increased from 4 to 5A in 1ms. What average emf will be induced
in the other coil
dI
ε=M
dt
M = 1H
dI =5-4=1A
1
dt = 1x10−3s
ε= 1𝑥 =1000V
1x10−3

16. Define mutual inductance of a coil

The flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current through the
neighbouring coil.
𝛟αI
𝛟=MI
where M is called mutual-inductance or the coefficient of mutual-induction
of the coil.
17. The self-induced emf is also called the back emf . Why?
The self-induced emf is also called the back emf as it opposes any change in
the current in a circuit.
18. The electromagnetic analogue of mass is ……………………
Self inductance
19. Derive the expression for mutual inductance of two co-axial solenoids

The current 𝐼2 in 𝑆2 sets up a magnetic flux

𝜙1 = 𝑁1𝐵2 𝐴1
𝜙1 = (𝑛1 𝑙) (𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐼2) 𝐴1
𝜙1 = 𝜇0 𝑛1𝑛2 𝐴1𝑙𝐼2 -------------------- (1)
But, 𝜙1 = 𝑀𝐼2------------------------- (2)
From eq(1) and (2)
𝑀𝐼2 = 𝜇0 𝑛1𝑛2 𝐴1𝑙𝐼2
𝑴 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒏𝟏𝒏𝟐 𝐴1𝒍
20. Obtain the expression for ac voltage produced in an ac generator.

The magnetic flux at any time t is

𝛟 = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt
From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for the rotating coil of N turns is
𝑑𝜙
𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝜀 = −𝑁 BA cos ωt
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝜀 = −𝑁𝐵𝐴 cos ωt
𝑑𝑡
ε = NBAω sinω t
ε = ε0 sinω t
where ε0 =NBAω is the maximum value of the emf.
 Chapter 7
Alternating Current
1. What are phasors?
A phasor is a vector which rotates about the origin in anticlockwise
direction with angular speed ω.
2. a)Obtain the expression for current when an AC voltage is applied
to a resistor.
b)Draw the phasor representation for voltage and current in the circuit.

a) vm sin ωt= iR
v
i = m sin ωt
R
𝐯𝐦
𝐢 =𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝐑
b)

3. Obtain the expression for power dissipated in the resistor when an AC

voltage is applied to it.
p = 𝑣𝑖
p = vm sin ωt im sin ωt
p = vmim sin2ωt
Avearage power consumed over one complete cycle
p = < vmim sin2ωt >
p = vmim < sin2ωt >
1
< sn2ωt > =
1 2
p = 2 vmim
v i
P = ( m ) ( m)
√2 √2
𝐏⃗ = 𝐕𝐈
4. Write the expression
𝐢 for rms current
𝐈 = 𝐦 = 0.707 𝐢
√𝟐 𝐦
5. Write the expression𝑣for
𝑚
rms voltage
𝑉 = = 0.707 𝑣
𝑟𝑚𝑠 √2 𝑚
6. Why a shock from 220V ac is more fatal than that from 220Vdc?
The household line voltage of 220 V is an rms value.
V = 220V
Its peak voltage vm= √2 V
= 1.414 x 220 V = 311 V
At some instant peak value of ac may reach upto 311V .So a shock from
220V ac is more fatal than that from 220Vdc.
7. A light bulb is rated at 100W for a 220 V supply. Find
(a) the resistance of the bulb
(b) the peak voltage of the source
(c) the rms current through the bulb.

8. a) Show that the current lags the voltage by π/2 when an ac

voltage applied to an inductor
b) Draw phasor representation for voltage and current in the circuit
di
a) vm sin ωt= L
dt
di vm sin ωt
=
dt L
vm
di= sin ωt dt
L
vm
i= ∫ sin ωt dt
L
vm −cos ωt
i= x
L ω
vm
i=− cos ωt
ωL

i = −im cos ωt
𝛑 𝐯𝐦
𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝟐) where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝛚𝐋
In a pure inductor, current lags the voltage by π/2 or one-quarter (1/4) cycle.
 b)

9. a)Show that the current leads the voltage by π/2 when an ac

voltage applied to an capacitor
b) Draw the phasor representation for voltage and current in the
circuit
a)

q
vm sin ωt =
C
q = Cd vm sin ωt
i = (C v sin ωt)
dt m
i = Cv d (sin ωt)
m dt

i = C vm ω cos ωt
i = ωC vm cos ωt
i = im cos ωt
𝛑
𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 + ) where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝛚𝐂 𝐯𝐦
𝟐

𝒃)
10. Write the equation for inductive reactance
𝐗𝐋 = 𝛚L =𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐋
11. A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the
inductive reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency of the
source is 50 Hz.
Inductive reactance, XL = ωL = 2πfL
= 2x 3.14x50x25x10−3
= 7.85Ω
V
The rms current in the circuit is, I =
XL
220
I= = 28A
7.85

12. Write the equation for capacitive reactance

𝟏 𝟏
𝐗𝐂 = 𝛚𝐂 = 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂

13. A 15.0 μF capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Find the

capacitive reactance and the current (rms and peak) in the circuit. If the
frequency is doubled, what happens to the capacitive reactance and the
current?
1
The capacitive reactance XC = ωC
1
= 2πfC
1
= =212Ω
2x 3.14x50x15x10−6

V
The rms current is , I =
XC
220
I= =1.04A
212

The peak current is im = √2 I

= 1.414 x1.04
=1.47A
If the frequency is doubled, the capacitive reactance is halved , and
consequently, the current is doubled.
14. Obtain the expression for current when an ac voltage applied to a series
LCR circuit using phasor diagram

di q
v sin ωt = iR + L +
m dt C
Phasor-diagram solution

From phasor diagram, current leads the voltage by an angle 𝛟

𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛟)
To find the value of im
v 2 = v 2 + (v − v )2
m R C L
v 2 = (i R)2 + (i X − i X )2
m m m C m L
v 2 = i 2 [(R)2 + (X − X )2]
m m C L
vm2
im2 = (R)2+(XC−XL)2
vm
im =
√(R)2+(XC−XL)2
𝐯𝐦
𝐢𝐦 = 𝐙
where Z=√(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗𝐂 − 𝐗𝐋)𝟐 is called impedance
15. Write the expression for Impedance of a series LCR circuit
Z = √(R)2 + (XC − XL)2
or
𝟏 2
Z = √(R)2 + ( − ω𝐿)
𝛚𝐂
16. A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283 V and frequency Hz is applied to
a series LCR circuit in which R=3𝛀, L=25.48 mH and C=796𝛍F. Find the
impedance of the circuit.
𝟏 𝟐
𝐙 = √(𝐑)𝟐 + ( − 𝛚𝑳)
𝛚𝐂
1 2
= √(R)2 + ( − 2πf𝐿)
2πfC
1 2
= √(3)2 + ( 2x3.14x50x796x10 −6 − 2x3.14x50x25.48x10
−3 )

= √9 + (4 − 8)2 = √9 + 16 =5 Ω
17. In the following circuit,find the impedance

V = √vR 2 + (vC − vL)2

=√4002 + (600 − 300)2 =500V

18. In the following circuit ,find the impedance

Z = √(R)2 + (XC − XL)2

= √52 + (15 − 3)2 = √169 = 13Ω
19. Write ant two factors on which the impedance of a series LCR crcuit
depends.
Resistance, Capacitance, Inductance, Frequency of AC
20. Using Impedance diagram(impedance triangle) obtain the expression
for phase difference between voltage and current in a series LCR circuit
XC−XL
tan𝛟 =
R
−1 XC−XL
𝛟 = tan
R

21. What is the principle behind tuning of radio or TV Resonance or

At what condition a series LCR circuit is used for tuning.
Resonance
22. What is the condition for resonance in a series LCR circuit
𝐗𝐂 = 𝐗𝐋
1
=ω0L
ω0C
23. Obtain the expression for resonant frequency
At resonance ,XC = XL
1
=ω0L
ω0C 1
ω2 =
0 LC
1
ω0 =
√LC
ω0 is called Resonant frequency
24. Draw the graphical variation of 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞 𝐢𝐦 with
𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝛚

25. Obtain the expression for power in an ac circuit

p= v i
p= vm sin ωt im sin(ωt + ɸ)
v i
P= m m ⟨cos ɸ − cos(2ωt + ɸ)⟩
2
vmim
P= cos ɸ
2
vm im
P= cos ɸ
√2 √2
P= V I cos ɸ
The quantity cosɸ is called the power factor.
26. Draw the Impedance diagram(impedance triangle) and write the
expression for power factor from it.

R
cos 𝛟 =
Z

27. What is the principle of transformer

Mutual Induction
28. Explain with the help of a neat diagram the working of a transformer

Transformer works on the Principle of Mutual Induction

When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current
produces an alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and
induces an emf in it.
d𝛟
VP = −NP dt
d𝛟
Vs = −Ns dt
𝐕𝐬 = 𝐍𝐬 --------------------------------- (1)
𝐕𝐏⃗ 𝐍𝐏⃗
If the transformer is 100% efficient
Power input= power output
IPVP=ISVS
𝐈𝐏⃗ 𝐕
= 𝐬 ---------------------- (2)
𝐈𝐒 𝐕𝐏⃗
From eq(1) and (2)
𝐈𝐏⃗ 𝐕𝐬 𝐍𝐬
= =
𝐈𝐒 𝐕𝐏⃗ 𝐍𝐏⃗

29. What is a step-up transformer

▪ For a step up transformer the number of turns in the secondary will

be greater than that in the primary( Ns > NP)
▪ Vs > VP)
▪ Is < IP)
30. What is a step-down transformer

▪ For a step down transformer the number of turns in the secondary

will be less than that in the primary( N s ˂ NP)
▪ Vs < VP)
▪ Is > IP)
31. A power transmission line feeds input power at 3300 V to a step-down
transformer with its primary windings having 6000 turns. What should be
the number of turns in the secondary in order to get output power at 220
V?
Vs N
= s
VP NP
Vs
Ns = V 𝑥NP
P
220
Ns = 𝑥6000 = 400
3300

32. Explain briefly the energy losses in a transformer and the method to
minimise these losses.
(i) Flux Leakage:
▪ Not all of the flux due to primary passes through the secondary .
▪ It can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils one
over the other.
(ii) Resistance of the windings :
▪ The energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire as I2R.
▪ these are minimised by using thick wire.
(iii)Eddy currents loss:
▪ The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core
and causes heating.
▪ The effect is reduced by having a laminated core.
(iv)Hysteresis loss:
▪ The repeated magnetisation and demagnetisation of the core
produces hysteresis loss as heat.
▪ This can be minimised by using soft iron as core which has a low
hysteresis loss.
 Chapter 8
Electromagnetic Waves
1. What is Displacement Current?
The current due to changing electric field or electric flux is called called
displacement current.
𝐢𝐝 = 𝛆𝟎 𝐝𝛟 𝐄⃗
𝐝𝐭
2. Write Ampere-Maxwell law (or )Maxwell’s mlodification to Ampere’s
circuital theorem.
d𝛟
∮ 𝐵 ⋅ ⅆ𝑙 = 𝜇0ic + 𝜇0ε0 E
dt
3. …………………………. is the source of electromagnetic waves.
An oscillating charge (accelerating charge)
4. A typical plane electro magnetic wave propagating along Z-direction is
shown in figure.

Write the equation for electric and magnetic fields

Ex = E0 sin (k z– ωt)
By = B0 sin (k z– ωt)
5. List the properties of electromagnetic waves (any four)
▪ In an e.m waves are transverse waves in which the electric and
magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other, and also to
the direction of propagation.
▪ The speed of e.m.wave in vacuum is,
1
c=
√μ0𝝴0
The speed of of electromagnetic waves in a material medium is
1 1 c
v= or v = or v =
√μ𝝴 √μ0μr𝝴0𝝴r √μr𝝴r
▪ The electric and the magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave
E
are related as 0 = c
B0
▪ No material medium is required for the propagation of e.m.wave.
▪ Electromagnetic waves carry energy as they travel through space
and this energy is shared equally by the electric and magnetic fields.
▪ Electromagnetic waves transport momentum as well. When these
waves strike a surface, total momentum delivered to this surface is,
𝑈
p= where U is the energy
𝑐
6. A plane electromagnetic wave of frequency 25 MHz travels in free space
along the x-direction. At a particular point in space and time, E = 6.3𝐣̂ V/m.
What is B at this point?
E0
=c
B0
B0 =
E0
=
6.3 =2.1 x10−8 T
c 3 x 108
E is along y-direction and the wave propagates along x-axis.
Therefore, B should be in a direction perpendicular to both x- and y-axes.
i.e., B is along z-axis.
7. The magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic wave is given by
𝑩𝒚 = 2 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕sin (0.5×𝟏𝟎𝟑𝒙 + 1.5×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 t) T.
a) What is the wavelength and frequency of the wave?
b) Write an expression for the electric field.
(a) 𝐵𝑦 = 2 × 10−7sin (0.5×103𝑥 + 1.5×1011 t)
By = B0 sin (kx– ωt)
k=0.5×103
k=2π =0.5×103
λ
2π
λ= =12.56 × 10−3 m
0.5×103

ω =1.5×1011
ω =2𝜋𝑣 =1.5×1011
1.5×1011
𝑣= =0.24 x1011 Hz
2π
b) B is along y-direction and the wave propagates along x-axis.
Therefore, E should be in a direction perpendicular to both x- and y-axes.
i.e., E is al ong z-axis.
So expression for electric field is ,
Ez = E0 sin (k x– ωt)
E0
=c
B0
E0=B0 𝑥 𝑐
=2 × 10−7 x 3 × 108 =60 V/m
Ez = 60 sin (0.5×103𝑥 + 1.5×1011 t) V/m
8. Arrange electromagnetic waves in the increasing order of wavelength(or
decreasing order of frequency.
Gamma rays . X-rays , Ultraviolet rays, Visible rays, Infrared waves ,
Microwaves, Radio waves
9. How radio waves are produced ?
Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in
conducting wires.
10. Write the uses of radio waves.
▪ They are used in radio and television communication systems.
▪ Cellular phones use radio waves.
11. How microwaves are produced?
▪ Microwaves are produced by special vacuum tubes called, klystrons,
magnetrons and Gunn diodes.
12. Write the uses of microwaves.
▪ Used for radar systems used in aircraft navigation .
▪ Used in speed guns used to time fast balls, tennis serves, and
automobiles.
▪ Microwaves are used in microwave ovens , for cooking.
13. How is food cooked in microwave ovens?
In microwave ovens, the frequency of the microwaves is selected to match
the resonant frequency of water molecules so that energy from the waves is
transferred efficiently to the kinetic energy of the molecules. This raises the
temperature of any food containing water.
14. How infrared waves are produced?
Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules.
15. Write the uses of infrared waves.
▪ Infrared lamps are used in physical therapy.
▪ Infrared radiation plays an important role in maintaining the earth’s
warmth or average temperature through the greenhouse effect.
▪ Infrared detectors are used in Earth satellites, both for military
purposes and to observe growth of crops.
▪ LEDs emit infrared waves, which are used in the remote switches of
TV sets, video recorders and hi-fi systems.
16. Why IR waves are called heat waves?
Infrared waves are sometimes referred to as heat waves. This is because
water molecules present in most materials readily absorb infrared waves
After absorption, their thermal motion increases, that is, they heat up and
heat their surroundings.
17. Explain Greenhouse Effect.
Incoming visible light is absorbed by the earth’s surface and reradiated as
infrared (longer wavelength) radiations. This radiation is trapped by
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapour. This trapped
Infrared radiation maintains the earth’s warmth.
18. How ultraviolet rays are produced?
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is produced by special lamps and very hot
bodies. The sun is an important source of ultraviolet light.
19. Write the uses of UV rays.
▪ UV radiations are used in LASIK (Laser assisted in situ
keratomileusis) eye surgery.
▪ UV lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers.
20.How x-rays are used?
One common way to generate X-rays is to bombard a metal target by high
energy electrons.
21. Write the uses of x- rays.
▪ X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for
certain forms of cancer.
22. How gamma rays are produced?
This high frequency radiation is produced in nuclear reactions and also
emitted by radioactive nuclei.
23. Write the uses of gamma rays.
▪ They are used in medicine to destroy cancer cells.
24. Why is depletion of ozone layer , a matter of international concern?
UV light in large quantities has harmful effects on humans. Most of the UV
rays from sun is absorbed in the ozone layer in the atmosphere. Ozone
layer in the atmosphere plays a protective role, and hence its depletion by
chlorofluoro-carbons (CFCs) gas (such as freon) is a matter of international
concern.
 Chapter 9
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
1. Write the laws of reflection
1) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection(i=r).
2) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting
surface at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
2. Write the Cartesian sign convention to measure distances.
1) All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror or the optical
centre of the lens.
2) The distances measured in the same direction as the incident light are
taken as positive and those measured in the direction opposite to the
direction of incident light are taken as negative.
3) The heights measured upwards with respect to principal axis of the
mirror/ lens are taken as positive .The heights measured downwards
are taken as negative.
3. Obtain the relation between Focal Length and Radius of Curvature

Let f be the focal length and R be the radius of curvature of lens

MD MD
From figure , tan θ = , θ= - ---- (1)
R R
MD MD
tan2 θ = , 2θ = -----(2) (tan2θ ≈ 2θ)
f f

MD MD
Substituting θ from eq(1) in eq(2), 2 =
R f
2 1
=
R f
𝐑
𝐟=
𝟐
4. Obtain the mirror equation

The two right-angled triangles A′B′F and MPF are similar

B′A′ B′F
=
PM FP
B′A′ B′F
= ------------(1) (since PM = AB)
BA FP

The right angled triangles A′B′P and ABP are also similar.
B′A′ B′P ------------------
= (2)
BA BP

From eqns(1) and (2)

B′F B′P
=
FP BP

B′ P = v, BP = u, B′F =v-f , FP = f,
v− f v
=
f u

Applying sign convention ,

−v− −f −v
=
−f −u
v
v −1 =
f u

Dividing by v
1 1 1
− =
f v u
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝐮 𝐯 𝐟
This relation is known as the mirror equation.
5. An object is placed at (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm in front of a concave mirror of
radius of curvature 15 cm. Find the position, nature, and magnification of
the image in each case.

6. State the laws of refraction

(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the
interface at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle
of refraction is constant.(Snell’s Law)
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
= 𝒏𝟐𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
7. Some applications of refraction
1. Lateral shift 2. Apparent depth

8. What is total internal reflection ?

When a ray of light enters from a denser medium to a rarer medium, if the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle (ic) for the given pair of
media, the incident ray is totally reflected. This is called total internal
reflection.

9. What are the conditions for total internal reflection?

▪ The ray of light should enter from a denser medium to a rarer
medium.
▪ The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle (ic )
for the given pair of media .
10. Define Critical Angle.
The angle of incidence in the denser medium, for which the angle of
refraction becomes 90º, is called the critical angle (ic ) for the given pair of
media.
11. Write the relation connecting critical angle and refractive index
𝟏
n=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐢𝐜
12. The critical angle of diamond is 24.40 . Find the refractive index of
diamond.
1 1
n= = =2.42
sin i𝔀 sin 24.4

13. Write some applications of total internal reflection

(i) Total reflecting Prisms

(ii) Optical fibres:

14. Obtain the relation between object distance u, image distance v, radius
of curvatures and refractive indices of two media, when refraction occurs
through a spherical surface.
or
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐−𝒏𝟏
Derive the relation − = when refraction occurs through a
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹
spherical surface.

𝑀𝑁
tan 𝛼 =
𝑂𝑀
𝑀𝑁
tan 𝛽 =
𝑀𝐶
𝑀𝑁
tan 𝛾 =
𝑀𝐼
For small values of 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝛾
𝑀𝑁
𝛼 = 𝑂𝑀
𝑀𝑁
𝛽= 𝑀𝐶
𝑀𝑁
𝛾= 𝑀𝐼
From ΔNOC, i = 𝛼 + 𝛽 ------------- (1)
From ΔNIC, 𝛽 = 𝑟 + 𝛾
𝑟 = 𝛽 – 𝛾 --------------- (2)
From Snell’s law
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑛2
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑛1

𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑛2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2𝑟
Substituting fron eqn (1) and (2)
𝑛1 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑛2 (𝛽 – 𝛾)
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
𝑛1 (𝑂𝑀 + 𝑀𝐶 ) = 𝑛2 (𝑀𝐶 – )
𝑀𝐼
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2
+ = –
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛1
+ = –
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2−𝑛1
+ =
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝐶
Applying the Cartesian sign convention,
OM = –u, MI = +v, MC = +R
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2−𝑛1
+ =
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐−𝒏𝟏
− =
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹
15. Derive Lens maker’s formula

For the first surface n2−n1 -----------------

n2 n1 = (1)
′
−
v u R1
For the second surface n1−n2 ----------------------
n1 n
− 2′ = (2)
v v R2
Eqns (1) + (2)
n2 n1 n1 n2 n2−n1 n1−n2
− + − = +
v′ u nv1 v′
n R1 R2 1 1
1
− = (n − n )( - )
v u 2 1 R1 R2
Dividing throughout by n1
1 1 n2 1 1
− =( − 1)( - ) If n2 = 𝑛 , n1 = 1
v u n1 R1 R2
1 1 1 1
− = (𝑛 − 1)( - ) ----------- (3)
v u R1 R2

When u=∞ (infinity) , v=f

𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 = (𝐧 − 𝟏)( - ) ---------- (4)
𝐟 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐

16. The radii of curvature of the faces of a double convex lens are 10cm
and 15cm.Its focal length is 12cm.What is the refractive index of glass?
1 = (n − 1)(
1 1
- )
f R1 R2
1 1
1 = (n − 1)( - )
12 10 −15
1 1
1 = (n − 1)( + )
12 10 15
1
1 = (n − 1)x
12 6
6 1
n-1= = =0.5
12 2
n= 0.5+1
n=1.5
17. Draw a ray diagram showing image formation by a convex lens

18. Draw a ray diagram showing image formation by a concave lens

19. . Define Power of a lens. Write its unit.

Power of a lens is the reciprocal of focal length expressed in metre
𝟏
𝒑⃗ =
𝒇
The SI unit for power of a lens is diopter (D).

20. One diopter is the power of a lens of focal length …………………..

1m (1 metre)
21. Obtain the expression for effective focal length when two thin lenses are
kept in contact

For the first lens A,

1 1 1
− = ----------- (1)
v1 u f1
For the second lens B,
1 1 1
− = -----------(2)
v v1 f2
Eqn (1) +(2)
1
1 − +1− 1
=
1
+
1
v1 u v v1 f1 f2
1 1 1 1
v
− u = f + f------------- (3)
1 2
 If the two lens-system is replaced by a single lens of focal length f,
1 1 1----------------------
− = (4)
v u f
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
From eqn (3) and (4) = +
𝐟 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐
22. Two lenses of powers +7D and -3D are combined. Find the focal length
of the combination.
P =P1+ P2
P =7-3=4D
1
P= f
1 1
f= =
P 4
=0.25m=25cm
23. Draw the path of the ray which is refracted through a prism and obtain
the equation for refractive index of material of prism. Draw the i-d curve

∠A + ∠QNR = 180º
r1 + r2+ ∠QNR = 180º
r1 + r2 = A ------------------ (1)
The total deviation ,
d = (i – r1 ) + (e – r2 )
d = i + e –( r1 + r2)
d = i + e – A ----------------- (2)
At the minimum deviation
d=D , i=e, r1 = r2=r
From eqn (1)
2r =A
𝑨
R= ---------------- (3)
𝟐
From eqn (2)
d = 2i – A
𝐀 + 𝐃 -------------------
i= (4)
𝟐
 By Snell’s law the refractive index of prism
sin 𝑖
𝑛=
sin 𝑟
𝐀+𝐃
𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝒏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝟐
𝟐
i-d curve

24. Obtain the expression for deviation for thin prism.

For a small angle prism, i.e., a thin prism, D is also very small,
A+D
2
n = A
2
D
n = 1+
A
D = (n-1)A
24. Draw a ray diagram showing the image formation at near point for a
simple microscope.

The image is erect, magnified and virtual .

25. Write the expression for magnifying power(linear magnification) of a
simple microscope.
D
m=1 + (when image is at near point D)
f
D
m= (when image is at infinity)
f
26. Derive the expression for linear magnification simple microscope .
v
m=
u
1 1
=v( - )
v f
v
m=1- (when image is at near point v=-D )
f
𝐃
m=𝟏 +
𝐟
𝐃
m= (when image is at infinity)
𝐟
27. A thin convex lens of focal length 5cm is used as a simple microscope by
a person with normal near point(25cm).What is the magnifying power of
this microscope?
D 25
m=1 + =1 + =6
f 5
28. Draw the ray diagram showing the image formationby a compound
microscope.

The image is real, inverted and magnified.

29. Obtain the expression for the magnification produced by a compound
microscope when the image is formed at near point
Magnifiction, m= mo x me------------------ (1)
L
m0 =
f0
When the final image is formed at near point,
D
me =1 +
fe
Substituting in eqn(1) 𝐋 𝐃
m= ( 𝟏 + )
𝐟 𝐟 𝟎 𝐞
30. Write the expression for the magnification produced by a compound
microscope when the image is formed at infinity
L D
m= x
f0 fe
31. For large magnification for a compound microscope
The objective and eyepiece should have small focal lengths
 Chapter 10
Wave Optics
1. Define wavefront
Wavefront is the locus of points, which oscillate in phase or a wavefront is
defined as a surface of constant phase.
2. Draw the wavefronts very near to a point source.
The wavefronts will be spherical .

3. Draw wavefronts at large distance from a source.

These are plane Wavefronts

4. Explain Huygens Principle

According to Huygens principle, each point of the wavefront acts as a
source secondary wavelets and if we draw a common tangent to all these
secondary wavelets, we obtain the new position of the wavefront at a later
time.
5. Using Huygen’s theory obtain the law of refraction of a Plane Wave.
or Using Huygen’s theory derive Snell’s law of refraction.

𝐵𝐶 𝑣1𝜏 ---------------
sin i = = (1)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐸 𝑣2𝜏 ---------------
sin r = = (2)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
(1) sin 𝑖 𝑣1 -----------------------
eqn = (3)
(2) sin 𝑟 𝑣2
𝑐
𝑛1= 𝑣
1
𝑐
𝑛2= 𝑣
𝑛2 𝑣1 ------------------ 2
= (4)
𝑛1 𝑣2
Substituting in eqn (3)
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 ------------------ (5)
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 𝒏𝟏
This is the Snell’s law of refraction.
6. Using Huygen’s theory obtain the law of reflection of a plane wave.
Or Using Huygen’s theory prove that angle of incidence is equal to angle of
reflection.

AE = BC = v𝜏
AC = AC (common side)
So the triangles EAC and BAC are congruent .
Therefore . i =r
Angle of incidence=Angle of reflection
This is the law of reflection.
7. A plane wavefront is incident on a thin prism . Sketch the refracted
wavefront

The emerging wavefront is also plane wavefront, but tilted.

8. A plane wavefront is incident on a convex lens . Sketch the refracted
wavefront

The emerging wavefront is spherical and converges to the point F which is

known as the focus.
9. A plane wavefront is incident on a concave mirror . Sketch the reflected
wavefront

The reflected wavefront is a spherical converging to the focal point F.

10.What are coherent sources?
Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of same
frequency and same phase or constant phase difference.
11. Define Interference.
Interference is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a
resultant wave of greater or lower amplitude.

12. Write the Condition for constructive interference

If the path difference at a point is an integral multiple of
λ, there will be constructive interference and a bright
fringe is formed at that point
S2P – S1P = nλ where (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)
13. Write the condition for destructive interference
If the path difference at a point is an odd integral multiple
of λ/2 , there will be destructive interference and a dark
fringe is formed at that point
𝟏
S2 – S1P = = (n+ ) λ where (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)
𝟐
14. Two sodium lamps illuminating two pinholes cannot produce
interference fringes. Why?
The light waves coming out from two independent sources of light(like a
sodium lamp) will not have any fixed phase relationship and would be
incoherent and cannot produce interference pattern.
15. Explain Young’s double slit experiment to produce
interference Pattern.

Thomas Young made two pinholes S1 and S2 (very close to each other) on
an opaque screen. These were illuminated by another pinholes which is
illuminated by a bright source. Light waves spread out from S and fall on
both S1 and S2. S1 and S2 then behave like two coherent sources and
interference pattern with alternate bright and dark fringes is formed on
the screen. The central fringe will be bright.
𝑥𝑑
For bright band path difference , = nλ
D
nλ𝐷
xn= , n=0, ±1, ±2,….
d
𝑥𝑑 𝟏
For dark band path difference, = (n+ ) λ
D 𝟐
𝟏 λ𝐷
xn= (𝐧 + ) , n=0, ±1, ±2,….
𝟐 d

16. What is Diffraction?

Diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an
obstacle , into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle.
17. Draw a neat diagram of single slit diffraction experiment and write the
condition for central maximum ,secondary maxima and minima.

For central maximum the angle θ =0

𝟏 𝛌
For secondary maxima , θ = (n+ ) where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ....
𝟐 𝒂
𝛌
For secondary minima, θ= n where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ....
𝒂

18. What is polarisation of light?

The phenomenon of restricting the electric field vibrations of light to one
plane is called polarisation.
19. What is plane polarised light?
For a plane polarised light, the vibrations of electric field vector are
restricted in one direction .
20. What type of waves show the property of polarisation, transverse or
longitudinal?
Transverse waves
21. What are Polaroids?
If an unpolarised light passes through a polaroid ,we get plane polarised
light. Polaroids are thin plastic like sheets, which consists of long chain
molecules aligned in a particular direction. The electric vectors along the
direction of the aligned molecules get absorbed.
22. Uses of polaroids ,
In sunglasses, wind screens in trains and aeroplanes, in 3D cameras
23. State Malus’ Law
When an unpolarised light is passed through two polaroids P1 and P2 and if
the angle between the polaroids is varied from 0º to 90º, the intensity of
the7 transmitted light will vary as:
I = 𝐈𝟎𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛉
Where I0 is the intensity of the polarized from P1.
 Chapter 11
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
1. What are the different mehods of electron emission from a metal surface
Thermionic emission
Field Emission
Photo-electric emission
2. What is photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of emission of electrons when photosensitive substances
are illuminated by light of suitable frequency is called photoelectric effect.
i.e., the photocurrent increases linearly with intensity of incident light.
3. Define work function
The minimum energy required by an electron to escape from a metal
surface is called work function
𝜙0 = h𝑣0 (where 𝑣0 is threshold frequency)
work function is expressed in electron volt(eV)
4. Define threshold frequency
The minimum frequency of incident radiation below which photo electric
emission is not possible is called threshold frequency(𝑣0).
𝝓
𝒗𝟎 = 𝒉𝟎
Greater the work function ,greater the threshold frequency.
5. Define stopping potential
The stopping potential is the minimum negative potential applied to the
anode at which the photo emission stops.
6. Obtain Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
Energy of photon =work function + KE of electrons
ℎ𝑣 = 𝜙0 + Kmax
Kmax = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝜙0
½ mv2 = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝜙0
7. At stopping potential V0, Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation can be
expressed as
Kmax=e V0
e V0 = 𝐡𝐯 − 𝜙0
8. The work function of a metal is 6eV. If two photons each having energy 4
eV strike the metal surface. Will the emission be possible? Why?
No, photo emission is not possible.
Photo emission is possible only if ℎ𝑣 > 𝜙0
Here energy of incident photon is less than work function
and hence photo emission is not possible.
9. The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV.
a) Find the threshold frequency for caesium.
b) the wavelength of the incident light if the photocurrent is brought
to zero by a stopping potential of 0.60 V.
𝝓
a) 𝒗𝟎 = 𝟎 𝒉
𝝓𝟎 =2.14 eV =2.14 x1.6x10-19 J
h=6.63 x10-34Js
2.14 x1.6x10−19
𝒗𝟎 = 6.63 x10−34 =5.16 x1014 Hz
b) e V0 = 𝐡𝑣 − 𝜙0
𝐡𝑣 = e V0−𝜙0
𝑐
𝐡 𝜆 = e V0−𝜙0
ℎ𝑐
𝜆=
𝑒𝐕𝟎−𝜙0
6.63 x10 −34𝑥3 x108
= =454 nm
1.6 x10−19𝑥0.6−2.14 x1.6x10−19
10. The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV. When light of frequency 6x1014
Hz is incident on the metal surface, photo emission of electrons
occurs.(h=6.6x10-34)
a) Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
b) Calculate the stopping potential.
a) Kmax = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0
=6.6x10-34 x6x1014 -2.14x1.6x10-19
=3.96 x10-19-3.42x10-19
=0.54x10-19 J =0.54eV

b) Kmax= 𝐾e V0 0.54x10−19
V = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =0.34 V
0
𝑒 1.6 𝑥10−19
11. Draw a graph showing the variation of photocurrent with intensity of
light.

When intensity of incident radiation is increased the number of

photoelectrons emitted per second increases and hence the photoelectric
current also increases.
12. Effect of Intensity of incident radiation on stopping potential

For a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is

independent of intensity of radiation.
13. Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential

The stopping potential increases with increase in frequency of incident

radiation.
14. Draw the graphical variation of stopping potential 𝑽𝟎 and frequency 𝒗.
What is the slope and y- intercpt of this graph?

𝑽𝟎 𝒉
From graph , slope = =
𝒗 𝒆
𝝓𝟎
The y- intercept =
𝒆
15. Write the properties of photon
or
Explain particle nature of light –The Photon
1) In the interaction of light with matter , light behaves as if it is made
up of particles called photon.
2) Each photon has energy, E=hν and momentum p= hν/c and
Speed c= 3x 108m/s
3) All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have
the same energy and momentum p, whatever the intensity of
radiation may be.
4) When intensity of light is increased only the number of photons
increases, but the energy of photon is independent of intensity of light.
5) Photons are electrically neutral. They are not deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
6) In photon-particle collision total energy and total momentum are
conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a
collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
16. Write de Broglie Relation -Wavelength of matter wave
𝒉 𝒉
λ= = - ----------- (1)
𝒑⃗ 𝒎⃗⃗⃗𝒗

17. Why macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like
properties?
The wavelength associated with macroscopic objects is so small that it is
beyond any measurement. So macroscopic objects in our daily life do not
show wave-like properties.
18. Find the de Broglie wavelength of a ball of mass 0.12 kg moving with a
speed of 20 m s–1 .
ℎ 6.6 𝑥10−34
λ= = 0.12 𝑥20
𝑚𝑣
= 2.76x10-34 nm
This wavelength is so small that it is beyond any measurement.
19. What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron moving
with a speed of 5.4×106 m/s?
ℎ 6.6 𝑥10−34
λ= = = 0.135 nm
𝑚𝑣 9.1 𝑥 10−31𝑥 5.4 𝑥106

This wavelength is measurable. i.e., in the sub-atomic domain, the wave

character of particles is significant and measurable.
 Chapter 12
Atoms
1. Write the postulates of Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom
▪ Most of an atom is empty space.
▪ The entire positive charge and most of the mass of the atom are
concentrated in the nucleus with the electrons some distance away.
▪ The electrons would be moving in orbits about the nucleus just as the
planets do around the sun.
▪ The size of the nucleus to be about 10–15 m to 10–14 m.
▪ The electrostatic force of attraction, between the revolving electrons
and the nucleus provides the centripetal force to keep them in their
orbits.
2. Define Impact Parameter (b)

Impact parameter is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector

of the α particle from the centre of the nucleus.
3. What is the importance of impact parameter on determining the
trajectory of 𝛂 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞
▪ For head on collision, the impact parameter b=0 and
α particle rebounds back ie,
▪ For large impact parameter, the angle of scattering will be
small ( θ ≈00) and such α particles go undeviated.
4. What is the angle of scattering for an impact parameter=0
angle of scattering θ =1800.
5. Write the limitations of Rutherford Model
(a) Rutherford model could not explain stability of
matter. The accelerated electrons revolving around the
nucleus loses energy and must spiral into the nucleus.
This contradicts the stability of matter.
(b) It cannot explain the characteristic line spectra of atoms of
different elements.
6. Write the postulates of Bohr atom model.
First postulate : An electron in an atom revolves in certain stable
orbits without the emission of radiant energy.
Second postulate :The orbital angular momentum of electon is an
integral multiple of h/2π
𝑛ℎ
mvr = ,where n = 1,2,3……….
2𝜋
Third postulate : When an electron make a transition from higher
energy level to lower energy level a photon is
emitted having energy equal to the energy
difference between the initial and final states.
hν = 𝐸𝑖 - 𝐸𝑓
7. Write the expression for radius of Hydrogen atom.
n2h2𝝴0
r n= πme2
or rn =0.53 n2Å
8. Write the expression for energy of Hydrogen atom
−me4 −13.6
En = or En = n2
eV
8n2𝝴0 2h2
The negative sign of the total energy of an electron moving in an orbit
means that the electron is bound with the nucleus.
9. Derive the expression for Energy of Hydrogen Atom
Total Energy = KE + PE
e2 −e2
E= +
8π𝝴0r 4π𝝴0r
−𝐞𝟐
E=
𝟖𝛑𝛆𝟎𝐫
For the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 energy level
−𝐞𝟐
𝐄⃗𝐧 =
𝟖𝛑𝛆𝟎𝐫𝐧
n2h2𝝴0
Substituting for rn = πme2
−e2
𝐄⃗𝐧 = 𝐧𝟐𝐡𝟐𝛆
𝟎
8π𝝴0 ( 𝛑𝐦𝐞𝟐 )

−𝐦𝐞𝟒
𝐄⃗𝐧 =
𝟖𝐧𝟐𝛆𝟎 𝟐𝐡𝟐
𝐄⃗ = −𝟏𝟑.𝟔
eV
𝐧 𝐧𝟐
10. Find the energy of different energy levels
For ground state(First energy level)
−13.6
n=1 E1 = eV = -13.6 eV
12
 For first excited state (second energy level)
−13.6
n =2, E2 = 22 eV = -3.4 eV

For second excited state (third energy level)

−13.6
n =3 , E3 = 92
eV = -1.51 eV

11. Define Ionisation Energy

The minimum energy required to free the electron from the ground state of
the atom is called the Ionisation energy.
12. Write the Ionisation energy of Hydrogen atom.
Ionisation energy of Hydrogen atom is +13.6 eV

13. Draw the energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom

14. Explain how de Broglie Explained Bohr’s second postulate of

Quantisation.
De Broglie argued that electron in its circular orbit behaves as a particle
wave. The particle wave can produce standing wave under resonant
condition.
 For 𝑛𝑡ℎorbit of radius 𝑟𝑛 , the resonant condition is
2 π 𝑟𝑛 = n λ ----------- (1)
Where n=1,2,3…..

But by de Broglie hypothesis , for matter waves

h
λ = mv - ------------- (2)

Substituting eqn (2) in eqn (1),

h
2 π rn = n
mv
nh
mv rn= 2π
where n=1,2,3……
This Bohr’s second postulate of Quantisation.
15. Write the limitations of Bohr Atom Model
(i) The Bohr model is applicable to hydrogenic atoms. It cannot be
extended two or more electron atoms.
(ii) The Bohr model is unable to explain the intensity variations of the
frequencies in hydrogen spectrum
 Chapter 13
Nuclei
1. Define atomic mass unit (u)
Atomic mass unit (u) is defined as 1/12th of the mass of the carbon (12C)
atom.
mass of the one C−12 atom
1u = 12
=1.660539 10-27 kg
2. What are Isotopes?
Isotpes are different types of atoms of the same element, with same atomic
number ,but different mass number .
Hydrogen has three isotopes , proton(1H), deuterium(2H) and tritium(3H).
1 1 1

3. What are isobars?

All nuclides with same mass number A , but with different atomic number
are called isobars.
For example, the nuclides (3H) and (3He)are isobars.
1 2

4. What are isotones?

Nuclides with same neutron number N but different atomic number Z are
called isotones.
For example198Hg 197Au are isotones.
80 79

5. Chlorine has two isotopes having masses 34.98 u and 36.98 u. The
relative abundances of these isotopes are 75.4 and 24.6 per cent,
respectively. Find the average mass of a chlorine atom.
75.4 x34.98+ 24.6x 36.98
= = 35.47 u
𝟏𝟎𝟎
6. Write the expression for radius of nucleus.
R = R0 A1/3
where R0 = 1.2 × 10–15 m.
7. Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 1:64. What is the ratio of their
nuclear radii?
R1= R0 A11/3
R2= R0 A21/3
𝑅1 𝐴 1/3 1/3
= ( 1) = (1) =1
𝑅2 𝐴2 64 4
R1:R2 =1:4
8. Write Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation
E = mc 2
9. Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.
E = mc 2
= 1x10–3 × ( 3 × 108 ) 2
= 10–3 × 9 × 1016 = 9 × 1013 J
10. Find the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit, first in Joules and
then in MeV.
1u = 1.6605 × 10–27 kg
E = mc 2
=1.6605 × 10–27 x(3 x 108)2 = 1.4924 × 10–10 J

Energy equivalent in MeV.

1eV = 1.602 x10-19J
1.4924 × 10–10
E= = 0.9315 × 109 eV = 931.5 MeV
1.602 x10−19

11. What is mass defect ?

The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents is called the mass
defect. ΔM = [𝐙 𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧] − 𝐌
12. What is binding energy?
The energy equivalent of mass defect is called binding energy.
Eb = Δ Mc2
Eb = ([𝐙 𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧] − 𝐌)c2
13. What do you mean by binding energy per nucleon
The binding energy per nucleon, Ebn, is the ratio of the binding energy Eb of
a nucleus to the number of the nucleons, A, in that nucleus.
Ebn = Eb / A
14. The nucleus with highest binding energy per nucleon is……………
56Fe nucleus

15. How can you explain nuclear fission and nuclear fusion based on the
values of binding energy per nucleon values of nuclei?
(i) A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per
nucleon .Such a heavy nucleus breaks into two lighter nuclei, thereby
increasing the binding energy per nucleon and the nucleons get more
tightly bound. Energy would be released in the process and this is an
implication of fission.
(ii) Two very light nuclei (A ≤ 10) have lower binding energy per nucleon
.They join to form a heavier nucleus , thereby increasing the binding
energy per nucleon and the nucleons get more tightly bound. Energy
would be released in such a process and this is an implication of
fusion.
16. Write the characteristics of nuclear force?
The nuclear force binds the nucleons together inside the nucleus.
(i) The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb repulsive
force between protons inside the nucleus and the gravitational
force between the masses.
(ii) The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as
their distance is more than a few femtometres.
(iii) The force is attractive for distances larger than 0.8 fm and
repulsive if they are separated by distances less than 0.8 fm.
(iv) The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron
and proton-proton is approximately the same. The nuclear force
does not depend on the electric charge.

17. Radioactivity was discovered by……………………….

Henry Becquerel

18. Write three types of radioactive decay occur in nature.

1. Alpha decay
2. Beta decay
3. Gamma decay
19. What is nuclear fission?
Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavier nucleus splits into lighter
nuclei with the release of large amount of energy.
Example: 1n +235U → 236U → 144Ba + 89Kr + 31n
0 92 92 56 36 0

20. The energy released (the Q value ) in the fission reaction of nuclei like
uranium is of the order of............... per fissioning nucleus.
200 MeV

21. What is nuclear fusion ?

Nuclear fusion is the process in which two light nuclei combine to form a
single larger nucleus, with the release of a large amount of energy.
Examples are 1H + 1H → 2H + e+ + ν + 0.42 MeV
1 1 1

22. What is thermonuclear fusion?

For nuclear fusion to occur in bulk matter the temperature of the material
is to be raised until the particles have enough energy to penetrate the
coulomb barrier. This process is called thermonuclear fusion.
23. The energy generation in stars takes place via thermonuclear fusion.

24. Write the proton-proton (p, p) cycle through which energy is generated
in sun. 1H + 1H → 2H + e+ + ν + 0.42 MeV
1 1 1
e+ + e−→ γ + γ + 1.02 MeV
2H + 1H → 2He + γ + 5.49 MeV
1 1 3
3H + 3H → 4He + 1H + 1H + 12.86 MeV
2 2 2 1 1
The combined reaction is
4 11H + 2 e− → 42He + 2ν + 6γ + 26.7 MeV
Or (4 1H + 4 e−) → (4He + 2e−) + 2ν + 6γ + 26.7 MeV
1 2
 Chapter 14
Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials ,Devices and Simple Circuits
1. Draw energy bands in solids

2. Define energy gap or band gap. Write the unit in which band gap is
measured.
The energy difference between the top of the valence band and bottom of
the conduction band is called the energy band gap (Energy gap Eg ).
It is measured in electron volt.

3. Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors on the basis of

energy bands

4. What are Intrinsic Semiconductors?

Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’.
ne = nh = ni
5. Draw the energy-band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor at t=0k
An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator at T = 0 K .
6. Draw the energy-band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor at t > 0k
At temperatures (T > 0K), some electrons are excited from the valence
band to the conduction band, leaving equal number of holes there.

7. What are Extrinsic Semiconductor?

When a small amount of a suitable impurity is added to the pure
semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor is increased . Such
materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors or impurity
semiconductors. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors –
(i) n-type semiconductor
(ii) p-type semiconductor
8. What is doping and dopants?
The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the
impurity atoms are called dopants. Such a material is also called a doped
semiconductor.
9. What are n-type semiconductors?
n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping Si or Ge with pentavalent
atoms (donors) like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P),etc.
For n-type semiconductors, ne >> nh
10. What are p-type semiconductors?
p-type semiconductor is obtained when Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent
impurity like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), etc.
For p-type semiconductors, nh >> ne
11. Draw the energy bands of n-type semiconductor at T > 0K
12. Draw the energy bands of p-type semiconductor at T > 0K

13. How a p-n junction is formed?

A p-n junction can be formed by adding a small quantity of pendavalent
impurity to a p-type semiconductor or by adding a small quantity of
trivalent impurity to an n-type semiconductor.

14. What is Diffusion current?

The holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p → n) and electrons diffuse from n-
side to p-side (n → p). This motion of charge carriers give rise to Diffusion
current across the junction.
15. What is drift?
The motion of minority charge carriers across p-n junction due to
electricfield is called called drift.
16. What is Depletion region (Depletion layer)
The space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known as
depletion region. The depletion layer consist of immobile ion-cores and no
free electrons or holes. This is responsible for a junction potential barrier.
17. Barrier Potential
The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p-
region causes a difference of potential across the junction of the two
regions. Since this potential tends to prevent the movement of electron
from the n region into the p region, it is called a barrier potential.
The barrier potential of a Ge diode is 0.2Vand that of a Si diode is 0.7V.
18. Draw the symbol of a p-n junction Diode
19. What is forward biasing of a p-n junction diode ?
If p-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal and n-side to the
negative terminal of the battery, it is said to be forward biased.

20. Write specific features of forward biased p-n junction diode.

▪ The depletion layer width decreases and the barrier height is reduced.
▪ The effective barrier height is (V0 – V ).
▪ The motion of majority carriers on either side gives rise to diffusion
current.
▪ The magnitude of this current is usually in mA.
21. What is reverse biasing of a p-n junction diode ?
If n-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal and p-side to the
negative terminal of the battery, it is said to be reverse biased.

22. Write specific features of reverse biased p-n junction diode.

▪ The depletion layer width increases and the barrier height is
incresaed.
▪ The effective barrier height is (V0 + V )..
▪ The drift of minority carriers gives rise to drift current.
▪ The drift current is of the order of a few μA.
23. Draw the V-I characteristics of a silicon diode and mark threshold
voltage and break-down voltage.

24. Define threshold voltage of a p-n junction diode.

The forward voltage beyond which the diode current increases significantly
is called threshold voltage or cut-in voltage or knee voltage.
25. Define break down voltage of a p-n junction diode.
The reverse voltage at which the reverse current increases suddenly is
called break-down voltage.
26. Explain a half wave rectifier Draw the input and output voltage
waveforms.

In the positive half-cycle of ac there is a current through the load resistor

𝑅𝐿 and we get an output voltage, whereas there is no current in the
negative half cycle.

27. Explain a full wave rectifier . Draw the input and output voltage
waveforms.

During this positive half cycle, diode 𝐷1 gets forward biased and conducts
,while 𝐷2 being reverse biased is not conducting. Hence we get an output
current and a output voltage across the load resistor 𝑅𝐿.
During negative half cycle, diode 𝐷1 would not conduct but diode 𝐷2
conducts, giving an output current and output voltage across 𝑅𝐿 in the same
directionas in positive half.
Thus, we get output voltage during both the positive as well as the negative
half of the cycle.

28. What are filters? Draw the input and output waveforms of filter
circuit
The cicuits that filter out the ac ripple and give a pure dc voltage are called
filters.

Seema Elizabeth ,
HSST Physics
MARM Govt HSS Santhipuram
Thrissur