General Physics 2

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General Physics 2
Learning Activity Sheets
Quarter 3 - Week 1: Electrical Charges & Columb’s Law
First Edition, 2021
Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any
work of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government
agency or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation of
such work for a profit. Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a
condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (e.g. songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in this activity sheets are owned by their respective
copyright holders. Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use
these materials from their copyright owners. The authors do not represent nor claim
ownership over them.
Development Team of the Learner’s Activity Sheets
Writer: AR A. Ranesis
Editors: Ric Me D. Diaz
Shekaina Faith C. Lozada
Edna E. Trinidad
Relyn D. Raza
Glenn Pacot
Airene Jane B. Pelegro
Ace Michael B. Magalso
Layout Reviewers: Ric Me D. Diaz

Marvin T. Tejano
Management Team: Josita B. Carmen, Schools Division Superintendent

Jasmin R. Lacuna, Asst. Schools Division Superintendent
Celsa A. Casa, CID Chief
Bryan L. Arreo, LR Manager
Edna E. Trinidad, Science Education Program Supervisor
Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña, Regional Science Coordinator
Author: AR A. Ranesis
School/Station: Alba Integrated School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: [email protected]
WEEKLY LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEETS
General Physics 2, Grade 12, Quarter 3, Week 1
ELECTRICAL CHARGES & COULOMB’S LAW
Name: _________________________________________ Section: __________________
Learning Objectives:
After the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. describe using a diagram charging by rubbing and charging by induction

(STEM_GP12EMIIIa-1);
2. explain the role of electron transfer in electrostatic charging by rubbing
3. describe experiments to show electrostatic charging by induction
4. calculate the net electric force on a point charge exerted by a system of point charges
5. describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a force
(STEM_GP12EMIIIa-7); and
6. calculate the electric field due to a system of point charges using Coulomb’s law and
the Superposition Principle (STEM_GP12EMIIIa-10).
Key Concepts
 Positive and negative charges are the two types of electrical charges.
 Electrons are the negative charges and protons are the positive ones.
 Unlike charges attract each other while same charges repel.
 Losing or gaining electron means charging.
 Matter is charged in three ways namely charging by friction, charging by contact,
and charging by induction.
 A material rubs to another one is charged by friction. The material that loses
electron and the other material that gains electron are both charged. The number
of lost and gained electrons are adequate to one another.
 A neutral sphere can be charged by contact or conduction if a negatively
charged material passes electrons by touching a neutral sphere.
 If an object induces charge with other object without contact, it is called charging
by induction.
1
Fig.1. Charging by friction
Source:https://d3jlfsfsyc6yvi.cloudfront.net/image/mw:1024/q:85/https%3A%2F%2Fhaygot.s3.a
mazonaws.com%3A443%2Fcheatsheet%2F10810_689d8cf6d6a441078f18c202840a6a5a.jpg
Fig. 2. Charging by conduction

Source:https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/estatics/u8l2c1.gif
Fig. 3. Charging by induction

Source:https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/estatics/u8l2b2.gif
n
2
 Electrical conductors are materials or substances which have free electrons. Free
electrons can move freely throughout these materials. A small region of a good
conductor when charged can distribute itself over an entire surface area.
Examples of good conductors are copper, silver and iron.
 Electrical insulators are materials or substances in which all of its electrons are
bound to atoms or don’t have free electrons. The movements of free electrons in
insulators are opposite to conductors. A small region of a good insulator when
charged cannot move to other regions. Examples of good insulators are rubber,
plastic and wood.
 Semiconductors’ properties are in between those of insulators and conductors.
Examples of semiconductor materials are silicon and tellurium which are
commonly used in making electronic chips.
 An electric field is a region or space where a charged particle experiences an
electrical force without contact. The charged particle will accelerate to the
direction where there is an unbalanced force if it is free to move.
 The electric field can be represented by drawing a series of lines going from a
positive charge to a negative charge, or to or from infinity if only one charge is
present.
 The strength of electric field depends on the distance between the electric fields.
The closer they are, the stronger while the farther they are, the weaker.
Fig. 4. Electrical field line pattern of positive charge (left) and negative charge (right)
Source:https://isaacphysics.org/api/v2.15.1/api/images/content/concepts/physics/figures/electric_fi
eld_e_field_point_capacitor_2.svghttps://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/estatics/u8l2b2.gif
3
Fig. 5. Different electrical field density lines
Fig. 6. Electrical field line patterns of same electrical charges (left) and opposite charges (right)
 Coulomb's law states that the magnitude of the electric force between two-point
charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them (Young and Freedman,
2012).
q1q2 N  m2
9
F k where k  8.9876  10
r2 C2
where q1 represents the quantity of charge on object 1 (in Coulombs), q2
represents the quantity of charge on object 2 (in Coulombs), and r represents the
distance of separation between the two objects (in meters). The symbol k is a
proportionality constant known as the Coulomb's law constant.
4
 If the charges q1 and q2 are of the same sign (both positive or both negative) then
the force is mutually repulsive and the force on each charge points away from the
other charge. If the charges are of opposite signs (one positive, one negative) then
the force is mutually attractive and the force on each charge points toward the
other one.
Fig.7. Unlike charges attract each other while same charges repel
Source:http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/imgele/coulaw.png
Sample problems:
1. A point charge of +3.00 × 10−6 C is 12.0 cm distant from a second point charge
of −1.50 × 10−6 C. Calculate the magnitude of the force on each charge.
Solution:
q1q2
F k
r2

  8.99  10
2

 6

9 N  m  3.00  10 C 1.5  10 C
6

 C 2
 
12.0  10  2 m
2

= 2.81 N
Each charge experiences a force of attraction of magnitude 2.81 N.
2. What must be the distance between point charge q1 = 26.0 μC and point charge
q2 = −47.0 μC for the electrostatic force between them to have a magnitude of
5.70 N?
Solution:
We are given the charges and the magnitude of the (attractive) force between
them. We can use Coulomb’s law to solve for r, the distance between the charges:
q1q2 q1q2
F k 2
 r2  k
r F
Plug in the given values:
2 
r   8.99 10
 
6

9 N  m  26.0 10 C 47.0 10 C
2 6

 1.93m 2
 C 2
5.70 N 
This gives: r  1.93m 2  1.39m The distance between the charges is 1.39 m.
5
 Principle of Superposition states that when a number of charges are interacting,
the total force on a given charge is the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all
other charges. This principle makes use of the fact that the forces with which two
charges attract or repel one another are not affected by the presence of other
charges.
 The electric force, like all other forces, is a vector quantity. Hence, the force
experienced by a charge due to two or more charges is the vector sum of all the
forces.    
Fnet  F1  F2  F3 ...
The X and Y components of the net force are
   
F net , x  F1, x  F 2, x  F 3, x  ...
   
F net , y  F1, y  F 2, y  F 3, y  ...
The magnitude and direction of the net force are
Fnet  Fnet2 , x  Fnet2 , y

F 
  tan 1  net , y 
 Fnet , x 
Sample problem:
Three different, small charged objects are placed as shown in Figure 8. The
charges q1 and q3 are fixed in place; q2 is free to move. Given q1 = 2e, q2 = −3e ,
and q3 = −5e , and that r = 2.0 × 10−7 m , what is the net force and direction on
the middle charge q2? Note: e = 1.602 × 10−19 C
Solution:
1. Find the net force on q2

  
F2  F21  F23
A. Find the magnitude of F23 r
q1q2
Fx   F23  k
r2 2r

  8.99 10
2

9 N  m  4.806  10

19

C 8.0110 19 C  Fig.8
 C 2
 
4.00 107 m
2
 Source:https://files.mtstatic.com/s
ite_4539/11854/
 2.16 10 14 N
B. Find the magnitude of F21
q1q2
Fy  F21  k
r2
6


  8.99 10
2


9 N  m  4.806  10
19

C 3.204 10 19 C 
 C 2  
2.00 107 m
2

 3.46 10 14 N
C. Calculate the two orthogonal components of F23 and F21

F23,x = F23 cos 0° = (-2.16 × 10-14 N) (1) = -2.16 × 10-14 N
F23,y = F23 sin 0° = (-2.16 × 10-14 N) (0) = 0
F21,x = F21 cos 90° = (3.46 × 10-14 N) (0) = 0

F21,y = F21 sin 90° = (3.46 × 10-14 N) (1) = 3.46 × 10-14 N
D. Calculate the net force, F2

Fx = F23,x + F21,x = -2.16 × 10-14 N + 0 = -2.16 × 10-14 N
Fy = F23,y + F21,y = 0 + 3.46 × 10-14 N = 3.46 × 10-14 N
F  Fx2  Fy2
  2.16 10 14

 
2
N  3.46  10 14 N 
2
 4.08 10 14 N

2. Find the direction
F 
  tan 1  net , y 
 Fnet , x 
 3.46 10 14 N 
  tan  1
14

  2.16  10 N 
 58
The net force and the direction on the middle charge q2 is 4.08 × 10-14 N, -58°.
7
Activity 1. Rub It!
Objective
The learners should be able to explain the role of electron transfer in electrostatic
charging by rubbing
What you need:

 Cloth (silk or cotton)
 Plastic comb
 Dry paper
What to do:
1. Cut a piece of dry paper into a few quarter-inch squares.
2. Vigorously rub the plastic comb against the piece of cloth.
3. Put the plastic comb near the pieces of paper.
4. Record the behavior of the paper squares.
Guide Questions:
1. What have you observed to the paper squares after the plastic comb is rubbed
against a piece of cloth?
2. Why the paper squares behaved like that?
Rubric for Guide Questions 1 and 2

3 2 1 0
Practical application Practical application Practical application No discussion.
is scientifically is scientifically is explained
explained consistent explained consistent consistent to the
to the concepts, and to the concepts, but concepts but with
has no with minimal misconceptions.
misconceptions. misconceptions.
8
Activity 2. Induction, Conduction
Objectives
The learners should be able to:
1. describe using a diagram charging by rubbing and charging by induction; and
2. describe experiments to show electrostatic charging by induction
What you need:

Paper and pen
What to do:
Observe and describe the following diagrams below by answering the guide
questions. The guide questions on nos. 1 to 3 and nos. 4 to 6 are based on Figure 9
and 10 respectively. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
Fig.9
Source:Electricity Physics, 2020/12/11 20:14:47, pdf, page 13
Fig.10
Source:Electricity Physics, 2020/12/11 20:14:47, pdf, page 12
9
Guide Questions:
1. What are the charges of the two spheres before a positively charged glass rod is
brought near to one of the spheres? Why do they have that type of charge(s) when
they are in contact to each other? (Refer to Figure 9a)
2. Why is the sphere on the left becomes negatively charged when a positively
charged glass rod is brought near to it? (Refer to Figure 9b)
3. What happens to the spheres when they are separated first and the rod was
removed then? What type of charging do the spheres experience? (Refer to Figure
9c and 9d)
4. What happens to the top of stem and metal foil leaves of electroscope after the
positively charged glass rod is brought near to the tip of it? (Refer to Figure 10a)
5. What happens to the positively charged glass rod and to the electroscope when
the rod came in contact with the ball of electroscope? (Refer to Figure 10b)
6. Where do the excess charges go when the glass rod is removed? (Refer to Figure
10c)
Rubric for Guide Questions 1 to 6

3 2 1 0
Practical Practical application Practical application No discussion.
application is is scientifically is explained
scientifically explained consistent consistent to the
explained to the concepts, but concepts but with
consistent to with minimal misconceptions.
the concepts, misconceptions.
and has no
misconceptions.
10
Activity 3. Electric Field Lines
Objective
The learners should be able to describe an electric field as a region in which an
electric charge experiences a force
What you need:

Paper and pen
What to do:
1. Write the type of charge(s) of the object(s) shown by the images in Column A at
Column B.
2. Describe the images in terms of the direction of arrows, density, strength, and
attraction of the electrical fields and write your description at Column C. Number
1 is answered for you as your guide.
Column A Column B Column C

1.
Positive The direction of the

charge arrows are outward.
Fig.11
Source:Electricity Physics, 2020/12/11
20:14:47, pdf, page 19
2.
Fig.12
20:14:47, pdf, page 19
11
3.
Fig.13
20:14:47, pdf, page 19
4.
Fig.14
20:14:47, pdf, page 19
5.
Fig.15
Photo:Electricity Physics, 2020/12/11
20:14:47, pdf, page 22
12
6.
Fig.16
20:14:47, pdf, page 22
13
Activity 4. Solve It, Coulomb!
Objective
1. calculate the net electric force on a point charge exerted by a system of point
charges; and
2. calculate the electric field due to a system of point charges using Coulomb’s law
and the superposition principle
What you need:

Paper, pen, scientific calculator (optional)
What to do:
Answer the following problems. Write your solutions on a separate sheet of paper.
1. A point charge of +1.10 × 10−6 C is 11.0 cm distant from a second point charge of
−1.50 × 10−6 C. Calculate the magnitude of the force on each charge.
2. What must be the distance between point charge q1 = 16.0 μC and point charge q2
= −37.0 μC for the electrostatic force between them to have a magnitude of 5.70 N?
3. The average distance r between the electron and the proton in the hydrogen atom
is 5.3 × 10-11 m. What is the magnitude of the average electrostatic force that acts
between these two particles?
4. Three charges, each equal to +3.2 μC, are placed at three corners of a square
0.500 m on a side, as shown in the Figure 17. Find the magnitude and direction
of the net force on charge number 3.
Fig.17
Source:https://www.csun.edu/~rd436460/100B/
14
Reflection
Coulomb's Law has many great applications to modern life, from Xerox machines to
laser printers, to powder coating.
If Xerox machines and laser printers were not invented, what do you think is its
impact to our education today? Write your 5-sentence answer in a separate sheet of
paper.
Rubrics
3 2 1 0
Practical application Practical application Practical application No discussion.
is scientifically is scientifically is explained
explained consistent explained consistent consistent to the
to the concepts, and to the concepts, but concepts but with
has no with minimal misconceptions.
15
References for learners:
Christensen, Erik, OpenStax. Electricity Physics, M. Ahmad, 2020
Young, Hugh D., Roger A. Freedman. Sears and Zemansky's University Physics with
Modern Physics. 13th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions, 2012.
California State University Northridge. “Chapter 19 Electric Charges, Forces, and Fields.”
Accessed on January 10, 2021.
https://www.csun.edu/~rd436460/100B/lectures/chapter19-1-3.pdf
HCC Learning Web. “Chapter 23 Electric Fields.” Accessed on January 12, 2021.
https://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/kam.chu/powerpoint-presentation-for-
university-physics-ii/chapter-23/view
Online Physics Tutorials. “Types of Charging”. Accessed on January 10, 2021.

https://www.physicstutorials.org/home/electrostatics/types-of-charging
Physics LibreTextsTM. “5.4: Coulomb's Law”. Accessed on February 2, 2021.

https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A_University
_Physics_(OpenStax)/Map%3A_University_Physics_II_-
_Thermodynamics_Electricity_and_Magnetism_(OpenStax)/05%3A_Electric_Charg
es_and_Fields/5.04%3A_Coulomb%27s_Law?fbclid=IwAR1oAJNZz5O_WLraq8IcVv
ANwnOVm0nnoRk1_oTSv_PLb5yAy_jEuKIEvqo
The Physics Classroom. “Coulomb's Law”. Accessed on January 10, 2021.

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/Lesson-3/Coulomb-s-Law
Tennessee Tech University. “Chapter 1. Electric Charge; Coulomb’s Law”. Accessed on

January 12, 2021
https://www2.tntech.edu/leap/murdock/books/v4chap1.pdf
16
Answers Key
Answers Key
17
General Physics 2
Quarter 3 - Week 2: Electrical Flux & Gauss’s Law
First Edition, 2021
Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work of
the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency
or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation of such
work for a profit. Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition
the payment of royalties.
trademarks, etc.) included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective copyright
holders. Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these
materials from their copyright owners. The authors do not represent nor claim
Edna E. Trinidad
Relyn D. Raza
Glenn Pacot
Airene Jane B. Pelegro

Marvin T. Tejano

ELECTRIC FLUX AND GAUSS’S LAW
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
1. calculate electric flux (STEM_GP12EMIIIb-12);

2. use Gauss’s law to infer electric field due to uniformly distributed charges on long
wires, spheres, and large plates (STEM_GP12EMIIIb-13); and
3. solve problems involving electric charges, dipoles, forces, fields, and flux in contexts
such as, but not limited to, systems of point charges, electrical breakdown of air,
charged pendulums, electrostatic ink-jet printer (STEM_GP12EMIIIb-14).
Key Concepts
 Electric flux is the rate of flow of the electric field through a given area. Electric flux
is proportional to the number of electric field lines going through a virtual surface.
Fig.1. Electric Flux

Souce:https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/courses-images/wp-content/uploads/sites/1989/201
7/06/13225917/flux-diagram.png
If the electric field is uniform, the electric flux passing through a surface of
vector area A is
ΦE = (E) (A)cosθ
where
E is the magnitude of the electric field (SI unit is V/m and also V/m = N/C),
A is the area of the surface, and
θ is the angle between the electric field lines and the normal to A.
For a non-uniform electric field, the electric flux through a small surface area is
given  
 E   E cos   dA   E dA   E  d A
Electric flux has SI unit of volt-meters (V-m), also V-m = Nm2/C
1
Sample Problem
An electric field of 500 V/m makes an angle of 40.00 with the surface vector. It
has a magnitude of 0.400 m2. Find the electric flux that passes through the surface.
Solution:
ΦE = (E) (A)cosθ
ΦE = (500 V/m) (0.400 m2) cos 40o

= 153.21 V-m
The electric flux that passes through the surface is 153.21 V-m
 Gauss’s law, also known as Gauss’s flux theorem, is a law relating to the
distribution of electric charge to the resulting electric field.
 Gauss’s law states that the net outward normal electric flux through any closed
surface is proportional to the total electric charge enclosed within that closed
surface.
 The total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed
divided by the permittivity.
Q Q = total charge within the given surface

E 
O ε0 = permittivity constant (8.85 x10-12 F/m)
Gauss’s Law Sphere Gauss’s Law Long Line Gauss’s Law Square
If the sphere has a For a line of charge the The square has a
charge of Q and the gaussian surface is a side length of L,
gaussian surface is a cylinder. To find the area of a width of d, and
distance R from the the surface, count only the a charge Q:
center of the sphere: cylinder itself:
Q Q Q
E E E
Fig. 2. Applying
Gauss’s Law on
 O 4R 2  O 2RL  O 2L2 square surface
area
Photo:https://i
Sample Problems it.edu
1. There are three charges q1, q2, and q3 having charges of 6 pC, 5 pC and 3 pC
respectively enclosed in a surface. Find the total flux enclosed by the surface.
Solution Q
Q = q1 + q2 + q3 E 
= 6 pC + 5 pC + 3 pC O The total flux enclosed by
the surface is 1.58 Nm2/C.
= 14 pC 14 1012 C
E 
F
8.85 1012
m
Nm 2
 1.58
Author: AR A. Ranesis C
2
2. Find the magnitude of the electric field of a 1.0 m long copper wire with a radius
of 17 cm from the wire which has a linear charge density of of 2.9 × 10-8 C/m.
Solution:
Q
E
 O 2RL
2.9  10 8 C
m
E
8.85 10 12 F
m

(2 )(0.17m)(1.0m)
 3.07  103 N
C
The magnitude of the electric field of the long copper wire is 3.07 × 103 N/C.
Activity 1. Solve It: Electric Flux
Objective
The learners should be able to calculate electric flux
What you need:

Paper, pen, and scientific calculator (optional)
What to do:
1. An electric field of 600 V/m makes an angle of 40° with the surface vector. The
area is 0.500 m2. Find the electric flux that passes through the surface.
2. An electric flux of 1,126 V-m passes through the surface with an electric field of
550 V/m which has an area of 2.5 m2. Find the angle of the vector.
3. A uniform electric field, E = 7250 N/C passes through a flat square area, A = 10
m2 at an angle of 0o. Determine the electric flux.
4. A uniform electric field, E = 5000 N/C passing through a flat square area, A = 2
m2 makes an angle of 60o. Determine the electric flux.
5. An electric field of 900 V/m makes an angle of 20o with the surface vector which
has an area of 0.250 m2. Find the electric flux that passes through the surface.
3
Activity 2. Solve It: Gauss’s Law
Objective
1. use Gauss’s law to infer electric field due to uniformly distributed charges on
long wires, spheres, and large plates; and
2. solve problems involving electric charges, dipoles, forces, fields, and flux in
contexts such as, but not limited to, systems of point charges, electrical
breakdown of air, charged pendulums, electrostatic ink-jet printer
What you need:

Paper, pen, and scientific calculator (optional)
What to do:
1. There are three charges q1, q2, and q3 having charges of 5 pC, 4 pC and 2 pC
respectively enclosed in a surface. Find the total flux enclosed by the surface.
2. Find the flux through a spherical Gaussian surface of radius a = 2 m

surrounding a charge of 8.85 pC.
3. Find the flux through a spherical Gaussian surface which has radius a = 4 m
from the center of sphere surrounding a charge of 9.5 pC.
4. Find the magnitude of the electric field of a 1.5 m long copper wire with a raduis
of 15 cm from the wire which has a linear charge density of of 3.1 × 10-8 C/m.
5. Find the charge of a 1.0 m-long silver wire which electric field has a magnitude of
4.0 × 103 N/C at distance of 5 cm.
4
Reflection
Unconciously, you apply electric flux in your daily life like the generator in the grid to
produce the voltage you use, the computer you type on, the alternator in your car, and the
switch of light you turn on.
If you are going to rate from 1 to 10, how do you see the relevance of these machines?
Explain.
Write your 5-sentence answer in a separate sheet of paper.
Rubrics
5 4 3 2 0
Practical Practical Practical Practical No discussion
application is application is application application
scientifically scientifically is explained is explained
explained explained consistent to the inconsistent
consistent to consistent to concepts but with to the
the concepts, the concepts, misconceptions. concepts
and has no but with
misconceptions. minimal
misconceptions.
Christensen, Erik, OpenStax. Electricity Physics, M. Ahmad, 2020
Young, Hugh D., Roger A. Freedman, Sears and Zemansky's University Physics with
Academic Resource Center Illinois Institute of Technology. “Gauss Law. Accessed on

January 13, 2021
https://web.iit.edu/sites/web/files/departments/academic-affairs/academic-resour
ce-center/pdfs/Gauss_Law.pdf
California State University Northridge. “Chapter 19 Electric Charges, Forces, and Fields.”
Accessed on January 10, 2021.
https://www.csun.edu/~rd436460/100B/lectures/chapter19-1-3.pdf
Lumen Boundless Physics. “Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law.” Accessed on January 13,
2021
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/electric-flux-an
d-gausss-law/
Answers Key
5
6
General Physics 2 – Grade 12 (STEM)

Quarter 3 – Week 3: Electric Potential
First Edition, 2021
Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work of the
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Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (e.g., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
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respective copyright owners. The authors do not represent nor claim ownership over them.
Development Team of the Learners’ Activity Sheets
Writer: Marvin T. Tejano

Editors: Edna E. Trinidad
Relyn D. Raza
Glen B. Pacot
AJ Pelegro
AR A. Ranesis
Management Team:
Josita B. Carmen, Schools Division Superintendent
1
Author: Marvin T. Tejano
School/Station: Tagbina National High School
General Physics 2 – Grade 12, Quarter 3, Week 3
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. relate the electric potential with work, potential energy, and electric field
(STEM_GP12EM-IIIb-15);
2. determine the electric potential with work, potential energy, and electric field
(STEM_GP12EM-IIIb-17);
3. infer the direction and strength of electric field vector, nature of the electric field sources,
and electrostatic potential surfaces given the equipotential lines (STEM_GP12EM-IIIc-18);
4. calculate the electric field in the region given a mathematical function describing its
potential in a region of space (STEM_GP12EM-IIIc-20); and
5. solve problems involving electric potential energy and electric potentials in contexts such
as, but not limited to, electron guns in CRT TV picture tubes and Van de Graaff
generators (STEM_GP12EM-IIIc-22).
Time Allotment: 4 Hours
Key Concepts
• Electric potential energy is the energy stored in a

uniform electric field which can be used to move
the charges present in the field (by exerting force).
• The work done by 𝑭 ⃗ can always be expressed in
terms of potential energy if the force is
conservative. The work done by conservative
force is given by:
𝑾𝒂→𝒃 = 𝑼𝒂 − 𝑼𝒃 = −(𝑼𝒃 − 𝑼𝒂 ) = −𝚫𝑼
That equation is justified more on Figure 1. It is

shown there that when 𝑊𝑎→𝑏 is positive, Ua is
negative, and the potential energy decreases.
• The change in kinetic energy Δ𝐾 = 𝐾𝑏 − 𝐾𝑎 during a
displacement is equal to the total work done on the
Fig. 1. The work done on a baseball moving in
particle according to the work-energy theorem. If a uniform gravitational field.
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with
only conservative forces do work, then the Modern Physics”, 13th edition
equation above gives the total work, and Source:
𝑲𝒃 + 𝑼𝒂 = 𝑲𝒃 + 𝑼𝒃 “Sears
• The concept of electric potential energy in uniform field is best shown in the Fig. and 2. In the
figure, a pair of charged parallel metal plates sets up a uniform, downward electric field Zemansky’
s
with magnitude 𝑬. The field exerts a downward force with magnitude 𝑭 = 𝒒𝟎 𝑬 on a positive
University
test charge 𝒒𝟎 . As the charge moves downward a distance 𝒅 from point a to b, thePhysics force on
the test charge is constant and independent of its location. So the work done by the
with
electric field or the force is the product of the force magnitude and the component Modern of
Physics”
12th
1
Author: Marvin T. Tejano edition.
displacement in the (downward) direction of the force:
𝑾𝒂→𝒃 = 𝑭𝒅 = 𝒒𝟎 𝑬𝒅
hence giving us
⃗𝑭 = 𝒒𝟎 𝑬
This work is positive since the force is in the same
direction as the net displacement of the test charge.
With this situation therefore, the Potential Energy
(which depends on position) is given by:
𝑼 = 𝒒𝑬𝒚
• From there, equations for electric potential energy of
two-point charges are obtained:
𝒒𝒒
𝑼 = 𝒌 𝟎 or
𝒓
𝟏 𝒒𝒒𝟎
𝑼=
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓
Fig. 2. The work done on a point
charge moving in a uniform electric
(coulomb’s law for electric potential energy of two-point charges field.
𝟏
𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑞0 , where 𝑘 = = 8.988 𝑥 109 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚2 /𝐶 2 ) Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 Physics with Modern Physics”, 13th edition.
• For a system of several point charges (like that of Fig. 3),

we have an equation for electric potential energy to be:
𝒒𝟎 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
𝑼= ( + + + ⋯)
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟑
𝒒𝟎 𝒒𝒊
𝑼= ∑
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝒊
𝒊
• The total potential energy of the system is given by the
equation:
𝟏 𝒒𝒊 𝒒𝒋
𝑼= ∑
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝒊𝒋 Fig. 3. The potential energy
𝒊<𝒋 associated with a charge q0 at point
• Electric potential, often called simply potential is a depends on the other charges q1,
potential energy per unit charge. q2, and q3 and on their distances r1,
r2, and r3 from point a.
• Potential V at any point in an electric field is defined as Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University
Physics with Modern Physics”, 13th edition
potential energy U per unit charge associated with a test
charge 𝒒𝟎 at that point:
𝑼
𝑽= 𝒐𝒓 𝑼 = 𝒒𝟎 𝑽
𝒒𝟎
• Both the potential energy and charge are scalar
quantities. The SI unit of potential, called Volt (1 V) in
honor of the Italian electrical experimenter Alessandro
Volta (1745-1827), is equal to 1 joule per coulomb (1
J/C):
𝐽 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1 𝑉 = 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1 = 1
𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
• The difference 𝑽𝒂 − 𝑽𝒃 is called the potential of a with
respect to b, which is sometimes abbreviated as 𝑽𝒂𝒃 ; Fig. 4. The voltage of this battery
equals the difference in potential
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽𝒂 − 𝑽𝒃 . In electric circuits, the potential 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 between its positive
difference between two points is often called voltage (Fig. terminal (point a) and its negative
terminal (point b).
4). Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University
2
• An instrument that measures the difference of potential between two points is called a
voltmeter. Voltmeters that can measure a potential difference of 1 𝜇𝑉 are common, and
sensitivities down to 10−12 𝑉 can be attained.
• To find the potential V due to point charge q, we have
𝑼 𝟏 𝒒
𝑽= =
𝒒𝟎 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓
where r is the distance from the point charge q to the point at which the potential is
evaluated.
• To find the potential due to a collection of point charges, we have
𝑼 𝟏 𝒒𝒊
𝑽= = ∑
𝒒𝟎 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝒊
𝒊
where, in this expression, 𝑟𝑖 is the distance from th 𝑖th charge, 𝑞𝑖 , to the point at which V
is evaluated.
• To find the electric potential from Electric field, we use equation:
𝒃
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = ∫ ⃗𝑬 ⋅ 𝒅𝒍
𝒂
In this expression, ⃗𝑬 is the electric field which is equal to force per unit test charge.
• Electron volt is the quantity of energy required for an electron to move through a
potential difference of 1V.
• The magnitude of 𝓮 of the electron can be used to define unit of energy that is useful in
many calculations with atomic and nuclear systems.
• The quantity of energy is defined to be 1 electron volt (1 eV):
𝟏 𝒆𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 J
The multiples meV (milli), keV (kilo), MeV (mega), GeV, (Giga) and TeV (tera) are often used.
• Equipotential surface is a three-dimensional surface on which the electric potential V is
the same at every point.
• Field lines and equipotential surfaces are always mutually perpendicular.
• Field lines are curves, and equipotential surfaces are curved surfaces (Fig. 5).
• When all charges are at rest, the surface of a conductor is always an equipotential surface
and all points in the interior of a conductor are at the same potential. When a cavity
within a conductor contains no charge, the entire cavity is an equipotential region and
there is no surface charge anywhere on the surface of the cavity.
Fig. 5. Cross sections of equipotential surfaces and electric field lines for assemblies of point charges.
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics”, 13 th edition
3
Activity 1. Tell me what you think!
1. Relate the electric potential with work, potential energy, and electric field.
2. Determine the electric potential with work, potential energy, and electric field.
3. Infer the direction and strength of electric field vector, nature of the electric field sources,
and electrostatic potential surfaces given the equipotential lines.
Materials needed: ballpen, and scientific calculator (if necessary)
What to do: Provide answers according to what is/are asked in the items below. Limit your
answers in utmost 4 sentences only.
1. From the concepts that you have learned above, how do you think electric potential
relates to: (you may present some equations if necessary)
a. work:
b. potential energy:
c. electric field:
2. In examining Fig. 5, how would you describe the direction and strength of electric field
vector, nature of the electric field sources, and electrostatic potential surfaces given the
equipotential lines, and even the potential differences at:
4
a. a single positive charge (Fig. 5a):
b. an electric dipole (Fig. 5b):
c. at two equal positive charges (Fig. 5b):
RUBRICS
3 2 1 0
The answer is The answer is The answer is No answer.
scientifically explained scientifically explained explained consistent
consistent to the consistent to the to the concepts but
concepts, and concepts, but with with misconceptions.
has no misconceptions. minimal misconceptions.
5
Activity 2. Be my solution!
Learning Objective:
1. calculate the electric field in the region given a mathematical function describing its
potential in a region of space; and
2. solve problems involving electric potential energy and
electric potentials in contexts such as, but not limited to,
electron guns in CRT TV picture tubes and Van de Graaff
generators.
Materials needed: ballpen, and scientific calculator
What to do: Read and analyze the problem given. Show your Fig. 6. A collection of point
solutions neatly. charges.
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University
Example: Two point charges 𝑞1 = +2.40 𝑛𝐶 and 𝑞2 = −6.50 𝑛𝐶
are 0.100 𝑚 apart. Point 𝐴 is midway between them; point 𝐵 is 0.080 𝑚 form 𝑞1 and 0.060 𝑚 from 𝑞2
(Fig. 6). Take the electric potential to be zero at infinity. Find:
(a) the potential at point 𝐴;

(b) the potential at point 𝐵;
In this problem, to find the potential difference at point A and B, we will use the equation in
finding the potential due to a collection of point charges which is
𝑼 𝟏 𝒒𝒊
𝑽= = ∑
𝒒𝟎 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝒊
𝒊
1 𝑞
(a) 𝑉𝐴 = ∑ 𝑖
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑖 𝑟𝑖
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑉𝐴 = ( + )
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝐴1 𝑟𝐴2
+2.40 𝑥 10−9 𝐶 −6.50 𝑥 10−9 𝐶
𝑉𝐴 = (8.988 𝑥 109 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚2 /𝐶 2 )( + )
0.050 𝑚 0.050 𝑚
𝑽𝑨 = −𝟕𝟑𝟕 𝑽
1 𝑞
(b) 𝑉𝐵 = ∑ 𝑖
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑖 𝑟𝑖
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑉𝐵 = ( + )
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝐵1 𝑟𝐵2
+2.40 𝑥 10−9 𝐶 −6.50 𝑥 10−9 𝐶
𝑉𝐴 = (8.988 𝑥 109 𝑁⋅ 𝑚2 /𝐶 2 )( + )
0.080 𝑚 0.060 𝑚
𝑽𝑨 = −𝟕𝟎𝟒 𝑽
1. Two point charges are located on the x-axis, 𝑞1 = −ℯ at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑞2 = +ℯ at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

(a.) Find the work that must be done by an external force to bring point charge 𝑞3 = +ℯ
from infinity to 𝑥 = 2𝑎. [Hint: The work W equals the difference between (i) the potential
energy U associated with q3 when it is at x = 2a and (ii) the potential energy when it is
6
infinitely far away. The second of these is zero, so the work required is equal to U.]
(b.) Find the total potential energy of the system of three charges.
Solution: Fig. 7. A sketch of the situation after the third charge has been
brought in from infinity.
2. A proton (charge +ℯ = 1.602 𝑥 10−19 C) moves a distance 𝑑 = 0.50 𝑚 in a straight line

between points a and b in a linear accelerator. The electric field is uniform along this line,
𝑉 𝑁
with magnitude 𝐸 = 1.5 𝑥 107 = 1.5 𝑥 107 in the direction from a to b. Determine:
𝑚 𝐶
(a.) the force on the proton;
Solution:
(b.) the work done on it by the field;

Solution:
7
(c.) The potential difference 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 .
Solution
3. An electric dipole consists of point charges 𝑞1 =

+12 𝑛𝐶 and 𝑞2 = −12𝑛𝐶 placed 10.0 cm apart
(Fig. 8). Compute the electric potentials at point
a, b, and c.
Solution:
Fig. 8. Electric Dipole

Modern Physics”, 13th edition
8
4. A particle with a charge of +4.20 𝑛𝐶 is in a uniform electric field ⃗𝑬 directed to the left. It is
released from rest and moves to the left; after it has moved 6.00 cm, its kinetic energy is
found to be +1.50 𝑥 10−6 𝐽.
(a) What work was done by the force?
(b) What is the potential of the starting point with respect to the endpoint?
⃗?
(c) What is the magnitude of 𝑬
9
Reflection
Every time you turn on a light, listen to an MP3 player, or talk in a mobile phone, you are
using electrical energy, an indispensable ingredient of our technological society. All these are
energy associated with electrical interactions specifically electric potential. What do you think
our life would be without these? Write your five-sentence answer in a separate sheet of paper.
RUBRICS
5 4 3 2 0
Practical Practical Practical Practical No
application is application is application is applications are discussion at
scientifically scientifically explained explained all.
explained explained consistent to the consistent to the
consistent to the consistent to the concepts but with concepts but with
concepts, and concepts, but one or two more than two
has no with minimal misconceptions. misconceptions.
References
Young, Hugh D., Roger A. Freedman, A. Lewis Ford, and Hugh D. Young. Sears and
Zemansky's University Physics. 13th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions,
2012.
Glancolli, Douglas. Physics Principles and Applications 6th ed. New Jersey: Pearson
Education, Inc. 2005.
“Khan Academy”
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-physics/dc-circuits/electric-
current-resistivity-and-ohms-law/a/voltage-and-ohms-law-ap1
Accessed on January 20, 2021
Answer Key
𝑑 ȁ𝑞ȁ𝑑
(𝑐)𝐸ȁ𝑞ȁ𝑑 = 𝑊𝑎→𝑏, 𝑠𝑜 𝐸 = 𝑎→𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏 = 5.95 𝑥 103 𝑉/𝑚
𝑊 𝑉 −𝑉
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
𝑞
(𝑏) 𝑉 − 𝑉 = 𝑉 = = 357 𝑉
𝑊𝑎→𝑏
4. (𝑎) 𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏 − 𝐾𝑎 = 1.5 𝑥 10−6 𝐽
3. 𝑉𝑎 = −900 𝑉
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 7.5 𝑥 106 𝑉 = 7.5 𝑀𝑉
𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = 7.5 𝑥 106 𝑒𝑉 = 7.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
2. 𝐹 = 2.4 𝑥 10−12 𝑁
8𝜋𝜖0 𝑎
(b) 𝑈 =
−ℯ 2
8𝜋𝜖0 𝑎
1. (a) 𝑊 =
+ℯ 2
Activity 2
explain the concepts.)

(The answers to this activity may vary as to how the students
Activity 1
10

Quarter 3 – Week 4: Capacitance and Dielectrics
First Edition, 2021
Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office wherein
the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation of such work for a profit. Such agency
or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.

Relyn D. Raza
Glen Pacot
AJ Pelegro
AR A. Ranesis
Management Team:

Edna Trinidad, Science Education Program Supervisor
1
CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS
Learning Objectives
1. deduce the effects of simple capacitors (e.g., parallel-plate, spherical, cylindrical) on the
capacitance, charge, and potential difference when the size, potential difference, or charge
is changed (STEM_GP12EM-IIIc-23);
2. calculate the equivalent capacitance of a network of capacitors connected in series/parallel
(STEM_GP12EM-IIIc-24);
3. determine the total charge, the charge on, and the potential difference across each capacitor
in the network given the capacitors connected in series/parallel (STEM_GP12EM-IIId-25);
4. determine the potential energy stored inside the capacitor given the geometry and the
potential difference across the capacitor (STEM_GP12EM-IIId-26);
5. describe the effects of inserting dielectric materials on the capacitance, charge, and electric
field of a capacitor (STEM_GP12EM-IIId-29); and
6. solve problems involving capacitors and dielectrics in contexts such as, but not limited to,
charged plates, batteries, and camera flashlamps (STEM_GP12EM-IIId-30).
Key Concepts
• A capacitor plays an important role in a circuit. It is a device

that serves as the storage reservoir for electrical energy
which will subsequently be discharged at a high rate into the
consumer circuit producing a quick flow of energy. An
example of a commercial capacitor is shown in Fig. 1.
• Basically, any two conductors separated by an insulator (or
a vacuum) form a capacitor (Fig. 2).
• In circuit diagrams, a capacitor is represented by either of
these symbols: Fig. 1. An electrolytic capacitor
• Capacitance is a measure of the ability of a capacitor to store used for power supplies,
switched-mode power supplies,
electric charge. and DC-converters.
• Capacitance can also be defined as a measure of the amount Source:https://www.britannica.com/technology/cap
acitor
of electrical energy stored or separated for a given electric
potential.
• Mathematically, capacitance is a ratio of charge Q to potential difference Vab of the capacitor:
𝑸
𝑪=
𝑽𝒂𝒃
• The SI unit of capacitance is called farad (1 F), in honor of the 19th-century English physicist
Michael Faraday.
1
One farad is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V):
𝑪 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
𝟏 𝑭 = 𝟏 𝒇𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝑽 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
• A simple example of such storage device - capacitor is a
parallel-plate capacitor. If positive charges with total
charge +Q are deposited on one of the conductors and
an equal amount of negative charge -Q is deposited on
the second conductor, the capacitor is said to have a
charge Q (Fig. 3).
• These parallel conducting plates, with each area A is
separated by a distance d that is small in comparison
with their dimensions (Fig. 3a). When the plates are Fig. 2. Any two conductors a and b
insulated from each other form a
charged, the electric field is almost completely localized capacitor.
in the region between the plates (Fig. 3b). Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University
Physics with Modern Physics”, 13th edition.
• The essentially uniform electric field E between the
𝝈
plates is 𝑬 = , where 𝝈 is the magnitude of the surface
𝝐𝟎
charge density on each plate. This is equal to the
magnitude of the total charge Q on each plate divided
𝑸
by the area A of the plate, or 𝝈 = , so the field
𝑨
magnitude E can be expressed as
𝜎 𝑄
𝐸= =
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝐴
• The field is uniform and the distance between the
plates is d, so the potential difference (voltage) between
the two plates is
𝟏 𝑸𝒅
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑬𝒅 =
𝝐𝟎 𝑨
• From this, we see that the capacitance C of a parallel-
plate capacitor in vacuum is
𝑄 𝐴
𝐶= = 𝜖0
𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑑 Fig. 3. A charged parallel-plate
capacitor.
In this equation, if A is in square meters and d in Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University
𝐶2
meters, C is in farads. The units of 𝜖0 are , so we
𝑁⋅𝑚2
see that
𝐶2 𝐶2
1𝐹 = 1 =1
𝑁⋅𝑚 𝐽
Because 1 V = 1 J/C (energy per unit charge). Finally the units of 𝜖0 can be expressed as
1 C2/N⋅m2 = 1 F/m, so
𝜖0 = 8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝐹/𝑚
2
• In many applications, the most convenient units of
capacitance used are microfarad (1 𝜇𝐹 = 10−6 𝐹) and
the picofarad (1 𝑝𝐹 = 10−12 ).
• In series connection, capacitors are connected one
after the other by conducting wires between points a
and b. Figure 4a shows the schematic diagram of a
capacitor in series connection.
• When a constant positive potential difference Vab is
applied between points a and b, the capacitors become
charged.
• In this type of connection, the magnitude of charge
on all plates is the same.
• Referring to Fig. 4a, the potential differences between
points a and c, c and b, and a and b can be written as
𝑸 𝑸
𝑽𝒂𝒄 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝒄𝒃 = 𝑽𝟐 =
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑸( + )
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 Fig. 5. Two capacitors in parallel
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics
with Modern Physics”, 13th edition.
And so
𝑽 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑸 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 Fig. 4. Two capacitors in series
with Modern Physics”, 13th edition.
• The equivalent capacitance 𝐶𝑒𝑞 of the series combination
is defined as the capacitance of a single capacitor for which the charge Q is the same as for
the combination when the potential difference V is the same. In other words, the
combination can be replaced by an equivalent capacitor of capacitance Ceq (Fig. 4b):
𝑸 𝟏 𝑽
𝑪𝒆𝒒 = or =
𝑽 𝑪𝒆𝒒 𝑸
𝑉 1 1
• Combining this equation with = + , we find
𝑄 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑪𝒆𝒒 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
• We can extend this analysis to any number of capacitors in series. We find the following
result for the reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯ (capacitors in series)
𝑪𝒆𝒒 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
The reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance of a series combination equals the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances. In a series connection, the equivalent
capacitance is always less than any individual capacitance.
• The arrangement of capacitors in parallel connection is shown in Fig. 5. As shown in the
figure, two capacitors are connected in parallel between points a and b. In this case, the
upper plates of the two capacitors are connected by conducting wires to form an
equipotential surface, and the lower plates form another.
3
• In this type of connection, the potential difference for all individual capacitors is
the same and is equal to Vab = V. So the charges are
𝑸𝟏 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑽 and 𝑸𝟐 = 𝑪𝟐 𝑽
The total charge Q of the combination, and thus the total charge on the equivalent
capacitor, is
𝑸 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 = (𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 )𝑽
so
𝑸
= 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐
𝑽
and
𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐
In the same way we can show that for any number of capacitors in parallel,
𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑 + ⋯ (capacitors in parallel)
The equivalent capacitance of a parallel combinations equals the sum of the

individual capacitances. In a parallel connection, the equivalent capacitance is always
greater than any individual capacitance.
• Dielectrics are nonconducting materials used to separate the conducting plates in most
capacitors. In most cases, these common types of capacitors that we see in our old
appliances and other electronic gadgets use long strips of metal foil as the plates, and then
separated by strips of plastic sheet such as Mylar. A sandwich of these materials is rolled
up, forming a unit that can provide a capacitance of several microfarads in compact package
(see Fig. 6). A compact package or the final product as a capacitor is like that of Fig. 1.
• The reasons why a dielectric is placed as a separator of the plates in a capacitor are:
First, it solves the mechanical problem of maintaining two large metal sheets at a very small
separation without actual contact.
Second, it increases the maximum possible difference

between the capacitor plates. This is because of a
phenomenon called dielectric breakdown in which any
insulating material, when subjected to a sufficiently
large electric field, experiences a partial ionization that
permits conduction through it.
Third, when there is a dielectric material between the

plates than when there is vacuum, the capacitance of a
Fig. 6. A common type of capacitor
capacitor of given dimensions is greater. uses dielectric sheets to separate the
conductors.
4
• The original capacitance (this is without dielectric) is given by
𝑄
𝐶0 =
𝑉0
• The capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric is given by
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
• The dielectric constant is given by
𝐶
𝐾=
𝐶0
• The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor when the dielectric is present is given by
𝐴 𝐴
𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶0 = 𝐾𝜖0 = 𝜖
𝑑 𝑑
where A – is the area of the parallel plates, 𝜖 – is the permittivity of the dielectric which is
𝜖 = 𝐾𝜖0 , and 𝑑 – is the distance between the two plates.
Activity 1. How things affect things!
At the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to:
1. deduce the effects of simple capacitors (e.g., parallel-plate, spherical, cylindrical) on the
capacitance, charge, and potential difference when the size, potential difference, or charge
is changed; and
2. describe the effects of inserting dielectric materials on the capacitance, charge, and electric
field of a capacitor.
Materials needed: ballpen, and scientific calculator.
What to do: Answer what is asked in the items below. Show your complete solution (for the items
that need solution) and explanation. [Hint: For the first three items, solve first the given equation
and compare its result to the results in a and b].
𝑄 9 𝜇𝐶 9 𝑥 10−6 𝐶
1. 𝐶 = = = = ______________________. What changes do you think you will observe to
𝑉𝑎𝑏 5𝑉 5𝑉
the capacitance 𝐶 when:
a. the charge 𝑄 is changed to 𝑄 = 15 𝜇𝐶? How?
Answer:
5
b. the potential difference 𝑉𝑎𝑏 is changed to 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 1 𝑉? How?
Answer:
2. 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉𝑎𝑏 = (50 𝑝𝐹)(1.5 𝑉) = (50𝑥10−12 𝐹)(1.5 𝑉) = ___________________. What changes do you think
you will observe to the charge 𝑄 when:
a. the capacitance 𝐶 is changed to 𝐶 = 30 𝑛𝐹? How?
Answer:
b. the potential difference 𝑉𝑎𝑏 is changed to 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 3.0 𝑉? How?

Answer:
𝑄 8.0 𝑥 10−2 𝐶
3. 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = = = ______________________. What changes do you think you will observe to the
𝐶 3.5 𝑥 10−2 𝐹
potential difference 𝑉𝑎𝑏 when:
a. the charge 𝑄 is changed to 𝑄 = 1.0 𝐶? How?
Answer:
6
b. the capacitance 𝐶 is changed to 𝐶 = 4.0 𝑥 10−3 𝐹? How?
Answer:
4. What can you infer from the items above? What do you think are the effects of changing the
values of charge and potential difference to the capacitance of a capacitor? Expound your
answer in three to four sentences only.
Answer:
5. In this item, a sample problem is given for you to examine. After a deep examination on the
given sample, you are to describe what happens to the capacitance, charge, potential
difference, and electric field of a parallel-plate capacitor when a dielectric is inserted
between the two plates.
Sample Problem: A capacitor with and without a dielectric.
Suppose the parallel plates in Fig. 7 each have an area of 2000 cm2 (2.00 x 10-1 m2) and are
1.00 cm (1.00 𝑥 10−2 m) apart. We connect the capacitor
to a power supply, charge it to a potential difference 𝑉0 =
3.00 𝑘𝑉, and disconnect the power supply. We then insert
a sheet of insulating plastic material between the plates,
completely filling the space between them. We find that
the potential difference decreases to 1.00 𝑘𝑉 while the
charge on each capacitor plate remains constant. Find (a)
the original capacitance 𝐶0 ; (b) the magnitude of charge
𝑄 on each plate; (c) the capacitance 𝐶 after the dielectric
is inserted; (d) the dielectric constant 𝐾 of the dielectric;
(e) the permittivity 𝜖 of the dielectric; (f) the magnitude of
the induced charge 𝑄𝑖 on each face of the dielectric; (g)
the original electric field 𝐸0 between the plates; and (h)
the electric field 𝐸 after the dielectric is inserted. Fig. 7. Parallel-plate capacitors (a)
Solution: without and (b) with dielectric.
7
(a) With a vacuum between the plates, (e) The permittivity constant is
with K=1 we have: 𝜖 = 𝐾𝜖0
𝐴 𝐶2
𝐶0 = 𝜖0 = (3.00) (8.85 𝑥 10−12 )
𝑑 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚2
2.00 𝑥 10−1 𝑚2
𝐶0 = (8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝐹/𝑚) 𝐶2
1.00 𝑥 10−2 𝑚 𝜖 = 2.66 𝑥 10−11
𝐶0 = 1.77 𝑥 10−10 𝐹 = 177 𝑝𝐹 𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚2
(f) The induced charge 𝑄𝑖 is

(b) From the definition of capacitance,
1
𝑄 = 𝐶0 𝑉0 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄 (1 − )
𝐾
𝑄 = (1.77 𝑥 10−10 𝐹)(3.00 𝑥 103 𝑉) 1
𝑄 = 5.31 𝑥 10−7 = 0.531 𝜇𝐶 𝑄𝑖 = (5.31 𝑥 10−7 𝐶) (1 − )
3.00
𝑄𝑖 = 3.54 𝑥 10−7 𝐶
(c) When the dielectric is inserted, 𝑄 is
unchanged but the potential (g) Since the electric field between the
difference decreases to 𝑉 = 1.00 𝑘𝑉. plates is uniform, its magnitude is
Hence the new capacitance is the potential difference divided by
𝑄 5.31 𝑥 10−7 𝐶 the plate separation:
𝐶= =
𝑉 1.00 𝑥 103 𝑉 𝑉0 3000 𝑉
𝐶 = 5.31 𝑥 10−10 𝐹 𝐸0 = =
𝑑 1.00 𝑥 10−2 𝑚
𝐶 = 531 𝑝𝐹 𝐸0 = 3.00 𝑥 105 𝑉/𝑚
(d) The dielectric constant is (h) After the dielectric is inserted,

𝐶 5.31 𝑥 10−10 𝐹 531 𝑝𝐹 𝑉 1000 𝑉
𝐾= = = 𝐸= =
𝐶0 1.77 𝑥 10−10 𝑓 177 𝑝𝐹 𝑑 1.00 𝑥 10−2 𝑚
𝐾 = 3.00 𝐸 = 1.00 𝑥 105 𝑉/𝑚
Answer:
RUBRICS
3 2 1 0
The answer is The answer is The answer is No answer.
scientifically explained scientifically explained explained consistent
consistent to the consistent to the to the concepts but
concepts, and concepts, but with with misconceptions.
8
Activity 2. There’s always a solution to every problem!
At the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to:
1. calculate the equivalent capacitance of a network of capacitors connected in series/parallel;

2. determine the potential energy stored inside the capacitor given the geometry and the
potential difference across the capacitor; and
3. solve problems involving capacitors and dielectrics in contexts such as, but not limited to,
charged plates, batteries, and camera flashlamps.
Materials needed: ballpen, and scientific calculator.
What to do: Read and analyze the problem given. Show your
solutions on the space provided neatly.
Example: For the system of capacitors shown in Fig. 8, 𝑉𝑎𝑏 =

28.0 𝑉. Calculate:
(a) the total capacitance across a to d;

(b) the equivalent capacitance across a to b; and
(c) the value of the charge and potential difference across each Fig. 8. A system of capacitors.
capacitor.
Solution:
Generally, in the figure, capacitors 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are in parallel connection to each other. Therefore,
capacitor 𝐶3 is obviously in series with the parallel connection of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 . For an easy solution,
we must solve first the equivalent capacitance for the parallel connection before series connection.
(a) Capacitors in series connection is the equivalent capacitance across a to

given by 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯. So for b:
the total capacitance across a to d: 1 1 1 1
= = +
𝐶12 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶123 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶12 𝐶3
𝐶12 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 1 1 1
= −12 +
𝐶12 = 7 𝑝𝐹 + 5 𝑝𝐹 𝐶123 12.0 𝑥 10 𝐹 2.0 𝑥 10−12 𝐹
𝐶12 = 7.0 𝑥 10−12 𝐹 + 5.0 𝑥 10−12 𝐹 𝑪𝟏𝟐𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑭
𝑪𝟏𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑭 𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑭
(b) This time, capacitors 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 have (c) Basically, when the capacitors are in
now became one which is 𝐶12 = series connection, the charges in the
12.0 𝑥 10−12 𝐹. Seeing the figure, 𝐶12 is series are of the same values. In this
now clearly seen as one capacitor in case, since 𝐶12 is in series connection
series connection with 𝐶3 . Now the with 𝐶3 , they would have the same
capacitors in series connection is value of charges 𝑄12 and 𝐶3 :
given by
1
=
1
+
1
+
1
+ ⋯. So for To reiterate, the charge of every
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
capacitor in series is equal to the
9
equivalent capacitance times the total
voltage of the circuit.
𝑄 = 𝑄12 = 𝑄3 Hence, since parallel
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 (𝑉𝑎𝑏 ) 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟎 𝑽
𝑄 = (1.7 𝑥 10−12 𝐹)(28.0 𝑉) 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟎 𝑽
𝑸 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑪
For 𝑉3 :
Hence,
𝑸𝟏𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑪 𝑄3 4.76 𝑥 10−11 𝐶
𝑉3 = =
𝑸𝟑 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑪 𝐶3 2.0 𝑥 10−12 𝐹
𝑽𝟑 = 𝟐𝟒 𝑽
However, 𝑄12 is the charge of a
parallel connection of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 . To
To check:
solve for 𝑄1 , and 𝑄2 , you have to know
first 𝑉12 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 (since parallel) and 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉12 + 𝑉3 = 4.0 𝑉 + 24.0 𝑉 = 28.0 𝑉
𝑉3 . Take note that when connection is
parallel, the voltages are the same.
But when connection is series, the
Now going back to 𝑄1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 :
voltage divides.
𝑄1 = 𝐶1 𝑉1
For 𝑉12 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 : 𝑄1 = (7.0 𝑥 10−12 𝐹)(4.0 𝑉)
𝑄12 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑪
𝑉12 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 =
𝐶12 𝑄2 = 𝐶2 𝑉2
−11
4.76 𝑥 10 𝐶
𝑉12 =
12.0 𝑥 10−12 𝐹 𝑄2 = (5.0 𝑥 10−12 𝐹)(4.0 𝑉)
𝑽𝟏𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟎 𝑽
𝑸𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑪
1. Size of 1 1-F capacitor

The parallel plates of 1.0-F capacitor are 1.0 mm apart. What is this area?
Solution:
2. Properties of a parallel-plate capacitor

The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum are 5.00 mm apart and 2.00 m 2 in area.
A 10.0-KV potential difference is applied across the capacitor. Compute:
10
(a) the capacitance;
Solution:
(b) the charge on each plate; and

solution:
(c) the magnitude of the electric field between the plates.

Solution:
3. Capacitors in series and in parallel

In Fig.4, and Fig.5, let 𝐶1 = 6.0 𝜇𝐹, 𝐶2 = 3.0 𝜇𝐹, and 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 18 𝑉. Find the equivalent
capacitance and the charge and potential difference for each capacitor when the capacitors
are connected:
(a) in series (see Fig.4)

Solution:
11
(b) in parallel (see Fig.5)
Solution:
4. For the system of capacitors shown in Fig. 9, find the

equivalent capacitance
(a) between b and c

Solution:
Fig. 9. A system of capacitors

(b) between a and c

Solution:
12
Reflection
For years, capacitors and dielectrics have been playing great role in the electronic industry and
economic progress. What do you think would happen if capacitors and dielectrics were not
discovered? How would our electronic industries be? Write your five-sentence answer in a separate
sheet of paper.
RUBRICS
5 4 3 2 0
application is application is application is applications are at all.
scientifically scientifically explained explained
consistent to the consistent to the concepts but concepts but with
concepts, and concepts, but with one or two more than two
References
2012.
“Britanica”
https://www.britannica.com/technology/capacitor
Accessed on January 20, 2021
Answers Key
b. 𝐶123 = 8.6 𝑝𝐹
4. a. 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 20 𝑝𝐹
(same across each capacitor)
V= 18 V
5. Answers may vary. 𝑄2 = 54 𝜇𝐶
4. Answers may vary. 𝑄1 = 108 𝜇𝐶
b. 20.0 𝑉 b. 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 9.0 𝜇𝐹
a. 28.57 𝑉 𝑉𝑐𝑏 = 12.0 𝑉
3. 2.29 𝑉 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 6.0 𝑉
b. 1.5 𝑥 10−10 𝐶 𝑄 = 36 𝜇𝐶
a. 4.5 𝑥 10−8 𝐶 3. a. 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 2.0 𝜇𝐹
2. 7.5 𝑥 10−11 𝐶 c. E = 2.00 x 106 N/C
b. 9 𝑥 10−6 𝐹 b. Q = 3.54 x 10-5 C = 35.4 𝜇C
a. 3 𝑥 10−6 𝐹 2. a. C = 3.54 x 10-9 F = 0.00354 𝜇F
1. 1.8 𝑥 10−6 𝐹 1. A = 1.1 x 108 m2
Activity 1 Activity 2
13

Learner Activity Sheets
Quarter 3 – Week 5: Current, Resistance & Electromotive Force
First Edition, 2021
Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work
of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency
or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation of such work
for a profit. Such agency or office may, among other things, impose a condition the
payment of royalties.
trademarks, etc.) included in this activity sheets are owned by their respective copyright
materials from their respective copyright owners. The authors do not represent nor claim
Writer: Juzalin P. Costuya

Editors: Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña
Edna E. Trinidad
Cesar F. Navales, Jr.
Yvonne S. Salubre
Jeremaeh G. Delosa
Lay-out Reviewers: Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña
Yvonne S. Salubre
Jeremaeh G. Delosa
AR A. Ranesis
Marvin T. Tejano
Marvelous Saint P. Jumanoy
Author: Juzalin P. Costuya

School/Station: Panikian National High School
Division: Surigao del Sur
Email address: [email protected]
GENERAL PHYSICS 2 GRADE 12, QUARTER 3, WEEK 5
CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
Name:________________________________ Section: ____________________
- Distinguish between conventional current and electron flow. (STEM_GP12EMIIId-

32)
- Apply the relationship charge = current x time to new situations or to solve related
problems. (STEM_GP12EMIIIe-33)
- Describe the effect of temperature increase on the resistance of a metallic
conductor. (STEM_GP12EMIIIe-35)
- Describe the ability of a material to conduct current in terms of resistivity and
conductivity. (STEM_GPEMIIIe36)
- Apply the relationship of the proportionality between resistance and the length
and cross-sectional area of a wire to solve problems. (STEM_GP12EMIIIe-37)
- Differentiate ohmic and non-ohmic materials in terms of their I-V curves
(STEM_GP12EMIIIe-38)
- Differentiate emf of a source and potential difference (PD) across a circuit.
(STEM_GP12EMIIIe-40)
- Given an emf source connected to a resistor, determine the power supplied or
dissipated by each element in a circuit. (STEM_GP12EMIII3-42)
- Solve problems involving current, resistivity, resistance, and Ohm’s law in
contexts such as, but not limited to, batteries and bulbs, household wiring, and
selection of fuses. (STEM_GP12EMIII-44)
- Draw circuit diagrams with power sources (cell or battery), switches, lamps,
resistors (fixed and variable) fuses, ammeters and voltmeters (STEM_GP12EMIIIf-
47)
Time Allotment: 4 days
Key Concepts
• Current is any motion of charge from one region to another. Electric current is the
flow of charges. If the charges follow a conducting path that forms a closed loop, the
path is called an electric circuit.
• In different current-carrying materials, the charges of the moving particles may be
positive or negative. In metals the moving charges are always (negative) electrons,
while in an ionized gas (plasma) or an ionic solution the moving charges may include
both electrons and positively charged ions. In a semiconductor material such as
germanium or silicon, conduction is partly by electrons and partly by motion of

vacancies, also known as holes; these are sites of missing electrons and act like
positive charges.
• Conventional Current assumes that current flows out of the positive terminal,
through the circuit and into the negative terminal of the source. Even in cases in
which we know that the actual current is due to electrons.
Figure 1. Conventional Current

Source: Floyd, 1989, Principles of Electric Circuits, 5th edition, Conventional Current Version
(Conventional Current vs Electron Flow (mun.ca))
• Electron Flow is what actually happens and electrons flow out of the negative
terminal, through the circuit and into the positive terminal of the source.
Figure 2. Electron Flow

Source: Floyd, 1990, Principles of Electric Circuits, 4th edition, Electron Flow Version (Conventional
Current vs Electron Flow (mun.ca))
• The number of charges that passes through a point per second is called current and
uses the symbol I. Then,
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍
𝑸
𝑰=
𝒕
• The SI unit of current is the ampere, A; one ampere is defined to be one coulomb per
second (1 A = 1 C/s). This unit is named in honor of French scientist André Marie
Ampère. When an ordinary flashlight (D-cell size) is turned on, the current in the
flashlight is about 0.5 A, the current in the wires of a car engine’s starter motor is
around 200 A. Currents in radio and television circuits are usually expressed in
milliamperes (1 mA = 10-3 A) or microamperes (1 µA = 1 x 10-6 A) and currents in
computer circuits are expressed in nanometers (1 nA = 1 x 10 -9 A) or picometers (1 pA
= 1 x 10-12 A).

• Commercially, current is referred to as amperage. The instrument used to measure
current is ammeter.
• Current is related to the potential difference of the terminals and the permittivity of
the path to current. This is summarized as
𝑽
𝑰=
𝑹
Where 𝑉 is the potential difference in volt (V), 𝑅 is the resistance in ohm (Ω)
and I is the current in Ampere (A)
• Resistance (R) depends on the nature and dimensions of the material used as a
conductor of current. The unit ohm (Ω) is named after Georg Ohm, a German
physicist. The unit is volt per ampere (V/A).
• The equation V = IR is called Ohm’s Law. It is highlighted that the real content of
Ohm’s Law is the direct proportionality (for some materials) of V to I.
• According to Ohm’s Law, the resistance of a metallic conductor depends on the
following:
o Length of the conducting wire – The longer the wire, the higher its resistance.
o Cross-sectional area of the conductor- The thicker the conductor, the lower the
resistance.
o Nature of the conductor – The more free electrons there are, the lower the
resistance.
• Resistance R of a conductor is defined as;
𝝆𝑳
𝑹=
𝑨
o Where 𝐿 is length in meters (m), 𝐴 is cross-sectional area in meters squared
(m2), 𝜌 (rho) is resistivity of material from which the conductor is made of, in
ohm∙meter (Ωm).
Substance 𝜌 (Ω. m) Substance 𝜌 (Ω. m)

Conductors Semiconductors
Metals Silver 1.47 x 10-8 Pure carbon (graphite) 1.47 x 10-5
Copper 1.72 x 10-8 Pure germanium 0.60
Gold 2.44 x 10-8 Pure silicon 2300
Aluminum 2.75 x 10-8 Insulators
Tungsten 5.25 x 10-8 Amber 5 x 1014
Steel 20 x 10-8 Glass 1010 - 1014
Lead 22 x 10-8 Lucite >1013
Mercury 95 x 10-8 Mira 1011 - 1015
Alloys Manganin (Cu 84%, 44 x 10-8 Quartz (fused) 75 x 1016
Mn 12%, Ni 4%)
Constantan (Cu60%, 49 x 10-8 Sulfur 1015
Ni40%)
nichrome 100 x 10-8 Teflon >1013
Wood 108 - 1011
Table 1. Resistivities at Room Temperature (20 ℃)
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics”, 13th edition.

• The resistivity of a metallic conductor nearly always increases with increasing
temperature. The resistivity of graphite (a nonmetal) decreases with increasing
temperature, since at higher temperatures, more electrons are “shaken loose” from
the atoms and become mobile; hence the temperature coefficient of resistivity of
graphite is negative. Some materials, including several metallic alloys and oxides,
show a phenomenon called superconductivity. As the temperature decreases, the
resistivity at first decreases smoothly, like that of any metal. But then at a certain
critical temperature a phase transition occurs and the resistivity suddenly drops to
zero, as shown in figure 3. Once a current has been established in a superconducting
ring, it continues indefinitely without the presence of any driving field.
Metal: Resistivity increases with Superconductor: At
increasing temperature temperature below Tc, the
Semiconductor: Resistivity
decreases with increasing resistivity is zero
temperature
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3. Variation of resistivity 𝜌 with absolute temperature T for (a) a normal metal, (b) a
semiconductor, and (c) a superconductor. In (a) the linear approximation to 𝜌 as a
function of T is shown as a straight line; the approximation agrees exactly at where 𝑇 = 𝑇0 ,
where 𝜌 = 𝜌0 .
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics”, 13 th edition.
• Because the resistivity of a material varies with temperature, the resistance of a

specific conductor also varies with temperature. For temperature ranges that are not
too great, this variation is approximately a linear relationship;
𝑅 (𝑇) = 𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )]
o From the equation, R(T) is the resistance at temperature T and 𝑹𝟎 is the
resistance at temperature 𝑻𝟎 , often taken to be 0 ℃ to 20 ℃. The 𝜶 is the
temperature coefficient of resistance, see table below.
Material 𝜶 [(℃)−𝟏 ] Material 𝜶 [(℃)−𝟏 ]

Aluminum 0.0039 Lead 0.0043
Brass 0.0020 Manganin 0.00000
Carbon (graphite) -0.0005 Mercury 0.00088
Constantan 0.00001 Nichrome 0.0004
Copper 0.00393 Silver 0.0038
Iron 0.0050 Tungsten 0.0045
Table 2. Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity (Approximate Values Near Room Temperature)
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics”, 13th edition.

• Electromotive force (emf) is the influence that makes current flow from lower to
higher potential. Emf is not a force but an energy-per-unit-charge quantity, like
potential. The SI unit of emf is the same as that for potential, the volt (1 V = 1 J/C). A
typical flashlight battery has an emf of 1.5 V; this means that the battery does 1.5 J
of work on every coulomb of charge that passes through it.
• Every complete circuit with a steady current must include some device that provides
emf. Such a device is called a source of emf. Batteries, electric generators, solar
cells, thermocouples, and fuel cells are all examples of sources of emf.
• A complete circuit has a continuous current-carrying path. A complete circuit
carrying a steady current must contain a source of electromotive force (emf) ε. The SI
unit of electromotive force is the volt (1 V). Every real source of emf has some internal
resistance r, so its terminal potential difference V ab depends on current.
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝜺 − 𝑰𝒓 (Source with no internal resistance)
• Differences between electromotive force emf and potential difference V:

o The electromotive force is the measure of energy that it gives to each coulomb
of charge, whereas the potential difference is the amount of energy used by the
one coulomb of charge.
o The electromotive force is represented by the symbol ε whereas the symbol V
represents the potential difference.
o The electromotive force transfers the energy in the whole of the circuit. The
potential difference is the measure of energy between any two points on the
circuit.
o The magnitude of emf has always remained constant, whereas the magnitude
of the potential difference varies.
Symbols for circuit diagrams
• A circuit diagram (also known as an electrical diagram, elementary diagram,

or electronic schematic) is a simplified conventional graphical representation of
an electrical circuit. A pictorial circuit diagram uses simple images of components,
while a schematic diagram shows the components of the circuit as simplified
standard symbols; both types show the connections between the devices,
including power and signal connections. Arrangement of the components
interconnections on the diagram does not correspond to their physical locations in
the finished device. Table 3 shows the usual symbols used in circuit diagrams. We
usually assume that the wires that connect the various elements of a circuit have
negligible resistance; from equation V = IR, the potential difference between the ends
of such a wire is zero.
• Circuit diagrams are used for the design (circuit design), construction (such
as PCB layout), and maintenance of electrical and electronic equipment.

Conductor with negligible resistance
Resistor
Source of emf (longer vertical line always represents the positive terminal,
usually the terminal with higher potential)
Source of emf with internal resistance r (r can be placed on either side)
Voltmeter (measures potential difference between its terminals)
Ammeter (measures current through it)
Switch (open)
Switch (closed)
Figure 4. Symbols for Circuit Diagrams

• A single cell or other power source is represented by a long and a short parallel line.
A collection of cells or battery is represented by a collection of long and short parallel
lines. In both cases, the long line is represented of the positive terminal of the energy
source and the short line represents the negative terminal.
• A straight line is used to represent connecting wire between any two components of
the circuit.
• An electrical device that offers resistance of the flow of charge (e.g. bulb) is generically
referred to as a resistor and is represented by a zigzag line.
• An open switch is generally represented by providing a break in a straight line by
lifting a portion of the line upward at a diagonal.
• A voltmeter measures the potential difference between its terminals; an idealized
voltmeter has infinitely large resistance and measures potential difference without
having any current diverted through it. The voltmeters are connected in parallel with
whatever device’s voltage is to be measured. A parallel connection is used because
objects in parallel experience the same potential difference, see image below (a) where
the voltmeter is represented by the symbol V.
• An idealized ammeter has zero resistance and has no potential difference between its
terminals. Ammeters are connected in series with whatever device’s current is to be
measured. A series connection is used because objects in series have the same
current passing through them. See image below (b) where the ammeter is represented
by the symbol A.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. (a) Voltmeter connected in parallel and (b) Ammeter connected in series.
Source: “DC Voltmeters and Ammeters”. https://opentextbc.ca/openstaxcollegephysics/chapter/dc-
voltmeters-and-ammeters/#import-auto-id2692802
• How to draw a circuit diagram? Consider the image shown below.
Figure 6. Simple Circuit

Source: “Circuit Symbols and Circuit diagrams”.
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circuits/Lesson-4/Circuit-Symbols-and-Circuit-Diagrams
Describing the circuit with words: “A circuit contains a light bulb and a 1.5- Volt D-
cell.”
Steps to draw a circuit diagram:
1. Draw the symbols of the components first.
2. Then using straight lines for wires join them together. Just like in the picture
shown below.
Figure 7. Schematic Diagram of the simple circuit in figure 6.

Source: “Circuit diagrams- Simple Circuit”.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?list=RDCMUCiTjCIT_9EXV1Wp1cY0zaUA&v=j0zf-
otH3cY&feature=emb_rel_end
• The arrow represents the flow of current, the battery is represented by two parallel
lines (one long with the positive sign and the short with the negative sign), and the
bulb is represented by a zigzag line just like a resistor. This is the circuit diagram for
the simple circuit above.
Here is another example:

Draw a schematic circuit diagram of the sample circuit below.
Figure 8. Three D-cells battery and three light bulbs circuit.

Description with words of the circuit: Three D-cells are placed in a battery pack to
power a circuit containing three light bulbs.
Following the steps above, the circuit diagram looks like this,
Figure 9. Schematic diagram of the circuit in figure 8.

• Illustrative Examples.
Example #1: A source in an open circuit. Figure 7 shows a source (a battery) with emf
𝜀 = 12 V and internal resistance r = 2 Ω. The wires to the left of a and to the right of the
ammeter A are not connected to anything. Determine the respective readings V ab and I of
the idealized voltmeter V and the idealized
ammeter A.
Solution:
I = 0, there is zero current because there is
no complete circuit. Because there is no
current through the battery, there is no
potential difference across its internal
Rr==2 2
Ω,Ω𝛆,=ε12
= 12
V V resistance. From equation V= IR, with I = 0,
Figure 10. A source of emf in an open circuit. the potential difference V ab across the battery
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with terminals is equal to the emf. So the
Modern Physics”, 13th edition.
voltmeter reads Vab = ε = 12 V. The terminal

voltage of a real nonideal source equals the emf only. If there is no current flowing
through the source, as in this example.
Example #2: A source in a complete circuit. We add a 4 Ω resistor to the battery in
figure 7, forming a complete circuit. What are the voltmeter and ammeter readings Vab
and I now?
Solution:
Vab= ? I=?
Since ideal ammeter has zero resistance, so the total
resistance external to the source is R = 4 Ω. The
current through the circuit aa’bb’ is then,
𝑽
𝑰= , where the resistance is connected in
𝑹+𝒓
series so the equivalent resistance is R + r.
R = 2 Ω, 𝛆 = 12 V
𝑽 𝛆 𝟏𝟐 𝐕 𝟏𝟐 𝐕
Then, 𝑰 = = = = =𝟐𝑨
𝑹+𝒓 𝑹+𝒓 𝟒 Ω +𝟐 Ω 𝟔Ω
R == 44 Ω
Ω
Our idealized conducting wires and the idealized
ammeter have zero resistance, so there is no potential
Figure 11. A source of emf difference between points a and a’ or between b and b’;
in a complete circuit.
that is, Vab = Va’b’. From Ohm’s Law, we have,
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s
University Physics with Modern
Physics”, 13th edition. Va’b’ = IR = (2 A)(4 Ω) = 8 V
Alternatively, we can consider a and b as the terminals of the source. Then,
Vab = ε – Ir = 12 V – (2 A)(2 Ω) = 8 V
Either way, we see that the voltmeter reading is 8 V.
Evaluate: With current flowing through the source, the terminal voltage Vab is less than
the emf ε. The smaller the internal resistance r, the less the difference between Vab and ε.
Example #3. An incandescent bulb allows 300 mA of current to pass through when
connected to a 220 V source. What is the resistance of the bulb?
Given: I = 300 mA or I = 300 x 10-3 A

V = 220 V
R=?
Solution: To solve the problem, we will use Ohm’s Law,

𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= where, 𝑅=
𝑅 𝐼
Then, substitute the given variables;
220 𝑉
𝑅= = 733 Ω
300 x 10−3 A
Example #4. What amount of current flows through a 130.0 Ω wire when it is connected
to a 220 V source? How many electrons pass through the wire every second? (Note: 1
Coulomb = 6.25 x 1018 electrons)
Given: R = 130.0 Ω V = 220 V I=?

Solution:
For the first question:

Using Ohm’s Law;
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
220 𝑉
Substituting the given variables 𝐼 = = 1.69 𝐴
130.0 Ω
For the second question:

Since 1 Coulomb = 6.25 x 1018 electrons and Ampere is in Coulomb per second, using
conversion factor, we have
I = 1.69 A = 1.69 C/s
Solution:
𝐶 6.25 𝑥 1018 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = (1.69 ) = 1.06 𝑥 1019 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝑠 1 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
Example #5. A silver wire 1.00 mm in diameter conducts a current 0f 18.00 A. Find the
potential difference between two points on the wire 125 m apart? (ρ of silver = 1.47 x 10-8
Ω.m)
1 𝑥 10−3 𝑚
Given: d = 1.00 mm = 1 x 10-3 m r = d/2 = = 0.0005 𝑚
2
I = 18.00 A
L = 125 m
V=?
Solution:
To solve for V we use Ohm’s law V= IR, to solve for R we use
𝜌𝐿
𝑅= , where A is cross-sectional area = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(0.0005𝑚)2 = 7.85 𝑥 10−7 𝑚2
𝐴
(1.47 x 10−8 Ω.m)(125 𝑚)
Substituting variables, 𝑅= = 0.02 𝑥 10−12 Ω
7.85 𝑥 10−7 𝑚2
Solving for V,
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = (18.00 𝐴)(0.02 𝑥 10−12 Ω) = 0.36 𝑥 10−12 𝑉 𝑜𝑟 0.36 𝑝𝑉
Example #6. What is the resistance of Aluminum wire at 100 ℃, if suppose its
resistance at 20 ℃ is 2.0 Ω?
Given: Aluminum wire has 𝛼 = 0.0039 (℃)−1

𝑇0 = 20 ℃
𝑇 = 100 ℃
𝑅0 = 2.0 Ω
Solution:
𝑅 (𝑇) = 𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )]
𝑅 (𝑇) = 2.0 Ω[1 + 0.0039 (℃)−1 (100 ℃ − 20 ℃)]
𝑅 (𝑇) = 2.0 Ω[1 + 0.0039 (℃)−1 (80 ℃)]
𝑅 (𝑇) = 2.0 Ω[1 + 0.312]
𝑅 (𝑇) = 2.0 Ω[1.312]
𝑅 (𝑇) = 0.624 Ω
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 100 ℃ 𝑖𝑠 0.624 Ω.
Exercises / Activities
Activity 1. Current, Resistance and Electromotive Force
Objectives:
• Solve problems involving current, resistivity, resistance, and Ohm’s law in contexts
such as, but not limited to, batteries and bulbs, household wiring, and selection of
fuses.
• Apply the relationship of the proportionality between resistance and the length and
cross-sectional area of a wire to solve problems.
• Given an emf source connected to a resistor, determine the power supplied or
dissipated by each element in a circuit.
• Apply the relationship charge = current x time to new situations or to solve related
problems.
What you need:
• Paper and pen

• Scientific Calculator

What to do: Solve the given problems below. Write your solutions in a separate sheet of
paper.
1. An incandescent bulb allows 114 mA of current to pass through when

connected to a 220 V source. What is the resistance of the bulb?
2. What amount of current flows through a 90.0 Ω wire when it is connected
to a 120 V source? How many electrons pass through the wire every
second? (Note: 1 Coulomb = 6.25 x 1018 electrons)
3. A platinum wire 1.50 mm in diameter conducts a current 0f 9.00 A. Find
the potential difference between two points on the wire 125 m apart? (ρ of
platinum = 0.11 x 10-6 Ω.m)
4. The figure below shows a source (a battery) with emf 𝜀 = 12 V and internal
resistance r = 2 Ω. A 6 Ω resistor is added to the battery, forming a
complete circuit. What are the voltmeter and ammeter readings Vab and I
now?
R =6 Ω
5. Suppose the resistance of a copper wire is 1.05 Ω at 20 ℃. Find the resistance

at 0 ℃ and 100 ℃.
Activity 2. Drawing Circuit Diagrams
Objective: Draw circuit diagrams with power sources (cell or battery), switches, lamps,
resistors (fixed and variable) fuses, ammeters and voltmeters.
What you need: Paper and pen
What to do: Draw the schematic circuit diagram of the following circuits in a separate
sheet of paper.

Photo Source:
https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons
/view/cub_electricity_lesson05
1.
Photos Source: “Circuit Symbols and

Circuit diagrams”.
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class
/circuits/Lesson-4/Circuit-Symbols-and-
Circuit-Diagrams
2.
Photo Source:
https://intl.siyavula.com/read/science/gra
de-9/series-and-parallel-circuits/18-series-
and-parallel-circuits?id=toc-id-5
3.
Reflection
Discuss the importance of drawing the schematic diagram of electric circuits in
house planning. Write your 3-5 sentence answer in a separate sheet of paper.
Rubrics:
3 2 1 0
The discussion is The discussion is The discussion is No discussion
scientifically scientifically explained
explained and is explained and is consistent to the
consistent to the consistent to the concepts, but with
concepts and has concepts, but with misconceptions.
no misconception. minimal
misconception.
References:
Coronade, Gary and Boncodin, Maria Carmela. Physics IV. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, 2006.

Young, Hugh D., Roger A. Freedman, A. Lewis Ford, and Hugh D. Young. Sears
and Zemansky's University Physics. 13th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson
Learning Solutions, 2012.
Online Sources
“Circuit diagrams- Simple Circuit”.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?list=RDCMUCiTjCIT_9EXV1Wp1cY0za
UA&v=j0zf-otH3cY&feature=emb_rel_end
“Circuit Symbols and Circuit diagrams”.

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circuits/Lesson-4/Circuit-
Symbols-and-Circuit-Diagrams
“Conventional Current vs Electron Flow”.

https://www.mi.mun.ca/users/cchaulk/eltk1100/ivse/ivse.htm#:~:text
=Conventional%20Current%20assumes%20that%20current,negative%20
terminal%20of%20the%20source.&text=Electron%20Flow%20is%20what
%20actually,positive%20terminal%20of%20the%20source.
https://intl.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-9/series-and-parallel-circuits/18-
series-and-parallel-circuits?id=toc-id-5
https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/cub_electricity_lesson05
Pressbooks. “DC Voltmeters and Ammeters”.

https://opentextbc.ca/openstaxcollegephysics/chapter/dc-voltmeters-
and-ammeters/#import-auto-id2692802
Answer Key
3.
R = 1.38 at T = 100 ℃ 2.
R = 0.97 at T = 0 ℃ 5.
V=9V
I = 1.5 A 4.
V = 7.03 x 10-18 V
R = 7.81 x 10-19 Ω 3. 1.
electrons
# of electrons = 8.31 x 1018
I = 1.33 A 2.
R = 1 920.00 Ω 1.
Electromotive Force
Activity 1. Current, Resistance and Activity 2. Drawing Circuit Diagrams

Quarter 3 – Week 6a: Direct-Current Circuits
First Edition, 2021
Writer: Shekaina Faith C. Lozada

Editors: Marvelous Saint P. Jumanoy
Edna E. Trinidad
Lay-out Reviewers: Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña, Regional Science Coordinator
Abraham Masendro
Yvonne S. Salubre
Jeremaeh Delosa
AR A. Ranesis
Marvin T. Tejano
Juzalin L. Costuya
Author: Shekaina Faith C. Lozada

School/Station: Gamut National High School
General Physics 2, Grade 12, Quarter 3, Week 6a
DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
- Evaluate the equivalent resistance, current and voltage in a given network of resistors
connected in series and/or parallel. (STEM_GP12EMIIIg-48)
- Calculate the current and voltage through and across circuits elements using Kirchhoff’s
loop and junction rules (at most 2 loops only). (STEM_GP12EMIIIg-49)
- Solve problems involving the calculation of currents and potential difference in circuits
consisting of batteries, resistors and capacitors. (STEM_GP12EMIIIg-51)
Specific Objectives:
1. Determine the equivalent resistance, currents and voltage connected in circuits with
multiple resistors in series and/or parallel;
2. Evaluate the current and voltage through and across circuits using Kirchhoff’s loop;
3. Solve problems involving currents and voltage in circuits.
Time Allotment: 4 hours
Key Concepts
 Resistors fit up in all kinds of circuits that limit current or reduce a voltage.
 The term ‘resistance’ explained the basic design of a resistor. Basically, a resistor limits
the flow of charge in a circuit and is an ohmic device where V = IR.
 Most circuits have more than one resistor. If several resistors are connected together and
connected to a battery, the current supplied by the battery depends on the equivalent
resistance of the circuit.
 The equivalent resistance of a combination of resistors depends on both their individual
values and how they are connected. The simplest combinations of resistors are series and
parallel connections.
 Resistors are connected in series whenever the current flows through the resistors
sequentially. Figure 1 shows resistors are connected in series with only a single current
path between point a and b.
Figure 1. Series connection of three resistors

Modern Physics” 12th edition.
 Consider Figure 1, which shows three resistors in series with an applied voltage equal to
Vab. We can derive general equations for the equivalent resistance of a series combination
of resistors. If the resistors are in series as in Figure 1, the current I must be the same
in all of them.
I = I1 = I2 = I3

 Applying V = IR to each resistor, we can have
Vax = IR1 , Vxy = IR2 , Vyb = IR3
The potential difference across each resistor need not to be the same. The potential
difference Vab across the entire combination is the sum of these individual potential
differences
Vab = Vax + Vxy + Vyb = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
and so
𝑉𝑎𝑏
= R1 + R2 + R3
𝐼
 Potential drop (more likely called as Voltage drop) in a circuit is a measure of how much
voltage supplied by the voltage source is reduced by passive elements (resistors,
capacitors, inductors or something else). In a simple way we can define it as the amount
of voltage lost due to resistances in the circuit.
 Voltage drop occurs when current flows from higher potential to lower potential across a
passive element. If potential across both the ends of the element is the same then that
means no voltage drop across it .
 The ratio Vab/I is, by definition, the equivalent resistance Req. Therefore,
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
 Generally, equivalent resistance Req to any number of resistors in series can be calculated
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + . . . + Rn
 The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors in series equals the sum of their
individual resistances. Req is greater than any individual resistance.
Example Problem 1. Equivalent Resistance, Current and Potential Drop in a Series Circuit
A battery with a terminal voltage of 9V is connected to a circuit consisting of four 20 Ω
and one 10 Ω resistors all in series (shown in Figure 2). Assume the battery has negligible
internal resistance.
a. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
b. Calculate the current through each resistor.
c. Calculate the potential drop across each resistor.
Figure 2. A simple series circuit with five resistors

Source: https://brainly.in/question/19903301
Solution:
a. The equivalent resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances:
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
= 20 Ω + 20 Ω + 20 Ω + 20 Ω + 10 Ω
Req = 90 Ω

b. The current through the circuit is the same for each resistor in a series circuit and is
equal to the applied voltage divided by the equivalent resistance:
𝑉 9𝑉
𝐼 = 𝑅 = 90Ω = 0.1 A
Hence, I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 = I5 = 0.1 A
c. The potential drop across each resistor can be found using Ohm’s law:
V1 = IR1 = (0.1 A)(20 Ω) = 2V
V2 = IR2 = (0.1 A)(20 Ω) = 2V
V3 = IR3 = (0.1 A)(20 Ω) = 2V
V4 = IR4 = (0.1 A)(20 Ω) = 2V
V5 = IR5 = (0.1 A)(10 Ω) = 1V
Note: The sum of the potential drops across each resistor is equal to the voltage
supplied by the battery
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 = 9V
 The resistors in Figure 3 are said to be connected in parallel between points a and b.
Each resistors provides an alternative path between the points. For circuit elements
connected in parallel, the potential difference is the same across each element.
Figure 3. Parallel connection of three resistors

 If the resistors are in parallel as shown in Figure 3, the current through each resistor
need not to be the same. But the potential difference between the terminals of each
resistor must be the same and equal to Vab. Remember that the potential difference
between any two points does not depend on the path taken between the points.
𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑎𝑏

I1 = , I2 = , I3 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
 In general, the current I is different through each resistor. This happens because charge
is not accumulating or draining out of point a, thus the total current I must equal to the
sum of the three currents in the resistors.
1 1 1
I = I1 + I2 + I3 = Vab ( + +𝑅 )
𝑅1 𝑅2 3
𝐼 1 1 1
= + +
𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
 By definition, the equivalent resistance Req for resistors in parallel circuits is
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

 In general, equivalent resistance Req to any number of resistors connected in parallel
can be calculated as
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + . . .+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
 The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors in parallel is the reciprocal of the
equivalent resistance equals the sum of the reciprocals of their individual resistances.
The equivalent resistance is always less than any individual resistances.
Example Problem 2. Analysis of the Parallel Circuit

Three resistors R1 = 1.00 Ω, R2 = 2.00 Ω, and R3 = 2.00 Ω are connected in parallel. The
parallel connection is attached to a 3.00 V voltage source (shown in Figure 4).
a. What is the equivalent resistance?
b. Find the current supplied by the source to the parallel circuit.
c. Calculate the currents in each resistor and show that these add together to equal the
current output of the source.
Figure 4. Parallel connection of three resistors

Source: https://www.brownshoesonly.com/circuitcalculations
Solution:
a. The total resistance for a parallel combination of resistors is
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 1.00 Ω 2.00 Ω 2.00 Ω
1
= 2.00 Ω
𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 0.50 Ω
b. The total current in the parallel circuit is

3.00 𝑉
I= = 6.00 A
0.50 Ω
c. The individual currents are easily calculated from Ohm’s law, since each resistor
gets the full voltage. Thus,
3.00 𝑉 3.00 𝑉 3.00 𝑉

I1 = 1.00 Ω
= 3.00 𝐴 I2 = 2.00 Ω
= 1.50 𝐴 I3 = 2.00 Ω
= 1.50 𝐴
The total current I is the sum of the individual currents:

I = I1 + I2 + I3 = 6.00 A
 Many practical resistor networks cannot be reduced to simple series-parallel

combinations. Thus, Kirchhoff’s rule are being used to handle and analyse more complex
circuits. Two terms are being considered on this rule such as Junction and Loop.
 A Junction in a circuit is a point where three or more conductors meet. Junctions are
also called nodes or branch points.
 A Loop is any closed conducting path.

 In Figure 5a, points a and b are junctions but not points c and d. Moreover, in Figure 5b
the points a, b, c and d are junctions, but points e and f are not.
Figure 5. Two networks that cannot be reduced to simple series-parallel combinations of resistors.
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics” 12 th edition.
 Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule states that the algebraic sum of the currents into any
junction is zero.
ΣI = 0
 Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule states that the algebraic sum of the potential differences in any
loop, including those associated with emfs and those of resistive elements, must equal to
zero.
ΣV = 0
 The junction rule is based on Conservation of Electric Charge. No electric charge can
accumulate at a junction, so the total charge entering the junction per unit time must
equal the total charge leaving per unit time.
 Charge per unit time is current I, so if we consider the currents entering a junction to
be positive and those leaving to be negative, the algebraic sum of currents into a
junction must be zero.
 The loop rule also is a statement that the electrostatic force is conservative. If we go
around a loop, we measure the potential differences across successive circuits. When we
return to the starting point, we must find that the algebraic sum of these differences is
zero.
 Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of current offered by the cells and
batteries themselves resulting in the generation of heat. Internal resistance is measured
in Ohms. The relationship between internal resistance (r) and emf (e) of cell is given by
e = I (r + R)
 In applying the loop rule, we need to consider some sign conventions. We first assume a
direction for the current in each branch of the circuit and mark it on a diagram of the
circuit. Then, starting at any point in the circuit, we imagine traveling around a loop,
adding emfs and IR terms as we come to them. When we travel through a source in the
direction from – to +, the emf is considered to be positive; when we travel from + to -, the
emf is considered to be negative (shown in Figure 4a). When we travel through a resistor
in the same direction as the assumed current, the IR term is negative because the current
goes in the direction of decreasing potential. When we travel through a resistor in the
direction opposite to the assumed current, the IR term is positive because this represents
a rise of potential (shown in Figure 4b).
Figure 4. Sign conventions

when you apply Kirchhoff’s
loop rule
Source: “Sears and
Zemansky’s University
Physics with Modern Physics”
12th edition.

Example Problem 3. Charging a battery
In a circuit, shown in Figure 6, a 12-V power supply with unknown internal
resistance r is connected to a run-down rechargeable battery with unknown emf ε and
internal resistance 1 Ω and to an indicator light bulb of resistance 3 Ω carrying a current
of 2 A. The current through the run-down battery is 1 A in the direction shown. Find the
unknown current I, the internal resistance r and the emf ε.
Figure 6. In this circuit a power supply charges a run-down battery and lights a bulb.
Solution:
First, we apply the Junction Rule to point a.
ΣI = 0
-I+1A+2A=0
I=3A
Second, to determine r, we apply the Loop Rule, to the outer loop labelled (1):
ΣV= 0
12 V – (3 A)r + (2 A)(3 Ω) = 0
12 V – (3 A)r - 6 V = 0
(3 A)r = 12 V - 6 V
(3 A)r = 6 V
r=2V
Lastly, to determine ε, we apply the loop rule to loop (2):

- ε + (1 A)(1 Ω) – (2 A)(3 Ω) = 0
-ε+1V–6V=0
ε = -5 V
Activity 1: Resistors in Series and Parallel
Objective: Determine the equivalent resistance, currents and voltage connected in circuits with
multiple resistors in series and/or parallel;
What you need:

 Paper and pen
 Scientific Calculator
What to do: Answer the following problems. Write your solutions in a separate sheet of paper.
1. Compute the equivalent resistance of the network
in the circuit shown below. Show the steps in
reducing a combination of resistors to a single
equivalent resistor. The source of emf has an
negligible internal resistance.

2. Two bulbs (each w/ resistance 2Ω) are to be connected to an ideal source of emf (ξ=8V)
and negligible internal resistance. Find the current through each bulb and the potential
difference across each bulb if the bulbs are connected in (a) series (b) in parallel. (c)
Suppose one of the bulb burns out and current can no longer flow through it, what
happens to the other bulb in the series case? in the parallel case?(Note: Draw the resistor
network)
Activity 2: Kirchhoff’s Rule
Objective: Evaluate the current and voltage through and across circuits using Kirchhoff’s loop.
What you need:

 Paper and pen
1. The circuit shown contains two batteries, each will an emf and an internal resistance and
two resistors. Find the current in the circuit and the potential difference.
2. Find the emfs ε1 and ε2 in the circuit below and find the potential difference of points b
relative to point a.
Reflection
Give practical applications of the concepts that you have learned from the learning
activities. Write your 5-sentence answer in a separate sheet of paper.
RUBRICS
3 2 1 0
Practical application is Practical application is Practical application No discussion.
scientifically explained scientifically explained is explained
consistent to the consistent to the consistent to the
concepts, and concepts, but with concepts but with
misconceptions.

Caintic, Helen E. General Physics 1 for Senior High School. C & E Publishing Inc.,
2017.
Serway, Raymond and John Jewett. Physics for Scientists and Engineers 6th ed.
Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2004.
2012.
Answer Key
V = 8V
I = 4A (each bulb)
b. Parallel Connection:
Vab = Vbc = 4V
I = 2A
2. a. Series Connection:
1. Req = 2 Ω
Activity 1: Resistors in Series and Parallel
Vb – Va = -13.0 V
ε2 = 7.0 V
ε1 = 18.0 V 2.
b. Vab = 9.5 V
1. a. I = 0.5 A
Activity 2: Kirchhoff’s Rules


Quarter 3 – Week 6b: Magnetic Field and Magnetic Forces
First Edition, 2021

Editors: Marvelous Saint P. Jumanoy
Edna E. Trinidad
Lay-out Reviewers: Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña, Regional Science Coordinator
Abraham Masendro
Yvonne S. Salubre
Jeremaeh Delosa
AR A. Ranesis
Marvin T. Tejano
Juzalin L. Costuya

General Physics 2, Grade 12, Quarter 3, Week 6b
MAGNETIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC FORCE
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
- Differentiate electric interactions from magnetic interactions. (STEM_GP12EMIIIh-54)
- Evaluate the total magnetic flux through an open surface. (STEM_GP12EMIIIh-55)
- Describe the motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field in terms of its speed,
acceleration, cyclotron radius, cyclotron frequency and kinetic energy.
(STEM_GP12EMIIIh-58)
- Evaluate the magnetic force on an arbitrary wire segment placed in a uniform magnetic
field. (STEM_GP12EMIIIh-59)
After the lesson, the students will able to:
1. Differentiate electric interaction from magnetic interaction;
2. Calculate magnetic flux through an open surface;
3. Determine the motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field;
4. Solve problems involving magnetic force on current-carrying conductor.
Key Concepts
 Magnetic phenomena were first observed at least 2500 years ago in fragments of
magnetized iron ore. These fragments were examples of what are now called permanent
magnet.
 Before the relationship of magnetic interactions to moving charges was understood, the
interactions of permanent magnets and compass needles were described in terms of
magnetic poles. The concept of magnetic poles may appear similar to that of electric
charges, and the north and south poles may seem analogous to positive and negative
charge.
 The first evidence of the relationship of magnetism to moving charges was discovered in
1820 by the Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted. He found that a compass needle
was deflected by a current-carrying wire as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. In Oersted’s experiment, a compass is placed directly over a

horizontal wire. When the compass is placed directly under
the wire, the compass deflection is reversed.
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics”
12th edition.

 Electric interactions are represented in two steps.
1. A distribution of electric charge at rest creates an electric field E in the
surrounding space.
2. The electric field exerts a force F = qE on any other charge q that is present in
the field.
 Magnetic interactions are represented in a similar way.
1. A moving charge or a current creates a magnetic field in the surrounding
space (in addition to its electric field).
2. The magnetic field exerts a force F on any other moving charge or current that
is present in the field.
 Like electric field, magnetic field is a vector quantity associated with each point in a space.
The symbol for magnetic field is B. At any position the direction of B is defined as the
direction in which the north pole of a compass needle tends to point.
 We define the magnetic flux B through a surface just as we defined electric flux in
connection with Gauss’s Law. We can divide any surface into elements of area dA such
as shown in Figure 2. For each element we determine B˪, the component of B normal to
the surface at the position of that element. From the figure,
𝐵⊥ = B cos ∅
where ∅ is the angle between the direction of B and a line perpendicular to the surface.
Figure 2. The magnetic flux through an area

 In general, this component varies from point to point on the surface. We define the
magnetic flux d B through this area as
d B = 𝐵⊥ dA = B cos ∅ dA = B · dA
 The total magnetic flux through the surface is the sum of the contributions from the
individual area elements presents as
B = ∫ 𝐵⊥ 𝑑A = ∫ B cos ∅ 𝑑A = ∫ 𝐁 · 𝑑𝐀
 The SI unit of magnetic flux is equal to the unit of magnetic field (1 T) times the unit of
area (1 m2). This unit is called the weber (1 Wb), in honor of the German physicist Wilhelm
Weber.
1 Wb = 1 T · m2 = 1 N · m/A

Example Problem 1: Magnetic flux calculations
The figure below shows a perspective view of a flat surface with area 3.0 cm 2 in a
uniform magnetic field. If the magnetic field through this area is 0.90 Wb, calculate the
magnitude of the magnetic field and find the direction of the area vector.
Solution:
A = 3.0 x 10-4 m2
∅ = 600
= B · dA
B
Φ𝐵
B=
𝐴 cos ∅
0.90 𝑥 10−3𝑊𝑏
=
(3.0 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2)(cos 60°)
B = 6.0 T. The area vector A is perpendicular to the area.
 When a charged particle moves in a magnetic field, it is acted on by the magnetic force
given by F = qv x B and the motion is determined by Newton’s laws.
 Figure 3 simply shows a particle with positive charge q at point O, moving with velocity v
in a uniform magnetic field B directed into the plane of the figure. The vectors v and B
are perpendicular, so the magnetic force F = qv x B has a magnitude of F = qvB and a
direction as shown in the figure.
Figure 3. A charged particle moves in a plane

perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B.
with Modern Physics” 12 th edition.
 Motion of a charged particle under the action of a magnetic field alone is always motion
with constant speed. Using this principle, the magnitude of both F and v are constant.
At points such as P and S the directions of force and velocity have changed but the
magnitudes are the same.
 The centripetal acceleration is v2/R and the only force acting is the magnetic force.
Newton’s law states that
𝑣2
F = |q|vB = 𝑚
𝑅
 For the radius R of the circular path, we have
𝑚𝑣 2
R=
|𝑞|𝐵

 The angular speed ω of the particle can be found as
v = Rω
𝑣 |𝑞|𝐵 |𝑞|𝐵
ω= =𝑣 =
𝑅 𝑚𝑣 𝑚
 The number of revolutions per unit time is f = ω/2π. This frequency f is independent of
the radius R of the path. It is called the cyclotron frequency.
 In a particle accelerator called a cyclotron, particles moving in nearly circular paths are
given a boost twice each revolution, increasing their energy and their orbital radii but
not their angular speed or frequency.
 The forces that make an electric motor work are the forces that a magnetic field exerts
on a conductor carrying a current. The magnetic forces on the moving charges within
the conductor are transmitted to the material of the conductor, and the conductor as a
whole experiences a force distributed along its length.
 We can compute the force on a current-carrying conductor starting with the magnetic
force F = qv x B on a single moving charge. Figure 4 shows a straight segment of
conducting wire, with length l and cross sectional area A. The current flows from the
bottom to top. Additionally, the wire is in uniform magnetic field B, perpendicular to the
plane of the diagram and directed into the plane.
Figure 4. Forces on a moving positive charge in a

current-carrying conductor.
 If the B field is not perpendicular to the wire but makes an angle ∅ with it, the situation
for a single charge is F = qv x B. Only the component of B perpendicular to wire exerts a
force, thus this component is expressed as 𝐵⊥ = B sin∅. Then, the magnetic force on the
wire segment shows
𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵⊥ = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

 The force is always perpendicular to both the conductor and the field, with the direction
determined by the same right-hand rule used for a moving positive charge. Hence this
force can be expressed as a vector product like the force acting on a single moving charge.
 The segment of wire with a vector l along the wire in the direction of the current, then
the force F on this segment is presented as
F = Il x B

Activity 1: Magnetic Field and Magnetic Force
Objectives:
1. Differentiate electric interaction from magnetic interaction.
2. Calculate magnetic flux through an open surface.
3. Determine the motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field;
4. Solve problems involving magnetic force on current-carrying conductor.
What you need:

 Paper and pen
What to do 1: Answer the following questions based on the concepts that you have learned.
Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
1. Suppose you cut off the part of the compass

shown in the figure at right that is painted gray.
You discard this part, drill a hole in the
remaining red part, and place the red part on the
pivot at the center of the compass. Will the red
part still swing east and west when a current is
applied? Why or why not?
2. The figure at right shows a unique form

magnetic field B directed into the plane of the
paper (shown by X’s). A particle with a negative
charge moves in the plane. Which of the three
paths – 1,2 or 3 – does the particle follow? Why?
What to do 2: Answer the following problems. Write your solutions in a separate sheet of paper.
1. A circular antenna of area 3 m2 is installed at a place in Madurai. The plane of the area
of antenna is inclined at 47º with the direction of Earth’s magnetic field. If the magnitude
of Earth’s field at that place is 40773.9 x 10-9 T find the magnetic flux linked with the
antenna.
2. A magnetron in a microwave oven emits electromagnetic waves with frequency f = 2450
MHz. what magnetic field strength is required for electrons to move in circular paths with
this frequency?
3. A straight horizontal copper rod carries a current of 50.0 A from west to east in a region
between the poles of a large electromagnet.. in this region there is a horizontal magnetic
field toward the northeast (450 north of east) with magnitude 1.20 T.
a. Find the magnitude and direction of the force on a 1.00-m section of rod.
b. While keeping the rod horizontal, how should it be oriented to maximize the
magnitude of the force? what is the force magnitude in this case?

Reflection
RUBRICS
3 2 1 0
misconceptions.
2017.
2012.
https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/collegephysics/chapter/resistors-in-series-and-
parallel/
https://openpress.usask.ca/physics155/chapter/6-3-kirchhoffs-rules/
Answer Key
c. F = 60.0 N
b. ∅ = 900
3. a. F = 42.4 N
2. 0.0877 T
1. 89.47 x 10-6 Wb
What to do 2:
and the particle follows a trajectory that curves downward.

would point upward. But since the charge is negative, the force points downward
which points into the plane of the figure says that the force F on a positive charge
2. Path 3. Applying the right-hand rule to the vectors v pointing to the right and B
compass needle.
the small red part of the needle behaves much like the original, full-sized
1. Yes. When a magnet is cut apart, each part has a north and south pole. Hence
What to do 1:
Activity 1


Quarter 3 – Week 7: Sources of Magnetic Field (Biot-Savart Law and Ampere’s Law)
First Edition, 2021
the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation of such work for a profit. Such agency or
office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (e.g., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names, trademarks,
etc.) included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every effort
has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from the respective
copyright owners. The authors do not represent nor claim ownership over them.

Writer: Marvelous Saint P. Jumanoy
Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña
Yvonne S. Salubre
Jeremaeh G. Delosa
Lay-out Reviewers: Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña
Yvonne S. Salubre
Jeremaeh Delosa
AR A. Ranesis
Marvin T. Tejano
Juzalin L. Costuya
Author: Marvelous Saint P. Jumanoy

Division: Surigao del Sur 1
UNIFIED LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEETS
General Physics 2 Grade 12-STEM, Quarter 2, Week 7
SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD

(Biot-Savart Law and Ampere’s Law)
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Evaluate the magnetic field vector at a given point in space due to a moving point charge, an
infinitesimal current element, or a straight current-carrying conductor.
(STEM_GP12EMIIIi-60)
 Calculate the magnetic field due to one or more straight wire conductors using the
superposition principle. (STEM_GP12EMIIIi-62)
 Calculate the force per unit length on a current-carrying wire due to the magnetic field
produced by the other current-carrying wire. (STEM_GP12EMIIIi-63)
 Evaluate the magnetic field vector at any point along the access of a circular current loop.
(STEM_GP12EMIIIi-64)
 Solve problems involving magnetic fields, forces due to magnetic field motion of charges and
current-carrying wires in contexts such as, but limited to, determining the strength of earth’s
magnetic field, mass spectrometers, and solenoids. (STEM_GP12EMIIIi-65)
Specific Objectives
1. Evaluate the magnetic fields produced by an element of a current-carrying conductor;
2. Calculate the magnetic field produced by a long, straight, current-carrying wire and a
current-carrying wire bent into circle.
3. Solve problems involving magnetic field and forces
Time Allotment: 4 days
Key Concepts
 Basically, the magnetic field of a single point charge q moving with a constant velocity �. In
practical applications, magnetic fields are produced by tremendous numbers of charged
particles moving together in a current.
 For electric field, the Principle of Superposition of Magnetic Fields states that the total
magnetic field caused by several moving charges is the vector sum of the fields
caused by the individual charges.
 We can use this principle to find the magnetic field produced by a current in a conductor.
Thus, we can have equation (1),
μ0 I �� sin∅
(1) Eq. dB =
4π r2
 In vector form, using the unit vector �, we can have equation (2);
μ0 I dl×�
(2) Eq. dB = (magnetic field of a current element)
4π r2
where dl is a vector, in the same direction as the current in the conductor.
 The equation (1) and (2) are called the Law of Biot-Savart. We can use this law to find the
total magnetic field � at any point in space due to the current in a complete circuit. To do
this, we integrate equation (2) over all segments �� that carry current; symbolically,
μ0 I dl×�
(3) Eq. B= 4π r2
Example 1:
1. A copper wire carries a steady current of 125 A to an electroplating tank. Find the
magnetic field caused by a 1.0-cm segment of this wire at a point 1.2m away from it, as
shown in figure 1 , if the point is
a) point �1 straight out to the segment
b) point �2 on the line at 30° to the segment
Figure (1) magnetic field at two point due to a

1.0 cm segment current-carrying wire
Strategy/Solution:
 Although Equation (1) and (2) is strictly to be used with infinitesimal current elements only, we
may use them here since the segment’s 1.0 cm length is much smaller than 1.2 m distance to
the field point.
 The current element is shown as x in figure (2) and points in the −x-direction (the direction of
the current). The vector � for each field point is directed from the current element toward that
point: � is in the +y-direction for point �1 and at an angle of 30° above the −x-direction for
point �2 .
 From the Right-hand Rule, the direction of B at �1 is into the xy-plane on figure above. Or,
using unit vectors, we note that dl = dl(− i). At point �1 , r=j, so in equation 1,
�� × � = ��(− i) × j = ��(− k)
the negative z-direction is into the plane
 To find the magnitude of B, we use equation (1). At point �1 , the angle between �� and � is 90°,
so
�� ∅
�� = ��
(125 A) (1.0×10−2 m) (sin 90°)

= (10−7 T ∙ m/A) (1.2m)2
= 8.7 × 10−8 T
(a) At point �2 the direction of B is again into xy-plane of the figure (2). The angle between
�� × � is 30°, and
(125 A) (1.0×10−2 m) (sin 30°)
B = (10−7 T ∙ m/A)
(1.2m)2
= 4.3 × 10−8 T

 An important application of the law of Biot and Savart is finding the magnetic field produced
by a straight current-carrying conductor. This result is useful because straight conducting
wires are found in essentially all electric and electronic devices. Figure 2 shows such a
conductor with length 2a carrying a current I.
Figure (2) magnetic field produced

by a straight current-carrying
conductor of length 2a
At point P, the field dB caused by each

element of the conductor points into the
plane of the pages, as does the total B
field.
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics” 12th edition.
 Using the idea of previous lessons and with the help of trigonometry and calculus, we can
have the equation (4),
μ0 a x dy
(4) B= −a (x2 +y2 )3/2
4π
 The physical situation has axial symmetry about the y-axis. Thus, B must have the same
magnitude at all points on the circle centered on the conductor and lying in a plane
perpendicular to it, and the direction of B must be everywhere tangent to such a circle.
Hence, at all points on a circle of radius r around the conductor, the magnitude B is
�0 �
(5) Eq. B= 2π�
(near a long, straight, current-carrying conductor)
 Part of the magnetic field around a long, straight, current-carrying conductor is shown in
figure 3. The field lines are circles, with the directions determined by the Right-hand Rule.
Figure (3) RHR for the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire
Example 2:
A long, straight conductor carries of 1.0 A. At what distance from the axis of the conductor is the
magnetic field caused by the current equal magnitude to the earth’s magnetic field in Pittsburgh
(about 0.5 × 10−4 �)?
Strategy/Solution:
 The straight conductor is described as being long, which means that its length is much greater
than the distance from the conductor at which we measure the field. Thus, we can use the idea
of this.

 The geometry is the same as that in figure (3), so we use equation (5). All quantities in this
equation are known except the target variable, the distance r.
 We solve equation (5) for r and insert the appropriate numbers:
�0 �
�=
2πB
(4π×10−7 m/A) (1.0 A)
=
(2π)(0.5×10−4 T)
= 4 × 10−3 m
= 4mm
 Currents of an ampere or so are typical of those found in the wiring of home appliances. This
example shows that the magnetic fields produced by these appliances are weak even at points
very close to the wire. At greater distance, the field becomes even weaker.
 The Attraction or repulsion between two straight, parallel, current-carrying conductors is

the basis of the official SI definition of the ampere.
 One ampere is that unvarying current that, if present in each of two parallel conductors of
infinite length and one meter apart in empty space, causes each conductor to experience a
force of 2 × 10−7 �� ℎ.
 The magnetic field near a current-carrying loop of wire is shown in Figure (4). Both the
direction and the magnitude of the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying loop are
complex. RHR can be used to give the direction of the field near the loop, but mapping with
compasses and the rules about field lines are needed for more detail. The simple formula for
��
the magnetic field strength at the center of a circular loop is � = .where r is the radius
��
of the loop. This equation is very similar to that for a straight wire, but it is valid only at the
center of a circular loop of wire. The similarity of the equations does indicate that similar
field strength can be obtained at the center of a loop.
 A solenoid is a long coil of wire (with many turns or loops, as opposed to a flat loop).
Because of its shape, the field inside a solenoid can be very uniform, and also very strong.
The field just outside the coils is nearly zero. Figure (4) shows how the field looks and how
its direction is given by RHR.
Figure 4: a) Because of its shape, the field inside a solenoid of length l is remarkably uniform in
magnitude and direction, as indicated by the straight and uniformly spaced field lines. The field
outside the coils is nearly zero. (b) This cutaway shows the magnetic field generated by the current in
the solenoid.
 The magnetic field inside of a current-carrying solenoid is very uniform in direction and
magnitude. Only near the ends does it begin to weaken and change direction. The field
outside has similar complexities to flat loops and bar magnets, but the magnetic field
strength inside a solenoid is simply
(6) Eq. � = �0 �� (inside a solenoid)
where n is the number of loops per unit length of the solenoid (n=N/l with N being the
number of loops and l the length). Note that B is the field strength anywhere in the uniform
region of the interior and not just at the center. Large uniform fields spread over a large
volume are possible with solenoids, as the example implies.
Example 3. Calculating Field Strength inside a Solenoid

1. What is the field inside a 2.00-m-long solenoid that has 2000 loops and carries a 1600-A
current?
Strategy/Solution:
 To find the field strength inside a solenoid, we use � = �� . First, we note the number of
loops per unit length is
N 2000
n= = = 1000 m−1
� 2.00 m
 Substituting known values gives
� = �0 ��
= (4π × 10−7 T ∙ m/A) (1000m−1 ) (1600 A)
= 2.01 T
 There are interesting variations of the flat coil and solenoid. For example, the toroidal coil
used to confine the reactive particles in tokamaks is much like a solenoid bent into a circle.
The field inside a toroid is very strong but circular.
 Charged particles travel in circles, following the field lines, and collide with one another,
perhaps inducing fusion. But the charged particles do not cross field lines and escape the
toroid. A whole range of coil shapes are used to produce all sorts of magnetic field shapes.
 Adding ferromagnetic materials produces greater field strengths and can have a significant
effect on the shape of the field. Ferromagnetic materials tend to trap magnetic fields (the
field lines bend into the ferromagnetic material, leaving weaker fields outside it) and are
used as shields for devices that are adversely affected by magnetic fields, including the
Earth’s magnetic field.
 Ampere’s law - the physical law that states that the magnetic field around an electric
current is proportional to the current; each segment of current produces a magnetic field
like that of a long straight wire, and the total field of any shape current is the vector sum of
the fields due to each segment. Our statement of Ampere’s Law is then,
(7) Eq. � ∙ �� = ��
 Ampere’s law is useful when we can exploit the symmetry of a situation to evaluate the line
integral of �.

Examples of Magnetic and Electric Field Practical Applications
Traditional Industry
Without magnetic materials, electrification would be impossible because generators,
transformers for power transmission, and speakers for electric motors, telephones, radios, and
televisions would be used for power generation. Magnetic steel voice coil structure is used in many
instruments.
Field of Astronomy
Sunspots are areas of intense magnetic activity on the sun. The outbreak of sunspots will have
an impact on our lives, such as the temporary disruption of radio communications. Therefore, the
study of sunspots is of great significance to us.
Geomagnetic changes can be used to explore deposits. Because all substances have strong or
weak magnetism, if they gather together to form deposits, they will inevitably interfere with the
geomagnetic field in the vicinity and cause anomalies in the geomagnetic field. According to this
point, we can measure the magnetism of the earth on the land, ocean, or in the air, obtain the
geomagnetic map, analyze and further explore the magnetic anomaly area on the geomagnetic map,
and often find unknown mineral deposits or special geological structures.
Military Field
Magnetic materials such as neodymium magnets have also been widely used in the military
field. Ordinary mines, for example, can only explode when they come into contact with a target, so
their role is limited. If magnetic sensors are installed on mines, because tanks or warships are
made of steel, when they approach (without touching targets), the sensors can detect changes in
the magnetic field, which makes mines explode and increases their lethality.
Summary of Equations:
 Magnetic Field of a moving charge:
�� × �
�=
��

Physics with Modern Physics” 12th edition.
 Magnetic field of a current-carrying conductor:
�� ×�
�� = ��


 Magnetic field of a long, Straight, current-carrying conductor:
��
�=
��

 Magnetic Force between current-carrying conductors:
� �� '
�
= ��

 Magnetic Field of a current loop:

��
�� =
�(�� +�� )�/�
(circular loop)
��
�� =
��
(center of N circular loops)

 Ampere’s Law:
� ∙ �� = ��


Summary of Variables Used in Equations:
 � – total magnetic field
 �� – magnetic field of a current element
 �� –length/segments that carries current
 � – unit vector of distance
 P – point where magnetic field produced
 I – current element
 �� – permeability of space constant, 4π×10-7 T⋅m/A
 � – magnetic force
 � – number of loops
 �� - Magnetic Field of a current loop
 � − tesla
Exercises / Activities
Activity 1: Magnitude of Magnetic Field

Objective:
1. Evaluate the magnetic fields produced by an element of a current-carrying conductor;
What you need:

 Paper and pen
What to do:
Answer the following problem based on the concepts that you have learned. Write your answer
in a separate sheet of paper.
1. Find the magnitude of the magnetic field B generated by a ring at a point x away from the center
of a ring on the axis of the ring with a current I flowing around the ring as shown in the diagram
below.
Activity 2: Magnetic Forces

Objective:
2. Calculate the magnetic field produced by a long, straight, current-carrying wire and a
current-carrying wire bent into circle.
3. Solve problems involving magnetic field and forces
What you need:

 Paper and pen
What to do: Answer the following questions based on the concepts that you have learned. Write
your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

1. Two protons move parallel to the x-axis in opposite directions at the speed v (small
compared to the speed of light c). Find the electric and magnetic forces on the upper proton
and determine the ratio of their magnitudes.
2. Refer figure below. Find the magnitude and the direction of � at any point axis to the
right of wire 2 in terms of x-coordinate of point.
3. A coil consisting of 100 circular loops with radius 0.60 m carries a current of 5.0 A. Find
the magnetic field along the axis of coil, 0.80 m from the center.
4. A cylindrical conductor with a radius R carries a current I. The current is uniformly

distributed over the cross-sectional area of the conductor. Find the magnetic field as a
function of the distance r from the conductor axis for both inside (r<R) and outside (r>R) the
conductor.
Reflection
Give practical applications of Biot-Savart Law and Ampere’s Law concepts in the field of
Medicine. Write your 5-sentence answer in a separate sheet of paper.
RUBRICS
3 2 1 0
has no misconceptions. minimal misconceptions. misconceptions.

2017.
2012.
Answer Key


Quarter 4 – Week 7a: Faraday’s Law
First Edition, 2021
First Edition, 2021
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government agency or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for the
exploitation of such work for a profit. Such agency or office may, among other things,
impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
Regional Editors: Relyn D. Raza

Glen B. Pacot
Division Editors: Ric Me D. Diaz

AR A. Ranesis
Marvin T. Tejano
Juzalin L. Costuya
Edna E. Trinidad

AR A. Ranesis
Marvin T. Tejano
Juzalin L. Costuya
Edna E. Trinidad


FARADAY’S LAW
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competencies:

- Identify the factors that affects the magnitude of the induced emf and the magnitude and
direction of the induced current. (STEM_GP12EMIVa-1)
- Compare and contrast electrostatic electric field and non-electrostatic/induced electric
field. (STEM_GP12EMIVa-3)
- Calculate the induced emf in a closed loop due to a time-varying magnetic flux using
Faraday’s Law. (STEM_GP12EMIVa-4)
1. determine the factors affecting the magnitude and direction of an induced emf and
induced current;
2. differentiate electrostatic electric field and non-electrostatic electric field; and
3. solve problems involving the induced emf in a loop to the change in magnetic flux
using Faraday’s Law.
Key Concepts
 A magnetic field can produce an electric field that can drive a current. This link between
a magnetic field and the electric field it produces is now called Faraday’s Law of
Induction.
 Faraday’s Law of Induction was discussed using simple
experiments. Figure 1 shows a coil of wire connected to a
galvanometer. When the nearby magnet is stationary, the meter
shows no current. This means that there is no source of emf in the
circuit.
Figure 1. A stationary magnet does NOT induce a

current in a coil
 When the magnet move either toward or away from the coil as what
Figure 2 shows, the meter displays current in the circuit, but only
while the magnet is moving. Moreover, when the magnet is
stationary and the coil is moving, the meter again detects a current
during the motion called induced current. The corresponding emf
required to cause this current is called induced emf.
Figure 2. Moving the magnet toward or away Meter show

from the coil induced
current.

 In Figure 3, the magnet is being replaced with a second coil connected to a battery. When
the second coil is stationary, there is no current in the first coil. However, when the
second coil is being moved toward or away from the first or move the first toward or away
from the second, there is current in the first coil, but again only while one coil is moving
relative to other.
They cause the magnetic

field through the coil to
change
Figure 3. Moving a second, current-carrying

coil toward or away from the coil
 Another set-up using two coils is shown in Figure 4. Both coils are keep stationary and
vary the current in the second coil, either by opening and closing the switch or by
changing the resistance of the second coil with the switched closed (by changing the
second coil’s temperature). When the switch is open or close, there is a momentary
current pulse in the first circuit. In addition, as the resistance (and thus the current) in
the second coil varies, there is an induced current in the first circuit, but only if the
current in the second circuit is changing.
Figure 4. Varying the current in the second coil

(by closing or opening a switch)
 Another illustration is shown in Figure 5. A coil of wire is connected to a galvanometer,
then place a coil between the poles of an electromagnet whose magnetic field varies. This
illustration shows that when there is no current in the electromagnet, so that B = 0, the
galvanometer shows no current. When the electromagnet is turned on, there is a
momentary current through the meter as B increases.
Figure 5. A coil in a magnetic field. When the B field is constant and the shape,
location, and orientation of the coil do not change, no current is induced in the coil.
A current is induced when any of these factors change.

 Considering the factors of the above set-up, the following are being observed:
 When B levels off at a steady value, the current drops to zero, no matter how
large B is.
 When the coil is squeezed in a horizontal plane, the cross-sectional area
decreases. Thus, the meter detects current only during the deformation, not
before or after. When we increase the area to return the coil to its original
shape, there is a current in the opposite direction, but only while the area of
the coil is changing.
 If the coil rotates a few degree about a horizontal axis, the meter detects current
during the rotation, in the same direction as when the area decreased. When
the coil rotates back, there is a current in the opposite direction during the
rotation.
 If the coil is jerk out of the magnetic field, there is a current during the motion,
in the same direction as when the area decreased.
 As the number of turns in the coil decreases, the magnitude of the induced
current decreases. When the number of turns in the coil increases, the
magnitude of the induced current increases also.
 The common element in all induction effects is changing magnetic flux through a circuit.
Thus, the Faraday’s Law of Induction states that “the induced emf in a closed loop equals
the negative of the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop”. Mathematically
defined as,
𝑑Φ𝐵
ε=− 𝑑𝑡
Sample Problem 1: Emf and current induced in a loop
The magnetic field between the poles of the electromagnet in Figure 6 is uniform
at any time, but its magnitude is increasing at the rate of 0.020 T/s. The area of the
conducting loop in the field is 120 cm2, and the total circuit resistance, including the
meter is 5.0 Ω. Find the induced emf and the induced current in the circuit.
Figure 6. A stationary conducting loop in an increasing magnetic field

Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics”
12th edition.
Solution:
𝑑 Φ𝐵 𝑑(𝐵𝐴) 𝑑𝐵
= = A
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= (0.020 T/s) (120 cm2) = 2.4 x 10-4 V = 0.24 mV

 To determine the direction of an induced emf or current, the following are some simple
sign rules.
1. Define a positive direction for the vector area A.
2. From the direction of A and the magnetic field B, determine the sign of the
magnetic flux Φ𝐵 , and its rate of change dΦ𝐵 /𝑑𝑡.
3. Determine the sign of the induced emf or current. If the flux is increasing, so
dΦ𝐵 /𝑑𝑡 is positive, then the induced emf or current is negative. If the flux is
decreasing, dΦ𝐵 /𝑑𝑡 is negative and the induced emf or current is positive.
 If there is a coil with N identical turns, and if the flux varies at the same rate through
each turn, the total rate of change through all the turns is N times as large as for a single
turn. If Φ𝐵 is the flux through each turn, the total emf in a coil with N turns is
𝑑Φ𝐵
ε = −𝑁 𝑑𝑡
 When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, there is an induced emf on the basis of
magnetic forces on charges in the conductor. An induced emf also occurs when there is
a changing flux through a stationary conductor.
 Figure 7 shows a long, thin solenoid with cross-sectional area A and n turns per unit
encircled at its center by a circular loop. The galvanometer G measures the current in
the loop. A current I in the winding of the solenoid sets up a magnetic field B along the
solenoid axis.
Figure 7. (a) The windings of a long solenoid carry a current I that is increasing at a rate
dI/dt. The magnetic flux in the solenoid is increasing at a rate dΦ𝐵 /dt, and this
changing flux passes through a wire loop. An emf ε = - dΦ𝐵 /dt is induced in
the loop, inducing a current I’ that is measured by the galvanometer G.
(b) Cross-sectional view.
 Neglecting the small field outside the solenoid and take the area vector A to the point in
the same direction as B, then the magnetic flux Φ𝐵 through the loop is given as
Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = µ0 𝑛𝐼𝐴
 When the solenoid current I changes with time, the magnetic flux Φ𝐵 also changes, and
according to Faraday’s law, the induced emf in the loop is given by
𝑑Φ𝐵 𝑑𝐼
ε=− 𝑑𝑡
= -µ0 𝑛𝐼𝐴
𝑑𝑡
where µ0 = 4π x 10-7 Wb/A · m . If the total resistance of the loop is R, the induced
current in the loop which is called as I’ = ε/R.

 The forces that make the charges move around the wire loop is due to the induced
electric field in the conductor caused by the changing magnetic flux.
 From Faraday’s law, the emf is also the negative of the rate of change of magnetic flux
through the loop. Thus for this case we can restate Faraday’s law as
∮ 𝑬 · 𝒅𝒍 = ε
𝑑Φ
∮ 𝑬 · 𝒅𝒍 = − 𝑑𝑡𝐵
𝟏 𝑑 Φ𝐵
𝑬=
𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝑑𝑡
 Faraday’s law is also valid for a time-varying magnetic field that induces an electric field
E in a stationary conductor and hence an emf, the E is induced even when no conductor
is present. This E differs from an electrostatic field as it is non-conservative which is
called as non-electrostatic field. In contrast, an electrostatic field is always conservative
and always associated to potential function.
Sample Problem 2: Induced Electric Fields
Suppose the long solenoid in Figure 7a has 500 turns per meter and cross-
sectional area 4.0cm2. The current in its windings is increasing at 100 A/s.
a. Find the magnitude of the induced emf in the wire loop outside the solenoid.
b. Find the magnitude of the induced electric field within the loop if its radius is
2.0 cm.
Solution:
a.
𝑑Φ𝐵 𝑑𝐼
ε=− 𝑑𝑡
= -µ0 𝑛𝐼𝐴
𝑑𝑡
= - (4π x 10-7 Wb/A · m)(500 turns/m)(4.0 x 10-4 m2)(100 A/s)
= -25 x 10-6 Wb/s
= -25 x 10-6 V
= -25 µV
b.
𝜀
𝐸=
2𝜋𝑟
25 𝑥 10−6 Wb/s
= 2𝜋 (2.0 𝑥 10−2 𝑚)
= 2.0 x 10-4 V/m

Activity 1: Choose Me!
Objective: Determine the factors affecting the magnitude and direction of an induced emf and
induced current
What you need:

 Paper and pen
What to do: Choose the correct answer from the choices given. Write the letter of the correct
answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Faraday’s Law of Induction states that “The induced emf in a closed loop equals the _______
of the time rate of change of _____________ through the loop”.
A. negative, magnetic field
B. negative, magnetic flux
C. positive, magnetic field
D. positive, magnetic flux
2. What is the direction of the current if the coil is jerk out of the magnetic field?
A. In the same direction of the induced emf.
B. Parallel to the direction of the magnetic field.
C. In the same direction as when the area decreased.
D. Perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
3. When the coil is squeezed in a horizontal plane, the cross-sectional area decreases. Thus,
the meter detects current only during the deformation, not before or after. When we
increase the area to return the coil to its original shape, there is a current in the opposite
direction, but only while the area of the coil is changing. The statement simply describes
which of the following factors that affect the magnitude and direction of induced emf and
induced current?
A. Shape
B. Position
C. Strength
D. Number of Turns
4. A magnetic field of 0.10 T is directed downwards at 90.0 o to a coil of wire with 10 turns.
The coil has a radius of 0.39 m, the magnetic field is then removed in a time of 0.20 s.
An external resistor, R, is attached to the loop. What factor would increase if more turns
of wire are added to the loop?
A. Size of the area of the coil
B. Strength of the magnetic field
C. Magnitude of the induced current
D. Resistance of the external resistor
5. The diagram in the right shows the south pole of a magnet moving
towards a coil of wire generating a current that is measured by the
galvanometer. What to do in order to achieve the same effect?
A. Hold the magnet stationary and move the coil up.
B. Hold the coil and the magnet stationary but use a “stronger”
magnet.
C. Rotate the magnet so that the north pole faces the coil and moves
forward. Figure 8. South Pole of a
D. Move the south pole of the magnet downwards away from the magnet moving towards
stationary coil. a coil.
Source:
https://www.edu.gov.m
b

Activity 2: Say It!
Objective: Compare and contrast electrostatic electric field and non-electrostatic/induced

electric field.
What you need:

 Paper and pen
What to do: Fill in the Venn diagram with the similarities and differences of electrostatic
electric field and non-electrostatic electric field. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
ELECTROSTATIC NON-ELECTROSTATIC
ELECTRIC FIELD ELECTRIC FIELD
DIFFERENCES SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES
1. 1. 1.
2. 2. 2.
Activity 3: Solve Me!
Objective: Solve problems involving the induced emf in a loop to the change in magnetic flux
using Faraday’s Law.
What you need:

 Paper and pen
1. Single loop of wire with an area of 0.0900 m2 is in a uniform magnetic field that has an
initial value of 3.80 T, is perpendicular to the plane of the loop, and is decreasing at a
constant rate of 0.190 T/s. (a) What emf is induced in this loop? (b) If the loop has a
resistance of 0.600 Ω, find the current induced in the loop.
2. In a physics laboratory experiment, a coil with 200 turns enclosing an area of 12 cm2 is
rotated in 0.040 s from a position where its plane is perpendicular to the earth’s magnetic
field to a position where its plane is parallel to the field. The earth’s magnetic field at the
lab location is 6.00 x 10-5 T.
a. What is the total magnetic flux through the coil before it is rotated? After it is
rotated?
b. What is the average emf induced in the coil?
3. The long solenoid S shown (in cross section) in Figure 9 has 220 turns/cm and carries
a current I = 1.5 A; its diameter D is 3.2 cm. At its center we place a 130-turn closely
packed coil C of diameter d = 2.1 cm. The current in the solenoid is reduced to zero at a
steady rate in 25 ms. What is the magnitude of the emf that is induced in coil C while
the current in the solenoid is changing?

Figure 9. A coil C is located inside a solenoid S, which carries current I.
Source: “Fundamentals of Physics” 10th edition.
Reflection
When a credit card is “swiped” through a card reader, the information coded in a magnetic
pattern on the back of the card is transmitted to the cardholder’s bank. Why is it necessary to
swipe the card rather than holding it motionless in the card reader’s slot? Write your 5-sentence
answer in a separate sheet of paper.
Rubric for Reflection

3 2 1
Practical application is Practical application is Practical application is
scientifically explained consistent scientifically explained consistent explained consistent to the
to the concepts, and has no to the concepts, but with minimal concepts but with
misconceptions. misconceptions. misconceptions.
References:
Halliday, David and Resnick, Robert. Fundamentals of Physics 10th ed. John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. 2014.
Thomson Brooks/Cole. 2004.
Zemansky's University Physics. 13th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions.
2012.
Answer Key
C 5.
C 4.
A 3.
C 2.
B 1.
Activity 1: Choose Me!
3. ε = 75 mv
b. 0.36 mV
2. a. 7.2 x 10-8 Wb
b = 0.0285 A
1. a. ε = 0.0171V Possible Answer:


Quarter 4 – Week 7b: Lenz’s Law, AC & DC, and LC Circuit
First Edition, 2021
trademarks, etc.) included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective copyright
materials from the respective copyright owners. The authors do not represent nor claim
Writer: Juzalin P. Costuya

Glen B. Pacot
Division Team Ric Me D. Diaz

AR A. Ranesis
Marvin T. Tejano
Edna E. Trinidad
Lay-out Reviewers: Ric Me D. Diaz

AR A. Ranesis
Marvin T. Tejano
Edna E. Trinidad

Kevin Hope Z. Salvana, Regional Science Coordinator

GENERAL PHYSICS 2 GRADE 12, QUARTER 4, WEEK 7b
LENZ’S LAW, AC & DC, AND LC CIRCUIT
Name:________________________________ Section: ____________________
- Describe the direction of the induced electric field, magnetic field, and current on
a conducting/nonconducting loop using Lenz’s Law. (STEM_GP12EMIVa-5)
- Compare and contrast alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC).
(STEM_GP12EMIVb-6)
- Characterize the properties (stored energy and time-dependence of charges,
currents, and voltages) of an LC circuit. (STEM_GP12EMIVb-8)
1. identify the direction of the induced magnetic field on a conducting loop using
Lenz’s Law;
2. differentiate Alternating Current and Direct Current;
3. identify the properties of an LC circuit; and
4. solve problems involving an LC circuit.
Key Concepts
• Lenz’s law states that an induced current or emf always tends to oppose or cancel
out the change that causes it. Lenz’s law can be derived from Faraday’s law and is
often easier to use. This law was deduced in 1834 by the Russian physicist Heinrich
Friedrich Emil Lenz (1804–65).
• The “cause” may be:
o changing flux through a stationary circuit due to a varying magnetic field,
o changing flux due to motion of the conductors that make up the circuit, or
o any combination.
• If the flux in a stationary circuit changes,
the induced current sets up a magnetic field of
its own. Within the area bounded by the circuit,
this field is opposite to the original field, if then
original field is increasing but is in the same
direction as the original field if the latter is
increasing. That is, the induced current opposes
the change in flux through the circuit (not the
flux itself).
Figure 1. Emf and current induced in a loop
with Modern Physics” 13th edition.
• If the flux change is due to motion of the conductors, the direction of the induced
current in the moving conductor is such that the direction of the magnetic-field
force on the conductor is opposite in direction to its motion, as shown in figure 2a &
2b. Thus, the motion of the conductor which causes the induced current is
opposed. In all these cases, the induced current tries to preserve the status quo by
opposing the motion or a change of flux.
Figure 2. Generator I: A Simple Alternator

• Lenz’s law is also directly related to energy

conservation. If the induced current as shown in figure
3, were in the direction opposite to that given by Lenz’s
law, the magnetic force on the rod would accelerate it
to ever-increasing speed with no external energy
source even though electric energy is being dissipated
in the circuit. This would be a clear violation of energy
conservation and doesn’t happen in nature.
Figure 3. Work and power in the
slidewire of a generator
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s
University Physics with Modern Physics”
13th edition.
• For example, thrusting a pole of a permanent

bar magnet through a coil of wire induces
an electric current in the coil. The current in When a magnet is moved
toward a conducting ring,
turn sets up a magnetic field around the coil an induced electromotive
force causes a current to
making it a magnet. Lenz’s law indicates the flow in a direction such
that the magnetic field
direction of the induced current. (The direction inside the ring
(represented by the two
of the induced current from Lenz’s law dashed field lines)
opposes the increase of
contributes the minus sign in Faraday’s law of flux through the ring
induction.) Because like magnetic poles repel

from the approaching
magnet.
each other, Lenz’s law states that when the

Figure 4. Lenz’s Law in a magnet moved
north pole of the bar magnet is approaching the toward a conducting ring.
coil, the induced current flows in such a way as to Source: Courtesy of the Department of
make the side of the coil nearest the pole of the Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State
University

bar magnet itself a north pole to oppose the approaching bar magnet, as shown in
figure 4. Upon withdrawing the bar magnet from the coil, the induced current
reverses itself and the near side of the coil becomes a south pole to produce an
attracting force on the receding bar magnet.
Sample Problem 1:
In Figure 5, there is a uniform magnetic field through the

coil. The magnitude of the field is increasing so there is
an induced emf. Use Lenz’s law to determine the
direction of the resulting induced current.
Solution:
By Lenz’s law, the induced current must produce a

magnetic field Binduced inside the coil that is downward
opposing the change in flux. From the right-hand rule,
Figure 5. Lenz’s Law and the Direction of
the Induced Current
for the direction of the magnetic field produced by a
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s circular loop, Binduced will be in the desired direction if the
University Physics with Modern Physics” induced current flows as shown in figure 5.
13th edition.
• Images below show the direction of induced current as a bar magnet moves along
the axis of a conducting loop. If the bar magnet is stationary, there is no induced
current. Figure 6 below shows several applications of Lenz’s law to the similar
situation of a magnet moving near a conducting loop. In each case, the induced
current produces a magnetic field whose induced direction opposes the change in
flux through the loop due to the magnet’s motion.
Figure 6. Direction of induced current as a bar magnet moves along the axis of a conducting loop
• Lenz’s law gives only the direction of an induced current. The magnitude of the
current depends on the resistance of the circuit. The greater the circuit resistance,
the less the induced current that appears to oppose any change in flux and the
easier it is for a flux change to take effect. If the loops in the figures above were
made out of wood (an insulator), there would be almost no induced current in
response to changes in the flux through the loop. Conversely, the less the circuit

resistance, the greater the induced current and the more difficult it is to change the
flux through the circuit. If the loop is a good conductor, an induced current flows as
long as the magnet moves relative to the loop. Once the magnet and loop are no
longer in relative motion, the induced current very quickly decreases to zero
because of the nonzero resistance in the loop.
• Below are the differences and similarities between alternating current (AC) and
direct current (DC). The major difference between AC and DC is that DC
is unidirectional current while AC is bidirectional current. Bidirectional means
current flows in two directions - forward and backward, while unidirectional current
flows in one direction. DC is constant with time while AC changes at every instant
of time.
Table 1. Differences and Similarities of Alternating Current and Direct Current

PARAMETER AC (ALTERNATING CURRENT) DC (DIRECT CURRENT)
DC is the type of electric current

AC is the type of electric current which
Definition which remains constant with
varies instantaneously with time.
time.
Suitable for long distance

Long Distance Not suitable as power loss is
transmission as power losses are
Transmission directly proportional to distance.
minimum.
Flow of Electrons Bi-directional flow of electrons Uni-directional flow of electrons
Between 50 Hz to 60 Hz, different in

Frequency Frequency of DC is zero.
different countries
Power Factor It lies between 0 and 1. In DC, it will be always 1.
Graphical
Sinusoidal Wave Constant line
Representation
Generation By placing current carrying coil in By placing current carrying coil

Mechanism rotating magnetic field. in steady magnetic field.
Generating Device Alternators Cells or batteries
It can be resistive, inductive or

Type of Load Only resistive
capacitive.
Capacitor allows DC to pass through Capacitor blocks DC, thus

Capacitive
it, thus capacitive impedance will be capacitive impedance will be
Impedance
low. infinite.
High Voltage application such as home Low Voltage applications in

Application
appliances, office equipment’s. electronic circuits
Source: https://electronicscoach.com/difference-between-ac-and-
dc.html#:~:text=Difference%20between%20AC%20and%20DC%20AC%20is%20an,while%20AC%20changes%20at%20ev
ery%20instant%20of%20time.

• An electrical circuit consisting of an inductor, of inductance L, connected with a
capacitor, of capacitance C is known as LC circuit. An LC circuit is a closed loop
with just two elements: a capacitor and an inductor. It has a resonance property
like mechanical systems such as a pendulum or a mass on a spring: there is a
special frequency that it likes to oscillate at, and therefore responds strongly to. LC
circuit can be used to tune in to a specific frequency like in the station selector of a
radio or television.
• The capacitor begins to discharge through the inductor. Because of the induced emf
in the inductor, the current cannot change instantaneously. It starts at zero and
eventually builds up to a maximum value. During this buildup, the capacitor is
discharging. At each instant, the capacitor potential equals the induced emf. So as
the capacitor discharges, the rate of change of current decreases. When the
capacitor potential becomes zero, the induced emf is also zero, and the current has
leveled off at its maximum value Im. Figure 7b shows this situation; the capacitor
has completely discharged. The potential difference between its terminals (and
those of the inductor) has decreased to zero, and the current has reached its
maximum value.
Figure 7. Oscillating L-C circuit

• During the discharge of the capacitor, the increasing current in the inductor has
established a magnetic field in the space around it and the energy that was initially
stored in the capacitor’s electric field is now stored in the inductor’s magnetic field.
Although the capacitor is completely discharged in Fig. 7b, the current persists (it
cannot change instantaneously) and the capacitor begins to charge with polarity
opposite to that in the initial state. As the current decreases, the magnetic field also
decreases inducing an emf in the inductor in the same direction as the current.
This slows down the decrease of the current. Eventually, the current and the
magnetic field reach zero, and the capacitor has been charged in the sense opposite
to its initial polarity (Fig. 7c), with potential difference and charge on its left-hand
plate. The process now repeats in the reverse direction. A little later, the capacitor
has again discharged and there is a current in the inductor in the opposite direction
(Fig. 7d). Still later, the capacitor charge returns to its original value (Fig. 7a), and
the whole process repeats. If there are no energy losses, the charges on the
capacitor continue to oscillate back and forth indefinitely. This process is called an
electrical oscillation.
• From an energy standpoint, the oscillations of an electrical circuit transfer energy
from the capacitor’s electric field to the inductor’s magnetic field and back. The total
energy associated with the circuit is constant. This is analogous to the transfer of
energy in an oscillating mechanical system from potential energy to kinetic energy
and back with constant total energy. As we will see, this analogy goes much further.
• In an LC circuit, electric charge oscillates back and forth just like the position of a
mass on a spring oscillates. To demonstrate the analogy, here is a list of several
corresponding equations for a mechanical spring and an LC circuit.
Table 2. Equations for Mechanical spring and LC circuit
Source: “LC Circuit”. https://web.pa.msu.edu/courses/2000fall/phy232/lectures/accircuits.html
• The parameters that determine the motion of a spring are the mass m, spring
constant k, the position x, and the velocity v which is the rate of change of x. The
parameters that determine the behavior of an LC circuit are L, C, Q and I which is
the rate of change of Q. Thus, there is a one-to-one correspondence since the
equations of motion are identical given the substitutions:

• The characteristic frequency of an LC circuit is the frequency at which large
amplitudes are built up when a driving force is applied at that frequency. A child on
a swing will be sensitive to a pushing force which comes regularly with the natural
frequency of the swing. A force that comes at a different frequency will not build up
a large amplitude as it will often be pushing against the child's motion. The magic
frequency is called the resonant frequency.
• The LC circuit is also a conservative circuit. Letting Q be the maximum capacitor
1 2 𝑞2
charge. The magnetic-field Energy and Electric energy are:𝑈𝐵 = 𝐿𝑖 & 𝑈𝐸 = ,
2 2𝐶
1 2 1
respectively. The magnetic-field energy 𝐿𝑖 corresponds to the kinetic energy 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
𝑞2 1
and the electric-field energy corresponds to the potential energy 𝑘𝑥 2 . The sum of
2𝐶 2
𝑄2
these energies equals the total energy :
2𝐶
𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝑸𝟐
𝑳𝒊𝟐 + =
𝟐 𝟐𝑪 𝟐𝑪
• In the analogous electrical situation, the capacitor charge q is given by 𝑞 =
𝟏
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑), where 𝝎 = √ is the angular frequency, 𝜑 is the phase change
𝑳𝑪
depending on initial conditions. The current i, is 𝒊 = −𝝎𝑸𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝋). If at time t = 0
the left-hand capacitor plate in figure 7 has its maximum charge Q and the current
i is zero, then 𝜑 = 0. If 𝑞 = 0 at time t= 0, then 𝜑 = ± 𝜋⁄2 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
• The current i is also equal to 𝒊 = ±√𝟏⁄𝑳𝑪 √𝑸𝟐 − 𝒒𝟐 .
• Initially the capacitor is fully charged the current is zero.
Sample Problem 2:
A 300-V dc power supply is used to charge of a 25µF capacitor. After the capacitor
is fully charged, it is disconnected from the power supply and connected across a 10-mH
inductor. The resistance in the circuit is negligible.
A. Find the frequency and period of oscillation of the circuit.
B. Find the capacitor charge and the circuit current 1.2 ms after the inductor and
capacitor are connected.
C. Find the magnetic and electric energies at a) t = 0 and b) t = 1.2 ms.
Solution:
1 1 1 1
A. 𝑓 = √ = √ = 𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝑯𝒛 or 0.32 kHz
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 2𝜋 (10𝑥10−3 𝐻)(25𝑥10−6 𝐹)
1 1
= 𝑇= = 3.1 𝑥 10−3 𝑠 = 𝟑. 𝟏 𝒎𝒔
𝑓 320 𝐻𝑧
B. to find the charge, q = 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) then Q = C𝜀 = (25 x 10-6 F) (300 V) = 7.5 𝑥 10−3 𝐶
1
𝑞 = (7.5 𝑥 10−3 𝐶)cos ((√ )(1.2 𝑥 10−3 𝑠) + 0))
(10 𝑥 10 𝐻)(25 𝑥10−6 𝐹)
−3
𝒒 = 𝟓. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑪
The current, 𝑖 = −𝜔𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) =

1 1
−(√ ) (7.5 𝑥 10−3 𝐶)sin (√(10 )(1.2 𝑥 10−3 𝑠))
(10 𝑥 10−3 𝐻)(25 𝑥10−6 𝐹) 𝑥 10−3 𝐻)(25 𝑥10−6 𝐹)
𝒊 = −𝟏𝟎𝑨
𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝟕.𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑪
C. at t=0, 𝑼𝑩 = 𝑳𝒊𝟐 = 𝟎 𝑼𝑬 = = = 𝟏. 𝟏 𝑱
𝟐 𝟐𝑪 𝟐(𝟐𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑭)
𝟏
at t= 1.2 ms; 𝑼𝑩 = (𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑯)(−𝟏𝟎𝑨)𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝑱
𝟐
𝒒𝟐 (−𝟓. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑪)𝟐
𝑼𝑬 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 𝑱
𝟐𝑪 𝟐(𝟐𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑭)
Activity 1. Lenz’s Law
Objective: Identify the direction of the induced current on a conducting loop using
Lenz’s Law.
What to do: Identify the induced current from the given situations. Write your answers
in a separate sheet of paper.
1. A circular loop of wire is in a region of spatially

uniform magnetic field, as shown in the
Figure. The magnetic field is directed into the
plane of the figure. Determine the direction
(clockwise or counterclockwise) of the induced
current in the loop when (a) B is increasing;
(b) B is decreasing; (c) B is constant with value
Explain your reasoning.
Figure 8. Circular loop of wire

2. Using Lenz’s law, determine the direction

of the current in resistor ab of the figure
in the right, when (a) switch S is opened
after having been closed for several
minutes; (b) coil B is brought closer to
coil A with the switch closed; (c) the
resistance of R is decreased while the
switch remains closed.
Figure 9. Resistors in a close and open

circuit

Activity 2. True or False?
Objective: Differentiate alternating current and direct current.
What to do: Write True if the statement is true. If False, change the underlined word/s
to make the statement true. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
1. Direct current has bidirectional current.

2. Direct current is suitable for long distance transmission as power losses are
minimum.
3. Alternating currents are usually found in cells or batteries.
4. If the direction of current in a circuit does not change, it is called alternating
current.
5. If the direction of current in a circuit changes it is called direct current.
6. Everything that runs on battery and uses AC adapter while plugging into a wall or
uses a USB cable for power relies on DC.
7. Alternating current is safe to transfer longer distance between two cities, and
maintain the electric power.
8. The steady magnetism makes DC flow in a single direction.
9. DC has no frequency of zero frequency.
10. Alternating current has a high voltage application.
Activity 3. Choose Wisely
Objective: Identify the properties of an LC circuit.
What you need: Paper & pen
What to do: Choose the corresponding answer in column B from the properties
introduced in column A. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
Column A Column B
1. Inductor A. It is the tendency of an electrical

conductor to oppose a change in the electric
current flowing through it.
2. Capacitor B. It is the ratio of the amount of electric
charge stored on a conductor to a difference
in electric potential
3. Current C. also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a
passive two-terminal electrical component
that stores energy in a magnetic field when
electric current flows through it.
4. Voltage D. a device that stores electric charge in an

electric field
5. Inductance E. A stream of charged particles, such as
electrons or ions, moving through an
electrical conductor or space
1. F. Also called the electric potential difference
Activity 4. LC Circuit
Objective: Solve problems involving an LC circuit.
What you need: paper & pen, calculator
What to do: Solve the given problems. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
Show your solutions.
1. A 200-V dc power supply is used to charge of a 30µF capacitor. After the

capacitor is fully charged, it is disconnected from the power supply and
connected across a 10-mH inductor. The resistance in the circuit is negligible.
Find the frequency and period of oscillation of the circuit.
2. A capacitor with capacitance of 6.5 x 10-5 F is charged by connecting it to a

12.0-V battery. The capacitor is disconnected from the battery and connected
across an inductor with L = 1.50 H. What are the frequency and the period of
these oscillations (the time for one oscillation)?
Reflection
One of the practical application of Lenz’s Law is a metal detector. Metal detector is
an electronic device that gives audible or other signal when it is close to a metal, for
example used to detect buried objects, minerals or metals like gold, iron, silver, etc. Do
you think this metal detector is a big help in mining industries? Write your 5-sentence
answer in a separate sheet of paper.
Scoring Rubric
3 2 1 0
The discussion is The discussion is The discussion is No discussion
scientifically scientifically explained
explained and is explained and is consistent to the
consistent to the consistent to the concepts, but with
concepts and has concepts, but with misconceptions.
no misconception. minimal
misconception.

References:
Book Sources
Coronade, Gary and Boncodin, Maria Carmela. Physics IV. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, 2006.
Young, Hugh D., Roger A. Freedman, A. Lewis Ford, and Hugh D. Young. Sears
and Zemansky's University Physics. 13th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson
Learning Solutions, 2012.
Online Sources
“Differences between AC and DC”. https://electronicscoach.com/difference-

between-ac-and-
dc.html#:~:text=Difference%20between%20AC%20and%20DC%20AC%20is
%20an,while%20AC%20changes%20at%20every%20instant%20of%20tim
“LC Circuit”.
https://web.pa.msu.edu/courses/2000fall/phy232/lectures/accircuits.
html
“LC Circuit”. https://grade12physics.wixsite.com/electromagnetism/lc-circuit
“Lenz’s Law”. https://www.britannica.com/science/Lenzs-law
Answer Key
10.True
9. True
8. True
7. True
6. True
alternating current – 5. False 𝑇 = 𝟔𝟑 𝒎𝒔
direct current – 4. False 2. 𝑓 = 𝟏𝟔 𝑯𝒛
Direct current – 3. False
alternating current – 2. False 𝑇 = 𝟏. 𝟑 𝒎𝒔
unidirectional – 1. False 1. 𝑓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛
b) c) From b to a 5. B
2. a) from a to b 4. A
c) No induced Current 3. E
b) Clockwise 2. D
1. a) Counterclockwise 1. C

General Physics 2
Quarter 4 - Week 8A: Properties of Electromagnetic Wave and Light
First Edition, 2021

Glen B. Pacot
Division Editors: Ric Me D. Diaz

Marvin T. Tejano
Juzalin L. Costuya
Edna E. Trinidad

Marvin T. Tejano
Juzalin L. Costuya
Edna E. Trinidad

General Physics 2, Grade 12, Quarter 4, Week 8A
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE & LIGHT
Name: _________________________________________ Section: __________________
1. Relate the properties of EM wave (wavelength, frequency, speed) and the properties of
vacuum and optical medium (permittivity, permeability, and index of refraction)
(STEM_GP12OPTIVb-12).
2. Explain the conditions for total internal reflection (STEM_GP12OPTIVb-14).
3. Explain the phenomenon of dispersion by relating to Snell’s Law
(STEM_GP12OPTIVb-16).
4. Calculate the intensity of the transmitted light after passing through a series of
polarizers applying Malus’s Law (STEM_GP12OPTIVc-18).
5. Solve problems involving reflection, refraction, dispersion, and polarization in context
such as, but not limited to, (polarizing) sunglasses, atmospheric haloes, and rainbows
(STEM_GP12OPTIVc-21)
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
1. discuss the relationship between the properties of electromagnetic wave and the
properties of vacuum and optical medium;
2. describe the conditions for total internal reflection;
3. discuss how the phenomenon of dispersion relates to Snell’s Law;
4. solve the intensity of the transmitted light after passing through a series of polarizers
with the application of Malus’s Law; and
5. solve problems involving reflection, refraction, dispersion, and polarization.
Key Concepts
 James Clerk Maxwell’s four equations describe how electric charges and
currents create electric and magnetic fields, and how they affect each other. These
four equations are (1) Gauss’s law for electric fields; (2) Gauss’s law for magnetic
fields, showing the absence of magnetic monopoles; (3) Ampere’s law, including
displacement current; and (4) Faraday’s law:
1
n  Gauss’s law relates an electric field to the charge(s) that create(s) it.
 Gauss’s law for magnetism states that there are no “magnetic charges”
analogous to electric charges, and that magnetic fields are instead generated by
magnetic dipoles.
 Faraday’s law describes how a time-varying magnetic field (or flux) induces an
electric field. The principle behind this phenomenon is used in many electric
generators.
 Ampere’s law originally stated that a magnetic field is created by an electrical
current. Maxwell added that a changing electric flux can also generate a magnetic
field.
 Electromagnetic waves consist of both electric and magnetic field waves. These
waves oscillate in perpendicular planes with respect to each other, and are in
phase.
 The creation of all electromagnetic waves begins with an oscillating charged
particle, which creates oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
 Once in motion, the electric and magnetic fields that a charged particle creates are
self-perpetuating: time-dependent changes in one field (electric or magnetic)
produce the other.
 Max Planck proved that energy of a photon (a stream of which is an
electromagnetic wave) is quantized and can exist in multiples of “Planck’s
constant” (denoted as h, approximately equal to 6.626×10-34 J·s).
 Photon is the quantum of light and other electromagnetic energy, regarded as a
discrete particle having zero rest mass, no electric charge, and an indefinitely long
lifetime.
 Wavelength is the length of a single cycle of a wave, as measured by the distance
between one peak or trough of a wave and the next. It is often designated in
physics as λ, and corresponds to the velocity of the wave v divided by its frequency
f: λ = v/f.
 Frequency is the quotient of the number of times n a periodic phenomenon
occurs over the time t in which it occurs: f = n/t.
 c is the symbol used to represent the speed of light in a vacuum, and its value is
299,792,458 m/s or approximately 300,000,000 m/s (or equal to 3.0 x 108
m/s).
 When light travels through medium, its speed is hindered by the index of
refraction of that medium. Its actual speed can be found with: v = c/n
 The maximum possible value for the speed of light is that of light in a vacuum,
and this speed is used for a constant in many area of physics.
2
hc
 E  hf 
 describes the energy (E) of a photon as a function of frequency (f), or
wavelength (λ).
E hf h
 p   describes the momentum (p) of a photon as a function of its
c c 
energy, frequency, or wavelength.
 The Laws of Reflection and Refraction
1. The incident, reflected, and refracted rays and the normal to the surface
all lie in the same plane. The plane of the three rays and the normal, called the
plane of incidence, is perpendicular to the plane of the boundary surface
between the two materials.
2. The angle of reflection θr is equal to the angle of incidence θa for all
wavelengths and for any pair of materials.
θr = θa (law of reflection)
This relationship, together with the observation that the incident and reflected
rays and the normal all lie in the same plane, is called the law of reflection.
3. For monochromatic light and for a given pair of materials, a and b, on opposite
sides of the interface, the ratio of the sines of the angles θa and θb, where both
angles are measured from the normal to the surface, is equal to the inverse
ratio of the two indexes of refraction (See Figure 1):
sin θ n
a  b or na sin θa = nb sin θb (law of refraction)
sin θ n
b a
Fig. 1. The laws of reflection and refraction

Source: University Physics with Modern Physics (13th), 2012, pdf, page 1084
 Law of refraction is also called Snell’s law, after the Dutch scientist Willebrord
Snell (1591–1626). There is some doubt that Snell actually discovered it. The
discovery that n = c/v came much later.
3
 In special case such as when light travels from a less dense medium to a denser
medium, sin θ
n a
sin θ
b
In special case such as when light travels from a denser medium to a less dense
medium, sin θ
n b
sin θ
a
 The law of refraction explains why a partially submerged object appears bent.
In Figure 2, light rays coming from below the surface change in direction at the
air–water interface, so the rays appear to be coming from a position above their
actual point of origin
Fig. 2. Partially submerged

object appears bent
explained by law of
refraction
Source:University Physics
with Modern Physics (13th),
2012, pdf, page 1085
Fig. 3. Index of refraction for various media

Source:https://www.bellevernonarea.net
/
4
Sample problems:
1. A light ray strikes a reflective plane surface at an angle of 56° with the surface.
a) Find the angle of incidence.
b) Find the angle of reflection.
Solution:
a) angle of incidence:
θi = 90° - θa
= 90° - 56°
= 34°
The angle of incidence is 34°
b) angle of reflection:
θa = θi = 34 ° (by the law of reflection)
The angle of reflection is 34°
2. If light is incident upon a piece of glass (refractive index = 1.52) at an angle of

45°, what is the angle of refraction?
Solution:
Let’s assume that the first medium is air. The index of refraction for air is taken to
be 1 in most cases (and up to four significant figures, it is 1.000).
sin  a nb

sin  b na
sin(45) 1.52

sin  b 1.00
(1.00) sin(45)  (1.52) sin  b
sin(45)
sin  b 
1.52
 b  27.7
The angle of refraction is 27.7°
 The angle of incidence for which the refracted ray emerges tangent to the surface
is called the critical angle, denoted by θcrit. If the angle of incidence is larger than
the critical angle, the sine of the angle of refraction, as computed by Snell’s law,
would have to be greater than unity, which is impossible. Beyond the critical angle,
the ray cannot pass into the upper material; it is trapped in the lower material and
is completely reflected at the boundary surface. This situation, called total
internal reflection, occurs only when a ray in material a is incident on a second
material b whose index of refraction is smaller than that of material a (that is, nb <
na).
nb
sin  crit  (critical angle for total internal reflection)
na
5
 Total internal reflection will occur if the angle of incidence θa is larger than or
equal to θcrit.
Sample problem
Find the critical angle of a glass which has an index of refraction of 1.52.
Solution
nb
sin  crit 
na
1.00
sin  crit 
1.52
 crit  arcsin(0.658)
 crit  41.15
The critical angle of the glass is 41.15°
 The dependence of wave speed and index of refraction on wavelength is called
dispersion.
 Ordinary white light is a superposition of waves with wavelengths extending
throughout the visible spectrum. The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all
wavelengths, but the speed in a material substance is different for different
wavelengths. Therefore the index of refraction of a material depends on wavelength.
 In most materials the value of n (index of refraction) decreases with increasing
wavelength and decreasing frequency, and thus n increases with decreasing
wavelength and increasing frequency. In such a material, light of longer
wavelength has greater speed than light of shorter wavelength.
 When you experience the beauty of a rainbow, you are seeing the combined effects
of dispersion, refraction, and reflection. Sunlight comes from behind you, enters a
water droplet, is (partially) reflected from the back surface of the droplet, and is
refracted again upon exiting the droplet. A light ray that enters the middle of the
raindrop is reflected straight back.
Fig. 4. Index of Refraction n in Selected Media at Various Wavelengths

Source:https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/1-5-dispersion/
6
Sample problem
A beam of white light goes from air into crown glass at angle of incidence of
43.2°. What is the angle between the red (660 nm) and violet (410 nm) parts of the
refracted light?
Solution
Applying the law of refraction for the red part of the beam
nairsinθair = nredsinθred,
we can solve for the angle of refraction as
θred = sin−1(nairsinθair/nred)
= sin−1[(1.000)sin43.2°/(1.512)]
= 27.0°
Similarly, the angle of incidence for the violet part of the beam is
θviolet = sin−1(nairsinθair/nviolet)
= sin−1[(1.000)sin43.2°/(1.530)]
= 26.4°
The difference between these two angles is
θred − θviolet = 27.0°−26.4° = 0.6°
 Polarization is the attribute that wave oscillations have a definite direction

relative to the direction of propagation of the wave. Electromagnetic waves are
transverse waves that may be polarized.
 Polarization distinguish transverse waves from longitudinal waves. Only transverse
waves can be polarized. A transverse wave is said to be polarized if its vibrations
are confined to one direction.
 The light from the sun, electric bulb and from other source are unpolarized light.
They may be polarized by allowing them to pass through some materials which are
capable of making light vibrate in one direction. The direction is known vibration
direction. The vibration direction depends on the transmission axis of the material.
 The direction of polarization is defined to be the direction parallel to the electric
field of the electromagnetic wave. Unpolarized light is composed of many rays
having random polarization directions.
 Materials capable of polarizing light is called polarizers. An ideal polarizer passes
100% of light parallel to its transmission axis and blocks 100% of light
perpendicular to it.
 When an unpolarized light passes through an ideal polarizer, the intensity Imax of
the transmitted light reduces to half of its original intensity I0, that is Imax = I0/2
 If the polarized light with intensity Imax passes through another polarizer, called
analyzer, the intensity I of the transmitted light is given by Malus’s Law,
I = Imaxcos2θ
θ = angle between the transmission axes of the polarizer and the analyzer.
7
Sample problem:
Unpolarized light with intensity Io passess through a polarizer and then a
second polarizing filter (analyzer) with an angle of 30° relative to the first one.
What is the intensity of the light as it pasess through each filter in terms of Io?
Solution
I2 = I1cos2θ I2 = 3/4 I1
I2 = I1cos2(30) I2 = 3/4 (1/2)Io
I2 = I1cos(√3/2)2 I2 = 3/8 Io
I2 = I1 (3/4)
Activity 1. Is it true? Wave and particle?
Objective:
Discuss the relationship between the properties of electromagnetic wave and the
properties of vacuum and optical medium.
What to do:
Write the word TRUE if the statement is correct and if not, underline the word or
statement that makes the sentence incorrect and write the correct answer on the space
provided.
_________________________ 1. Electromagnetic waves consist of both electric and magnetic

field waves.
_________________________ 2. These waves oscillate in parallel planes with respect to each

other, and are in phase.
_________________________ 3. The electric and magnetic fields that a charged particle

creates are self-perpetuating.
_________________________ 4. When light travels through medium, its speed is hindered

by the index of reflection of that medium.
_________________________ 5. The speed of light in a vacuum is 299,782,459 m/s2.
Guide Question:
1. Light is both a wave and a particle. Can light travel through a vacuum? What
happens to its speed from less dense to a more dense medium?
8
Activity 2. Reflect Internally
Objective: Describe the conditions for total internal reflection
What to do: Observe the pictures below and answer the the following guide questions.
Figure 5. Total internal reflection of light in block Figure 6. Refraction of light through
Source:https://intl.siyavula.com/read/science/grade- the block
11/geometrical-optics/images/1280px- Source:https://upload.wikimedia.o
TIR_in_PMMA.jpg/ rg/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Refr
action_photo.png
Guide Questions:
1. Why was the light reflected back through the block? (Refer to Figure 5)
2. Why was the light in the block refracted out in the air? (Refer to Figure 6)
3. If the the object has a lower refractive index but with the same angle of
incidence, will the light reflect back through the object? Why or why not? (Refer to
Figure 5)
4. What are the conditions so that we can achieve total internal reflection?
Activity 3. From White to Rainbow
Objective: Discuss how the phenomenon of dispersion relates to Snell’s Law.
What to do: Observe the picture below and answer the the following guide questions.
Fig.7. Dispersion of light

through Prism
Source:https://s3-us-west-
2.amazonaws.com/courses-
images-archive-read-only/wp-
content/uploads/sites/222/20
16/02/20113130/Figure_26_0
5_03.jpg
9
Guide Questions:
1. What happened to the white light when it reflected out in the air? Why the light
reflected out in such manner when it is white?
2. How did the white light reflect out that way?
3. What do you call this kind of phenomenon?
Rubric for Activity 1, 2 and 3, Guide Questions 1 to 4

3 2 1
Explanations are Explanations are Explanations are
conceptually correct conceptually correct and conceptually incorrect.
and complete. incomplete.
Activity 4. Solve It!
Objectives:
1. Solve the intensity of the transmitted light after passing through a series of
polarizers with the application of Malus’s Law.
2. Solve problems involving reflection, refraction, dispersion, and polarization.
What you need: Paper, pen, scientific calculator
What to do:
1. A light ray strikes a reflective plane surface at an angle of 38° with the surface.
a) Find the angle of incidence.
b) Find the angle of reflection.
2. If light is incident upon the water (refractive index 1.33) at an angle of 60°,
what is the angle of refraction?
3. Find the critical angle of a sapphire which has a index of refraction of 1.77.
4. A beam of white light goes from air into quartz at an angle of incidence of 50°.
What is the angle between the red (660 nm) and blue (470 nm) parts of the
refracted light?
5. Unpolarized light with an intensity of 125 W/m2 passes through polarizing filters
that are oriented at an angle of 50° to each other. What is the intensity of the light
that emerges from each filter?
10
Reflection
Fiber optics is one application of total internal reflection that is in wide use. In
communications, it is used to transmit telephone, internet, and cable TV signals. Fiber
optics employs the transmission of light down fibers of plastic or glass. Because the
fibers are thin, light entering one is likely to strike the inside surface at an angle greater
than the critical angle and, thus, be totally reflected.
If fiber optics were not invented, what do you think is its impact to our education
today? Write your 5-sentence answer in a separate sheet of paper.
Rubric for Reflection

3 2 1
Practical application is Practical application is Practical application
scientifically explained scientifically explained is explained consistent to
consistent to the concepts, consistent to the concepts, the
and has no misconceptions. but with minimal concepts but with
Young, Hugh D., Roger A. Freedman. Sears and Zemansky's University Physics with
Lumen Boundless Physics. “Electromagnetic Waves and their Properties”

Accessed on April 17, 2021
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/electromagnetic-
waves-and-their-properties/
OpenstaxTM. “University Physics Volume 3, 1.5 Dispersion”

https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/1-5-dispersion
Siyavula Technology Powered Learnng. “5.7 Critical angles and total internal reflection”
https://intl.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-11/geometrical-optics/05-
geometrical-optics-07
11
Answers Key
12

Quarter 4 – Week 8b: Geometric Optics: Mirrors and Lenses
First Edition, 2021
Development Team of Learner’s Activity Sheets
Writer Ric Me D. Diaz
Editors:
Regional Team Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña
Abraham Masendo
Yvonne S. Salubre
Jeremaeh Delosa
Division Team Edna E. Trinidad, EdD

Management Team Josita B. Carmen, Schools Division Superintendent

Author: RIC ME D. DIAZ

School/Station: LIANGA NATIONAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
General Physics II 12 Quarter 4 Week 8b
Geometric Optics: Mirrors and Lenses
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competencies
• Explain image formation as an application of reflection, refraction, and paraxial

approximation (STEM_GP12OPTIVd-22)
• Relate properties of mirrors and lenses (radii of curvature, focal length, index of refraction
[for lenses]) to image and object distance and sizes (STEM_GP12OPTIVd-23)
• Determine graphically and mathematically the type (virtual/real), magnification, location,
and orientation of image of a point and extended object produced by a plane or spherical
mirror (STEM_GP12OPTIVd-24)
• Determine graphically and mathematically the type (virtual/real), magnification, location/
apparent depth, and orientation of image of a point and extended object produced by a lens
or series of lenses (STEM_GP12OPTIVd-27)
• Apply the principles of geometric optics to discuss image formation by the eye, and
correction of common vision defects (STEM_GP12OPTIVd-28)
Specific Objectives
• Construct ray diagrams using the graphical methods in spherical mirrors.
• Determine the location, orientation, size, and type of images formed by spherical mirrors.
• Calculate the exact size and location of the image formed in a concave and convex mirror.
• Determine whether the image formed is real or virtual, upright or inverted.
• Construct ray diagrams using the graphical methods in lenses.
• Determine the location, orientation, size, and type of images formed by lenses.
• Calculate the exact size and location of the image formed in a concave and convex lens.
Key Concepts
Geometric Optics
• Geometric optics uses lines, or “light rays,” to explain
phenomena such as reflection and refraction, which are the
principles of mirrors and lenses, respectively.
• To understand images and image formation, all we need are
the ray model of light, the laws of reflection and refraction,
and some simple geometry and trigonometry.
• Images are formed by mirrors, by refracting surfaces, and by
thin lenses.
• These results lay the foundation for understanding many
familiar optical instruments, including camera lenses,
magnifiers, the human eye, microscopes, and telescopes.
Figure 1. Formation of an
image in a plane mirror.
Source: Krauskopf B. (2010).
The Physical Universe, p. 238

Reflection in Plane Mirrors
• A change in direction takes place when light strikes and rebounds from a surface. A
change in direction by this method is called reflection.
• An incident light ray is reflected from
a surface in a particular way. As
illustrated in Figure 2, the angle of
the incidence (θi) and the angle of
reflection (θr) are measured relative
to the normal, a line perpendicular to
the reflecting surface. These angles
are related by the law of reflection:
“The angle of reflection (θr) is equal to
the angle of incidence (θi)”.
• Reflection not only happens on a Figure 2. Law of Reflection
Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., & Higgins, C. (2013). An
smooth surface like plane mirrors, Introduction to Physical Science (13th ed.), p. 159
but also happens on rough surfaces.
• In specular reflection (Figure 3a), incident parallel rays are parallel on reflection. In
contrast, rays reflected from relatively rough surfaces are not parallel but scattered. This
reflection is called diffuse reflection (or irregular reflection, Figure 3b).
Figure 3. Two types of Reflection

Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., & Higgins, C. (2013). An Introduction to Physical Science
(13th ed.), p. 160
• A ray diagram for determining the apparent location of

an image formed by a plane mirror is shown in Figure
4. The image is located by drawing two rays emitted by
the object and applying the law of reflection. Where the
rays intersect, or appear to intersect, locates the image.
For a plane mirror, the image is located behind, or
“inside,” the mirror at the same distance as the object
is in front of the mirror.
Figure 4. Ray Diagram
Reflection in Spherical Mirrors Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., &
Higgins, C. (2013). An Introduction to
• A spherical mirror is a section of a sphere of radius Physical Science (13th ed.), p. 161
R. A line drawn through the center of curvature C
perpendicular to the mirror surface is called the
principal axis. The point where the principal axis
meets the mirror surface is called the vertex V. (See
Figure 5)
• Another important point in spherical mirror
geometry is the focal point F. The distance from the
vertex to the focal point is called the focal length f.
• For a spherical mirror, the focal length is one-half the
value of the radius of curvature of the spherical
𝑅 Figure 5. Anatomy of a Ray Diagram
surface (𝑓 = ). Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., &
2
• The inside surface of a spherical section is said to be Higgins, C. (2013). An Introduction to
concave and when it has a mirrored surface, it is a Physical Science (13th ed.), p. 172
concave (converging) mirror (Figure 6a).

• Reflecting light rays parallel to the principal axis converge and pass through the focal
point. The rays are “focused” at the focal point.
• Similarly, the outside surface of a spherical section is said to be convex, and when it
has a mirrored surface, it is a convex (diverging) mirror. Parallel rays along the
principal axis are reflected in such a way that they appear to diverge from the focal point
(Figure 6b).
Figure 6. Spherical Mirrors

Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., & Higgins, C. (2013). An Introduction to Physical Science (13 th ed.), p. 172
Graphical Methods in Spherical Mirrors

• The images formed by spherical mirrors can be found graphically using ray diagrams.
An arrow is commonly used as the object, and the location and size of the image are
determined by drawing four rays. These are called principal rays (Figure 7).
1. A ray parallel to the axis, after reflection, passes through the focal point F of a
concave mirror or appears to come from the (virtual) focal point of a convex mirror.
2. A ray through (or proceeding toward) the focal point F is reflected parallel to
the axis.
3. A ray along the radius through or away from the center of curvature C
intersects the surface normally and is reflected back along its original path.
4. A ray to the vertex V is reflected forming equal angles with the optic axis.
Figure 7. Principal Rays for Spherical Mirrors

Source: Young, Hugh D., Roger A. Freedman, A. Lewis Ford, and Hugh D. Young. Sears and Zemansky's University
Physics. (13th ed), p. 1124

• The intersection of these rays (tip of arrow) locates the position of the image.
• In the ray diagrams, ho is the height of the object and hi is the height of the image. Do is
the object distance (distance of the object from the vertex) and Di is the image distance
(distance of the image from the vertex). The object distance in a ray diagram can be
determined relative to the focal point F or the center of curvature C.
• The characteristics of an image are described in terms of its Location, Orientation
(upright or inverted), Size (magnified or reduced), and Type (real or virtual). If the
diagram is drawn to scale, then the magnification (greater or less than 1) may be found
by comparing the heights of the object and image arrows in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Characteristics of an image in Spherical Mirrors

• Ray diagrams will help you determine the approximate location and size of the image,
but it will not provide you with the numerical information about image distance and
object size. To determine the exact location and size of the image formed in a curved
mirror, an equation is needed.
• An object's magnification is generally given by the equation,
ℎ −𝐷
M= 𝑖 = 𝑖
ℎ𝑜 𝐷𝑜
where
M is the magnification
hi is the image height
ho is the object height
Di is the image distance
Do is the object distance.
• The equation below, called mirror equation, applies to both concave and convex
mirrors. However, for all location of objects in front of the convex mirror, the image always
appears as if it is located behind the mirror. It is therefore considered that the value of
image distance, di is negative. In the same manner, the focal point F in a convex mirror
is located on the other side of the mirror (behind the mirror), thus, the focal length f is
also negative.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + (Mirror Equation)
𝒇 𝑫𝒐 𝑫𝒊
where
f is the focal length
Do is the object distance from the mirror
Di is the image distance from the mirror
• Sign conventions for Mirrors

f is positive (+) if the mirror is a concave mirror.
f is negative (-) if the mirror is a convex mirror.
Di is positive (+) if the image is a real image (located on the object’s side of the mirror).
Di is negative (-) if the image is a virtual image (located behind the mirror).
hi is positive (+) if the image is an upright image.
hi is negative (-) if the image is an inverted image.

Refraction in Lenses
• The deviation of light from its original path arises
because of a change in speed in the second medium.
This effect is called refraction (Figure 9).
• The directions of the incident and refracted rays are
expressed in terms of the angle of incidence θ1 and the
angle of refraction θ2, which are measured relative to
the normal line, a line perpendicular to the surface
boundary of the medium (Figure 10). Figure 9. A beam of light is refracted.
• The different speeds in the different media are Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., &
expressed in terms of a ratio relative to the speed of Higgins, C. (2013). An Introduction to
Physical Science (13th ed.), p. 162
light. This is known as the index of refraction n:
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑐

index of refraction n = =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑚
• The index of refraction is a pure number (it has no units)

because c and cm are measured in the same units,
which cancel.
• A lens consists of material such as a transparent piece
of glass or plastic that refracts light waves to give an
image of an object. Lenses are extremely useful and
are found in eyeglasses, telescopes, magnifying Figure 10. Refraction
glasses, cameras, and many other optical devices. Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., &
Higgins, C. (2013). An Introduction to
• In general, there are two main types of lenses. A Physical Science (13th ed.), p. 163
converging lens (convex lens) is thicker at the center
than at the edges. A diverging lens (concave lens) is
thinner at the center than at the edges. These two types
and some of the possible shapes for each are illustrated
in Figure 11.
• Light passing through a lens is refracted twice, once at
each surface. The lenses that are commonly used are
known as thin lenses. Thus, when constructing ray
diagrams, the thickness of the lens can be neglected.
Figure 11. Types of Lenses
• Rays coming in parallel to the principal axis are refracted Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., &
toward the principal axis by a converging lens. For a Higgins, C. (2013). An Introduction
converging lens, the rays are focused at point F, the focal to Physical Science (13th ed.), p. 176
point. For a diverging lens, the rays are refracted away
from the principal axis and appear to emanate from the
focal point on the incident side of the lens. (See Figure
12)
Graphical Methods in Lenses

• The position and size of an image formed by a thin lens
can be determined by using a graphical method very Figure 12. Lens Focal Points.
similar to the one used in mirrors. (See Figure 13) Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., &
1. A ray parallel to the axis emerges from the lens Higgins, C. (2013). An Introduction
in a direction that passes through the second to Physical Science (13th ed.), p. 176
focal point of a converging lens, or appears to
come from the second focal point of a diverging lens.
2. A ray through the center of the lens is not appreciably deviated; at the center
of the lens the two surfaces are parallel, so this ray emerges at essentially the
same angle at which it enters and along essentially the same line.
3. A ray through (or proceeding toward) the first focal point emerges parallel to
the axis.

Figure 13. Principal Rays for Lenses.
Source: Young, Hugh D., Roger A. Freedman, A. Lewis Ford, and Hugh D. Young. Sears and Zemansky's University
Physics. (13th ed), p. 1136
• The characteristics of the images formed by a converging or convex lens change, similar
to the way those of a converging mirror change as an object is brought toward the mirror
from a distance. Beyond the focal point, an inverted, real image is formed, which
becomes larger as the object approaches the focal point.
• For lenses, a real image is formed on the opposite side of a lens from the object and can
be seen on a screen (Figure 14a). A virtual image is formed on the object side of the lens
(Figure 14b).
(a) (b)
Figure 14. Characteristics of an image in Convex (Converging) Lenses.

• For a diverging or concave lens, the image is always upright and reduced, or smaller than
the object (Figure 16).
• When looking through a concave lens, one sees images as shown in Figure 15. Also, a
concave lens forms only virtual images.
Figure 16. A diverging (concave) lens gives an

Figure 15. Characteristics of an image in Concave upright, reduced, and virtual image.
(Diverging) Lenses. Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., & Higgins, C. (2013).
Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., & Higgins, C. (2013). An Introduction to Physical Science (13th ed.), p. 177
An Introduction to Physical Science (13th ed.), p. 177

• To determine the exact location and size of the image formed in lenses, a lens equation
is needed.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + (Lens Equation)
𝒇 𝑫𝒐 𝑫𝒊
where
f is the focal length
Do is the object distance from the lens
Di is the image distance from the lens
• Sign Conventions for Lenses

f is positive (+) if the lens is a double convex lens (converging lens).
f is negative (-) if the lens is a double concave lens (diverging lens).
Di is positive (+) if the image is real and located behind the lens.
Di is negative (-) if the image is virtual and located on the object’s side of the lens.
hi is positive (+) if the image is an upright image (and therefore, also virtual).
hi is negative (-) if the image is an inverted image (and therefore, also real).
The Human Eye

• The human eye contains a convex lens along with other refractive media in which most
of the light refraction occurs.
• As illustrated in Figure 17, the lens focuses the light entering the eye on the retina. The
photoreceptors of the retina, called rods and cones, are connected to the optic nerve,
which sends signals to the brain. The rods are more sensitive than the cones and are
responsible for light and dark “twilight” vision; the cones are responsible for color vision.
• Because the distance between the lens
and retina does not vary, in this
situation Di is constant. Because Do
varies for different objects, the focal
length of the lens of the eye must vary
for the image to be on the retina.
• The lens is called the crystalline lens
and consists of glassy fibers. By action
of the attached ciliary muscles, the
shape and focal length of the lens vary
as the lens is made thinner and thicker.
Figure 17. The Human Eye
• Many people have trouble seeing
Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., & Higgins, C. (2013).
objects at certain distances. These An Introduction to Physical Science (13th ed.), p. 178
individuals have one of the two most
common visual defects:
nearsightedness and farsightedness.
• Nearsightedness (myopia) is the
condition of being able to see nearby
objects clearly but not distant objects.
This occurs when, for some reason, the
distant image is focused in front of the
retina (Figure 18a). Glasses with Figure 17. Common Visual Defects.
diverging lenses that move the image Source: Shipman, J., Wilson, J., & Higgins, C.
back to the retina can be used to (2013). An Introduction to Physical Science (13 th
correct this defect. ed.), p. 179
• Farsightedness (hyperopia) is the condition of being able to see distant objects clearly
but not nearby objects. The images of such objects are focused behind the retina (Fig.
18b). The near point is the position closest to the eye at which objects can be seen
clearly. For farsighted people, the near point is not at the normal position but at some
point farther from the eye.

Activity 1: Ray Diagrams for Spherical Mirrors
Objectives
• Construct ray diagrams using the graphical methods in spherical mirrors; and
• Determine the Location, Orientation, Size, and Type of images formed by spherical mirrors.
What you need

• pencil/ballpen
• sheets of paper
• protractor and ruler
What to do
• Using the protractor and the ruler, copy the diagrams below on a separate sheet of paper.
As much as possible, use the four principal rays to locate the image formed in a curved
mirror.
• The height of the arrow must be 0.5 in.
• The length of the center of curvature C must be 2 inches from the vertex V thus the focal
length f should be 1 in.
• Follow the Graphical Methods in Spherical Mirrors as presented in the Key Concepts
and write the characteristics of the image formed.
Concave (Converging) Mirrors
1. Object: Beyond C 2. Object: At C
------1 in------
----------------2 in----------------
L: _________________________________ L: ___________________________________
O: _________________________________ O: ___________________________________
S: _________________________________ S: ___________________________________
T: _________________________________ T: ___________________________________
3. Object: Between C and F 4. Object: At F
L: _________________________________ L: ___________________________________
O: _________________________________ O: ___________________________________
S: _________________________________ S: ___________________________________
T: _________________________________ T: ___________________________________

5. Object: Between F and vertex
L: ______________________________ ___
O: _________________________________
S: _________________________________
T: _________________________________
C F F C
L: _________________________________
O: _________________________________
S: _________________________________
T: _________________________________
7. Object: Between C and F
C F F C
L: _________________________________
O: _________________________________
S: _________________________________
T: _________________________________
8. Object: Beyond C
C F F C
L: _________________________________
O: _________________________________
S: _________________________________
T: _________________________________

Activity 2: Mirror Equation
Objectives
• Calculate the exact size and location of the image formed in a concave and convex mirror;
and
What you need

• sheets of paper
• ballpen
• scientific calculator
What to do
• In a separate sheet of paper, solve the following problems to determine the exact size and
location, orientation, and type of images formed by spherical mirrors.
• Use the Sign Conventions for Spherical Mirrors in determining the orientation and type
of images formed.
Sample Problem
A 5.00-cm tall candle is placed at a distance of 45.0 cm from a concave mirror
having a focal length of 10.5 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.
To solve for the Di To solve for the hi
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒉𝒊 −𝑫𝒊
= + =
𝒇 𝑫𝒐 𝑫𝒊 𝒉𝒐 𝑫𝒐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝒉𝒊 −𝟏𝟑. 𝟕 𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎 𝟒𝟓. 𝟎 𝒄𝒎 𝑫𝒊
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 =
− = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎 𝟒𝟓. 𝟎 𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎 𝟒𝟓. 𝟎 𝒄𝒎 𝑫𝒊
𝟒𝟓. 𝟎 𝒄𝒎 − 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎 𝟏 (𝟓.𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎)(−𝟏𝟑.𝟕 𝒄𝒎)
= hi =
𝟓.𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎
(𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎)(𝟒𝟓. 𝟎 𝒄𝒎) 𝑫𝒊
hi = -1.52 cm (inverted image)
Di = 13.7 cm (real image)
1. Determine the image distance and image height for a 5.00-cm tall object placed 30.0 cm
from a concave mirror having a focal length of 15.0 cm.
2. A 7.0-cm tall light bulb is placed at a distance of 37.5 cm from a convex mirror having a
focal length of -12.5 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.

Activity 3: Ray Diagrams for Lenses
Objectives
• Construct ray diagrams using the graphical methods in lenses; and
• Determine the Location, Orientation, Size, and Type of images formed by
lenses.
What you need

• pencil/ballpen
• sheets of paper
• protractor and ruler
What to do
• Using the protractor and the ruler, copy the diagrams below on a separate sheet of paper.
As much as possible, use the three principal rays to locate the image formed in a lens.
• The height of the arrow must be 0.5 in.
• The length of the center of curvature C must be 2 inches from the vertex V thus the focal
length f should be 1 in.
• Follow the Graphical Methods in Lenses as presented in the Key Concepts and write
the characteristics of the image formed.
Concave (Diverging) Lenses
C F F C
L: _______________ O: _______________ S: _______________ T: _______________
C F F C
L: _______________ O: _______________ S: _______________ T: _______________

3. Object: At C
C F F C
L: _______________ O: _______________ S: _______________ T: _______________
Convex (Converging) Lenses
4. Object: At F
C F F C
L: _______________ O: _______________ S: _______________ T: _______________
C F F C
L: _______________ O: _______________ S: _______________ T: _______________

Activity 4: Lens Equation
Objectives
• Calculate the exact size and location of the image formed in a concave and convex lens;
and
What you need

• sheets of paper
• ballpen
• scientific calculator
What to do
• In a separate sheet of paper, solve the following problems to determine the exact size and
location, orientation, and type of images formed by lenses.
• Use the Sign Conventions for Lenses in determining the orientation and type of images
formed.
Sample Problem
A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed at a distance of 45.7 cm from a double convex
lens having a focal length of 15.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.
To solve for the Di To solve for the hi
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒉𝒊 −𝑫𝒊
= + =
𝒇 𝑫𝒐 𝑫𝒊 𝒉𝒐 𝑫𝒐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝒉𝒊 −𝟐𝟐. 𝟖 𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟓. 𝟐 𝒄𝒎 𝟒𝟓. 𝟕 𝒄𝒎 𝑫𝒊 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎 𝟒𝟓. 𝟕 𝒄𝒎
− =
𝟏𝟓. 𝟐 𝒄𝒎 𝟒𝟓. 𝟕 𝒄𝒎 𝑫𝒊
𝟒𝟓. 𝟕 𝒄𝒎 − 𝟏𝟓. 𝟐 𝒄𝒎 𝟏 hi =
(𝟒.𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎)(−𝟐𝟐.𝟖 𝒄𝒎)
= 𝟒𝟓.𝟕 𝒄𝒎
(𝟏𝟓. 𝟐 𝒄𝒎)(𝟒𝟓. 𝟕 𝒄𝒎) 𝑫𝒊 hi = -1.99 cm (inverted image)
Di = 22.8 cm (real image)
1. A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed at a distance of 35.5 cm from a diverging lens having a
focal length of -12.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.
2. Determine the image distance and image height for a 4.0-cm tall object placed 54.0 cm
from a converging lens having a focal length of 18.0 cm.

Reflection
Optics is part of our everyday life. In fact, the presence of visual systems like the microscope
in biology indicates the central role optics plays as the science of one of the five senses. Many
people benefit from eyeglasses or contact lenses, and optics is integral to the functioning of many
consumer goods including fiber optic cables (internet), cameras, and binoculars.
If these optical devices were not invented, what do you think will be its impact to our life
today? Write your five-sentence answer in a separate sheet of paper.
Rubrics
5 4 3 2 0
Practical Practical Practical Practical No discussion at
application is application is application is applications are all.
consistent to the consistent to the concepts but concepts but
concepts, and concepts, but with one or two with more than
has no with minimal misconceptions. two
misconceptions. misconceptions. misconceptions.
Krauskopf K., & Beiser A. (2010). The Physical Universe (14th ed.). The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020.
Shipman, J., Wilson, J., & Higgins, C. (2013). An Introduction to Physical Science (13 th ed.).
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Young, Hugh D., Roger A. Freedman, A. Lewis Ford, and Hugh D. Young. Sears and Zemansky's
University Physics. 13th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions, 2012.

Activity 2: Mirror Equation
1. Di = 30.0cm, real
hi = -5.00cm, inverted
2. Di = -9.38cm, virtual
hi = 1.75cm, upright
Activity 1: Ray Diagrams for
Spherical Mirrors
1. L = between C and F
O = inverted
S = reduced
Activity 4: Lens Equation T = real
2. L = at C
1. Di = -9.08cm, virtual
O = inverted
hi = 1.02cm, upright
S = same size
2. Di = 27.0cm, real
T = real
hi = -2.00cm, inverted
3. L = beyond C
O = inverted
Activity 3: Ray Diagrams for Lenses S = magnified
T = real
1. L = object’s side (between F & V) 4. L = no image
O = upright O = no image
S = reduced S = no image
T = virtual T = no image
2. L = object’s side (between F & V) 5. L = behind the mirror
O = upright O = upright
S = reduced S = magnified
T = virtual T = virtual
3. L = object’s side (between F & V) 6. L = behind the mirror
O = upright O = upright
S = reduced S = reduced
T = virtual T = virtual
4. L = no image 7. L = behind the mirror
O = no image O = upright
S = no image S = reduced
T = no image T = virtual
5. L = behind the lens (beyond C) 8. L = behind the mirror
O = inverted O = upright
S = magnified S = reduced
T = real T = virtual
Answer Key

Quarter 4 – Week 9A INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION
First Edition, 2021
Writer: Marvelous Saint P. Jumanoy

AR A. Ranesis
Marvin T. Tejano
Juzalin P. Costuya
Edna E. Trinidad
Layout Reviewers: Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña,
Yvonne S. Salubre
Jeremaeh G. Delos

INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
- Determine the conditions (superposition, path and phase difference, polarization,
amplitude) for interference to occur emphasizing the properties of a laser as a
monochromatic and coherent light source (STEM_GP12OPTIVf-32)
- Relate the geometry of the two-slit experiment set up (slit separation, and screen-to-slit
distance) and properties of light (wavelength) to the properties of the interference pattern
(width, location, and intensity) (STEM_GP12OPTIVf-33)
- Relate the geometry of the diffraction experiment setup (slit size, and screen- to-slit
distance) and properties of light (wavelength) to the properties of the diffraction pattern
(width, location, and intensity of the fringes) (STEM_GP12OPTIVf-35)
1. Determine the patterns formed by the interference of two coherent light waves.
2. Evaluate the intensity at various point in an interference; and
3. Solve problems on diffraction formed when coherent light passes through a narrow
slit.
Key Concepts
• The term interference refers to any situation in which two or more waves overlap
in space. When this occurs, the total waves at any point at any instant of time is
governed by the principle of superposition, in the context of waves on a string.
This principle also applies to electromagnetic waves and is the most important
principle in all physical optics. The principle of superposition states:
When two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement at any point and at
any instant is found by adding the instantaneous displacement that would be
produced at the point by the individual waves if each present alone.
• The term “displacement” in a general sense. With waves of the surface of a liquid,
we mean the actual displacement of the surface above or below its normal level.
With sound waves, the term refers to the excess or deficiency pressure. For
electromagnetic waves, we usually mean a specific component of electric or
magnetic field.

• One important case of interference, in which two
identical waves propagating in opposite directions
combine to produce a standing wave. For transverse
wave on a string and for longitudinal waves in a fluid
filling a pipe; It described the same phenomenon for
electromagnetic waves.
• In all of these cases the waves propagated along from

the single axis: Along a string, along the length of a
fluid-filled pipe, or along the propagation direction of
an electromagnetic plane wave. But light wave can
(and do) travel in two or three dimensions, as can any
kind of waves that propagates in a two-or three
dimensional medium. Figure 1: A snapshot of sinusoidal waves of
frequency f and wavelength 𝜆 spreading
• Interference effects are most easily seen when out from the source S1 in all directions.
sinusoidal waves are combined with a single
frequency f and wavelength 𝜆. Figure 1 shows a Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University
“snapshot” or “freeze-frame” of a single source 𝑆1 of
sinusoidal waves and some of the wave fronts produced by these sources. The
figure shows only the wave fronts of the corresponding wave crests, so they’re
spacing between successive wave fronts in one wavelength. The materials
surrounding 𝑆1 is uniform, so the waves speed is the same in all directions, and
there is no refraction, hence no bending of the wave fronts.
• If the waves are two-dimensional, like waves on the surface of a liquid, the circles
in Figure 1 represent circular wave fronts; if the waves propagate in three
dimensions, the circles represent spherical wave fronts spreading away from 𝑆1 .
• The idea of the superposition principle is illustrated in Figure 2.

Constructive Interference
Destructive Interference
Figure 2. Superposition of waves. (b) Constructive interference, and (c) destructive interference.
• In 1801, Thomas Young carried out an experiment also called Young’s Double-
Slit Experiment, in which the wave nature of light was demonstrated. The
schematic diagram of the double-slit experiment is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Young’s double-slit experiment.
• A monochromatic light source is incident on the first screen which contains a slit
S0. The emerging light then arrives at the second screen which has two parallel
slits S1 and S2, which serve as the sources of coherent light. The light waves
emerging from the two slits then interfere and form an interference pattern on the
viewing screen. The bright bands (fringes) correspond to interference maxima, and
the dark band is interference minima.
• Figure 4 shows the ways in which the waves could combine to interfere
constructively or destructively.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4. Constructive interference (a) at P, and (b) at P 1.(c) Destructive interference
• The geometry of the double-slit interference is shown in the Figure 5.

Figure 5. Double-slit experiment.
• CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE produces Bright fringes which occur when the

amplitude of the resultant wave is greater than the amplitudes of either
component wave. It results for brighter light, and for sound, it produces a louder
sound.
dsin θₙ = nλ,
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3...
• DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE produces Dark fringes which occurs when the

resultant amplitude is smaller. It results for darker light, and in sound, it cancels
the sound completely.
dsin θₙ = nλ/2,
where n = 1, 3, 5, 7...
(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) Destructive interference. (b) Constructive interference
• In addition to interference, waves also exhibit

another property – diffraction, which is the
bending of waves as they pass by some objects or
through an aperture. The phenomenon of
diffraction can be understood using Huygens’s
principle which states that every unobstructed
point on a wavefront will act a source of secondary
spherical waves. The new wavefront is the surface
tangent to all the secondary spherical waves. The
propagation of the wave is based on Huygens’s
principle.
Figure 7. Shows Diffracted Wavepoint.


• DIFFRACTION GRATING - it is the pattern obtained at a brighter and sharper
diffraction which slits similar to Young’s experiment are spaced regularly and of
the same width.
FORMULA for Diffraction Grating:

dsin θₙ = nλ,
where n = 1, 2, 3...
d = spacing of slits
θₙ = deviation of angle for the nth bright fringe
λ = wavelength of incident light
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
A diffraction grating having 15,000 lines per inch is illuminated by parallel light of
wavelength 589 nm. What are the angles at which the 1st and 2nd order bright fringes
occur?
Given:
1 (0.0254 m)
d= × = 1.69 × 10⁻⁶ m/line
(15000 line/in.) (1 in.)
589 nm x (1.0 m)
λ= = 5.89 × 10⁻⁷ m
(1.0 × 109 nm)
n = 1, 2
Use formula:
dsin θₙ = nλ
Solution:
nλ (1)(5.89 × 10⁻⁷ m)
sin θ₁ = = = 0.349
𝑑 (1.69 × 10⁻⁶ m/line)
θ₁ = 20.4°
nλ (2)(5.89 × 10⁻⁷ m)
sin θ₂ = = = 0.697
𝑑 (1.69 × 10⁻⁶ m/line)
θ₂ = 44.2°

Activity 1: Go Precisely!
Objective: Determine the patterns formed by the interference of two coherent light waves.
What you need:

• Paper and pen
What to do: Answer briefly and clearly the following questions. Write your answer on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. What will happen if two beams of coherent light are shining on the same piece of white
paper, with respect to the crests and troughs of such waves?
2. In Young’s double-slit interference experiment, what will happen to the distance adjacent
to light and dark fringes changed when the wavelength of the source is doubled?
Activity 2: Multiple Choices!
Objective: Evaluate the intensity at various point in an interference.
What you need:

• Paper and pen
• calculator
What to do: Answer the following questions based on the concepts that you have learned. Write
your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
1. In what condition does the two waves undergo constructive interference?

A) when their phase difference is zero.
B) when their phase difference is /2 rad.
C) when their phase difference is /2 rad.
D) when their phase difference is an even integral multiple of  rad.
E) when their phase difference is an odd integral multiple of  rad.
2. In what condition does the two waves undergo destructive interference?

A) when their phase difference is zero.
B) when their phase difference is /2 rad.
C) when their phase difference is /2 rad.
D) when their phase difference is an even integral multiple of  rad.
E) when their phase difference is an odd integral multiple of  rad.
3. Two coherent sources emit waves of 2.0-m wavelength in phase. If the path length to
an observer differs by ________, then _________ interference occurs.
A) 1.0 m, constructive
B) 2.0 m, destructive
C) 3.5 m, constructive
D) 7.0 m, destructive
E) 8.0 m, destructive

4. Which of the following shows a destructive interference.
a. b. c.
5. Superposition principle can also be applied to the following, EXCEPT

A) Electromagnetic wave
B) light in crystal
C) sound wave
D) water movement
Objective: Solve problems on diffraction formed when coherent light passes through a narrow
slit.
What you need:

• Paper and pen
• Scientific Calculator
1. A diffraction grating having 10,000 lines per inch is illuminated by parallel light
of wavelength 589 nm. What are the angles at which the 1st and 2nd order bright
fringes occur?
2. Light having a wavelength of 600 nm passes on a 0.32-mm-diameter lens. On a screen

80 cm away, a diffraction pattern form. What is the distance from center of the pattern
to the first dark fringe?
3. Light of wavelength 540 nm is incident on a slit of width 0.15 mm, and a diffraction
pattern is produced on a screen that is 2.00 m from the slit. What is the width of the
central bright fringe? (1 nm = 10-9 m)
Reflection
RUBRICS
3 2 1 0
misconceptions.

2017.
Halliday, David and Resnick, Robert. Fundamentals of Physics 10th ed. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 2014.
2012.
Answer Key
B 5.
C 4.
D 3.
E 2.
D 1. fringes is also doubled.
2. The distance between adjacent light and dark
Activity 2 from the other.
crest from one wave overlaps with the trough
1.5 mm 1. Darkness will occur on the paper where the
3. s₀ = 1.5× 10⁻³ or
Possible Answer:
or 1.83 mm
2. s₀ = 1.83 × 10⁻³ Activity 1
1. 450


Quarter 4 – Week 9B: Relativity, Photons, Particles Behaving as Waves, and Nuclear Physics
First Edition, 2021
Regional Editors: Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña

Abraham Masendo
Yvonne S. Salubre
Jeremaeh Delosa
Division Editors: Edna E. Trinidad

Ricme D. Diaz
AR A. Ranesis
Juzalin P. Costuya
Management Team:

Author: Marvin T. Tejano 1

General Physics 2, Grade 12, Quarter 4, Week 9B
RELATIVITY, PHOTONS, PARTICLES BEHAVING AS WAVES, AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Learning Objectives
1. state the postulates of Special Relativity and their consequences (STEM_GP12MPIVg-39);

2. apply the time dilation, length contraction and relativistic velocity addition to worded
problems (STEM_GP12MPIVg-40-41);
3. calculate kinetic energy, rest energy, momentum, and speed of objects moving with speeds
comparable to the speed of light (STEM_GP12MPIVg-42);
4. explain the photoelectric effect using the idea of light quanta or photons
(STEM_GP12MPIVh-45);
5. explain qualitatively the properties of atomic emission and absorption spectra using the
concept of energy levels (STEM_GP12MPIVh-46); and
6. calculating radioisotope activity using the concept of half-life (STEM_GP12MPIVh-i-47).
Key Concepts
Relativity
• The Theory of Special Relativity, proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905 explains the
behavior of things that move very fast comparable to the speed of light where regular
Newtonian physics does not always apply. The speed of light and all other electromagnetic
waves traveling in a vacuum is exactly equal to 299,792,458 m/s (we often use the
approximate value 𝑐 = 3.00 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠 which is within one part in 1000 of the exact value).
• It is called Special Relativity because it only applies to specific situations where the different
frames of reference, called inertial reference frames that are not accelerating.
• Einstein’s first postulate, called the Principle of Relativity, states: The laws of physics
are the same in every inertial frame of reference. If the laws differed, that difference
could distinguish one inertial frame from the others
or make one frame somehow more “correct” than
another.
• Consider this situation for the First Postulate:

Suppose you watch two children playing catch with
a ball while the three of you are aboard a train
moving with constant velocity. Your observations of
the motion of the ball, no matter how carefully done,
can’t tell you how fast (or whether) the train is
moving. This is because Newton’s laws of motion are
the same in every inertial frame.
• Another example situation is the electromotive force Figure. 1. The same emf is induced in the
(emf) induced in a coil of wire by a nearby moving coil whether (a) the magnet moves relative to
the coil or (b) the coil moves relative to the
permanent magnet. In the frame of reference in magnet.
which the coil is stationary (Fig. 1a), the moving Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with
Modern Physics”, 13th edition

magnet causes a change of magnetic flux through the coil, and this induces an emf. In a
different frame of reference in which the magnet is stationary (Fig. 1b), the motion of the
coil through a magnetic field induces the emf. According to the principle of relativity, both
these frames are equally valid. Hence the same emf must be induced in both situations in
Fig. 1.
• Einstein’s second postulate states: The speed of light in vacuum is the same in all
inertial frames of reference and is independent of the motion of the source.
• Consider this situation for the Second Postulate: Suppose two observers measure the speed
of light in a vacuum. One is at rest with respect to the light source, and the other is moving
away from it. Both are in inertial frames of reference. According to the principle of relativity,
the two observers must obtain the same result, despite the fact that one is moving with
respect to the other. And that is the speed of light 𝑐 = 3.00 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠 (approximate value).
• Another example situation: A spacecraft moving past the earth at 1000 m/s fires a missile
straight ahead with a speed of 2000 m/s (relative to spacecraft) (Fig. 2). What is the missile’s
speed relative to the earth? Simple, you say; this is an elementary problem in relative
velocity. The correct answer, according to Newtonian mechanics, is 3000 m/s. But now
suppose the spacecraft turns on a searchlight, pointing in the same direction in which the
missile was fired. An observer on the spacecraft measures the speed of light emitted by the
searchlight and obtains the value c. According to Einstein’s second postulate, the motion of
the light after it has left the source cannot depend on the motion of the source. So the
observer on earth who measures the speed of this same light must also obtain the value c,
not 𝑐 + 1000 𝑚/𝑠. This result contradicts our elementary notion of relative velocities, and it
may not appear to agree with common sense. But “common sense” is intuition based on
everyday experience, and this does not usually include measurements of the speed of light.
Figure. 2. (a) Newtonian mechanics makes correct predictions about relatively slow-moving objects; (b) it makes
incorrect predictions about the behavior of light.
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics”, 13 th edition
• The second postulate immediately implies that “It is impossible for an inertial observer
to travel at c, the speed of light in vacuum”.
• It is known that (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑣)𝑥(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡) = (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑑). Since speed of light, according to the
special relativity is always constant, then time and distance must change. When time
changes, that is called time dilation. On the other hand, when distance changes, that is
called length contraction.

• Time Dilation occurs when another reference frame is moving relative to the observer. So,
time in a reference frame slows down relative to the time measured by the observer.
Mathematically, time dilation is:
∆𝒕𝟎
∆𝒕 =
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝒖 ⁄ 𝟐
𝒄
where u – non relativistic speed (the constant speed of the second frame moving relative to
the rest frame).
c – speed of light (3 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠)
∆𝑡0 – proper time (time in the stationary reference frame)
∆𝑡 – time measured by an observer (time in the moving reference frame)
• Proper time is the time by which the two events occurred in a frame of reference.
1
The quantity 2
appears so often in relativity that it is given its own symbol 𝜸 (the
√1−𝑢 ⁄ 2
𝑐
Greek letter gamma):
𝟏
𝜸=
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝒖 ⁄ 𝟐
𝒄
In terms of this symbol, we can express the time dilation formula:
∆𝒕 = 𝜸∆𝒕𝟎
• Length contraction means that if something is moving relative to the observer, its length
in the direction that it is moving will seem shorter than it would if it was not moving. Its
equation is given by
𝒖𝟐
𝒍 = 𝒍𝟎 √𝟏 −
𝒄𝟐
𝒍𝟎
𝒍=
𝜸
where u – non relativistic speed (the constant speed of the second frame moving relative to
the rest frame).
c – speed of light (3 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠)
∆𝑙0 – proper length
∆𝑙 – length measured by an observer
The proper length of an object is defined as the length of the object measured by
someone who is at rest with respect to the object.
• Relativistic momentum 𝒑 – is classical momentum multiplied by the relativistic factor 𝛾 =

1
2
.
√1−𝑢2
𝑐
𝒑 = 𝜸𝒎𝒖
where, m – is the rest mass of the object

u – object’s velocity relative to an observer

• The relativistic definition of momentum has sometimes been interpreted as an increase in
the mass of an object. Relativistic mass is:
𝒎
𝒎𝒓𝒆𝒍 =
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐
𝒄
where m - is the rest mass of an object
• The relativistic kinetic energy is:

𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝑲= − 𝒎𝒄𝟐 = (𝜸 − 𝟏)𝒎𝒄𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐
𝒄𝟐
• 𝑬= 𝒎𝒄𝟐is Einstein’s famous mass-energy equivalence equation, which shows that mass is
a measure of the total energy in all forms. The total energy of a particle is:
𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝑬 = 𝑲 + 𝒎𝒄𝟐 = = 𝜸𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝒖 𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝟐
𝒄
• Total energy, rest energy, and momentum
𝑬𝟐 = (𝒎𝒄𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝒑𝒄)𝟐
• The Rest Mass Energy of a Particle is:

𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
Example Problem 1: Time dilation at 0.990c
High-energy subatomic particles

coming from space interact with atoms in
the earth’s upper atmosphere, in some
cases producing unstable particles called
muons. A muon decays into other particles
with a mean lifetime of 2.20 𝜇s = 2.20 x 10-
6 s as measured in a reference frame in
which it is at rest. If a muon is moving at

0.990c relative to the earth, what will an
observer on earth measure its mean
lifetime to be?
Solution:
Identify and Set up: The muon’s lifetime Figure 3. Measuring the length of a moving spaceship
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern Physics”, 13 th
is the interval between two events: the edition
production of the muon and its subsequent
decay. Our target variable s the lifetime in your frame of reference on earth, which we will call
frame S. We are given the lifetime in a frame S’ in which the muon is at rest; this is its proper
lifetime, ∆𝑡0 = 2.20 𝜇𝑠. The relative speed of these two frames is 𝑢 = 0.990𝑐. We use equation ∆𝑡 =
∆𝑡0
2
to relate the lifetimes in two frames.
√1−𝑢 ⁄ 2
𝑐
Execute: The muon moves relative to the earth between the two events, so the two events occur
at different positions as measure in S and the time interval in that frame is ∆𝑡 (the target variable).

∆𝒕𝟎 𝟐. 𝟐𝟎 𝝁𝒔 𝟐. 𝟐𝟎 𝝁𝒔
∆𝒕 = = = = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟔 𝝁𝒔
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝒖 ⁄ 𝟐 √𝟏 − (𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟎)𝟐
(𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝒄)𝟐
𝒄 √𝟏 − ( ⁄ 𝟐)
(𝒄)
Evaluate: Our result predicts that the mean lifetime of the muon in the earth frame (∆𝑡) is about
seven times longer than in the muon’s frame (∆𝑡0 ). This prediction has been verified experimentally;
indeed, this was the first experimental confirmation of the time dilation formula.
Example Problem 2: How long is the spaceship (length contraction)
A spaceship flies past earth at a speed of 0.990c. a crew member on board the spaceship
measures its length, obtaining the value 400 m. what length do observers measure on earth?
Solution:
Identify and Set up: This problem is about the nose-to-tail length of the spaceship as measured
on the spaceship and on earth. This length is along the direction of relative motion (Figure 6), so
there will be length contraction. The spaceship’s 400-m length is the proper length 𝑙0 because it is
measured in the frame in which the spaceship is at rest. Our target variable is the length 𝑙
measured in the earth frame, relative to which the spaceship is moving at 𝑢 = 0.990𝑐.
Execute: From the equation of length contraction, the length in the earth frame is
𝒖𝟐
𝒍 = 𝒍𝟎 √𝟏 − = (𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒎)√𝟏 − (𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟎)𝟐 = 𝟓𝟔. 𝟒 𝒎
𝒄𝟐
Evaluate: The spaceship is shorter in a frame in which it is in motion than in a frame in which it
is at rest. To measure the length 𝑙, two earth observers with synchronized clocks measure the
position of the two ends of the spaceship simultaneously in the earth’s reference frame as shown
in Figure 6. (These two measurements will not appear simultaneous to an observer in the
spaceship.)
Photons
• Photoelectric Effect is a phenomenon that

gives insight into the nature of light, in which
the material emits electrons from its surface
when illuminated (Fig. 4). An electron absorbs
enough energy from the incident light to
overcome the attraction of positive ions in the
material and escapes from the surface
afterwards.
• Photoelectrons are elctrons emitted by the

illuminated cathode.
• Photocurrent is a current produced during

the travel of photoelectrons. Figure 4. The Photoelectric Effect
Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern
Physics”, 13th edition

• The maximum Kinetic Energy of Photoelectrons is:
𝟏
𝑾𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒆𝑽𝟎
𝟐
where, K – is Kinetic Energy Maximum
𝑒 – charge of electron
𝑉0 - stopping potential
• Einstein made the radical postulate that a beam of light consists of small packages of
energy called photons or quanta. Since photon is an energy, it is absorbed by the electron
allowing them to be ejected out from the material. The Energy of a Photon is given by:
𝒉𝒄
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇 =
𝝀
where 𝒉(𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) = 6.626 𝑥 10−34 𝐽𝑠

𝝀 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝒇 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
Particle Behaving as Waves
• As reasoned by Niels Bohr (1885-1962), the emission of an element tells us that atoms of
that element emit photons with only certain specific frequencies f and hence certain specific
energies E = hf. During the emission of a photon, the internal energy of the atom changes
by an amount equal to the energy of the photon. Therefore, said Bohr, each atom must be
able to exist with only certain specific values of internal energy. Each atom has a set of
possible energy levels.
• An atom can have an amount of internal energy equal to any one of the levels, but it cannot
have an energy intermediate between two
levels.
• Suppose an atom is raised, or excited, to

a high energy level. According to Bohr, an
excited atom can make a transition from
one energy level to a lower level by
emitting a photon with energy equal to
the energy difference between the initial
and final levels (Fig. 5). If Ei is the initial
energy of the atom before such a
Figure 5. An excited atom emitting a photon
transition, Ef is its final energy after the Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern
transition, and the photon’s energy is Physics”, 13th edition
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑐/𝜆, then conservation of energy

gives
𝒉𝒄
𝒉𝒇 = = 𝑬𝒊 − 𝑬𝒇
𝝀
(𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛)
• The observation that atoms are stable

means that each atom has a lowest
energy level, called the ground level.
• Levels with energies greater than the

Figure 6. An atom absorbing a photon
ground level are called excited levels. Source: “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics with Modern
Physics”, 13th edition

• An atom in an excited level, called an excited atom, can make a transition into the ground
level by emitting a photon as in Fig. 5. But since there are no levels below the ground level,
an atom in the ground level cannot lose energy and so cannot emit a photon.
• Collisions are not the only way that atom’s energy can be raised from one level to a higher
level. If an atom initially in the lower energy level in Fig. 5 is stuck by a photon with just
the right amount of energy, the photon can be absorbed and the atom will end up in the
higher level (Fig. 6).
Nuclear Physics
• The half-life of an isotope is defined as the time it takes for half the original amount of
parent isotope in a given sample to decay. For example, the half-life of 146𝐶 is about 5730
years. If some time a piece of petrified wood contains, say 1.00 x 10 22 nuclei of 146𝐶 , then
5730 years later it will contain half as many, 0.50 x 1022 nuclei. After another 5730 years it
will contain 0.25 x 1022 nuclei, and so on. Since the rate of decay ∆𝑁⁄∆𝑡 is proportional to
N, it, too, decreases by a factor of 2 every half-life.
• The half-lives of known radioactive isotopes vary from very short (≈ 10−22 s) to more than
1023 yr (> 1030 𝑠). It should be clear that half-life (which we designate 𝑇1 ) bears an inverse
2
relationship to the decay constant. The longer the half-life of an isotope, the more slowly it
decays, and hence 𝜆 is smaller. Conversely, very active isotopes (large 𝜆) have very short
half-lives.
Example Problem 3: Energetic electrons
(a) Find the rest energy of an electron (𝑚 = 9.109𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔, 𝑞 = −𝑒 = −1.602𝑥10−19 𝐶) in

joules and in electron volts.
(b) Find the speed of an electron that has been accelerated by an electric field, from rest,
through a potential increase of 20.0 kV or of 5.00 MV (typical of a high-voltage x-ray
machine).
Solution:
Identify and Set up: This problem uses the ideas of rest energy, relativistic kinetic energy, and
1
potential energy. We use 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 to find the rest energy and 𝛾 = 2
and the equation of the
√1−𝑢 ⁄ 2
𝑐
𝑚𝑐 2
total energy of a particle 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑚𝑐 2 = 2
= 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2 to find the speed that gives the stated total
√1−𝑣 ⁄ 2
𝑐
energy.
Execute:
(a) The rest energy is
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 = (9.109𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔)(3.0𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠)2 = 8.187𝑥10−14 𝐽
From the definition of the electron volt, 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 𝑥 10−19 𝐽. Using this, we find

1 𝑒𝑉
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 = (8.187𝑥10−14 𝐽) = 5.11𝑥105 𝑒𝑉 = 0.511 𝑀𝑒𝑉
1.602𝑥10−19 𝐽
(b) In calculations such as this, it is often convenient to work with the quantity 𝛾 = 1
⁄√1 𝑣 2
− ⁄ 2
𝑐
from the equation of total energy of a particle. Solving this for v, we find
𝑣 = 𝑐√1 − (1⁄𝛾 )2
The total energy E of the accelerated electron is the sum of its rest energy 𝑚𝑐 2 and the
kinetic energy 𝑒𝑉𝑏𝑎 that it gains from the work done on it by the electric field in moving
from point a to point b:
𝐸 = 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑚𝑐 2 + 𝑒𝑉𝑏𝑎 or
𝑒𝑉𝑏𝑎
𝛾 = 1+
𝑚𝑐 2
An electron accelerated through a potential increase of 𝑉𝑏𝑎 = 20.0 𝑘𝑉 gains 20.0 𝑘𝑒𝑉 of
energy, so for this selection
20.0 𝑥 103 𝑒𝑉
𝛾 =1+ = 1.039
0.511 𝑥 106 𝑒𝑉
and
𝑣 = 𝑐√1 − (1/1.039)2 = 0.272𝑐 = 8.15𝑥107 𝑚/𝑠
𝑒𝑉
Repeating the calculation for 𝑉𝑏𝑎 = 5.00 𝑀𝑉, we find 𝑏𝑎2 = 9.78, 𝛾 = 10.78, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 0.996𝑐
𝑚𝑐
Evaluate: With 𝑉𝑏𝑎 = 20.0 𝑘𝑉, the added kinetic energy of the 20.0 𝑘𝑒𝑉 is less than 4% of the rest
energy of 0.511 MeV, and the final speed is about one-fourth the speed of light. With 𝑉𝑏𝑎 = 5.00 𝑀𝑉,
the added kinetic energy of 5.00 MeV is much greater then the rest energy and the speed is close
to c.
Activity 1. Strategic Planning
Objectives:
1. State the postulates of Special Relativity and their consequences.

2. Explain the photoelectric effect using the idea of light quanta or photons.
3. Explain qualitatively the properties of atomic emission and absorption spectra using the
concept of energy levels.
What you need: ballpen, a separate sheet of bond paper
What to do: Suppose you are a graduating grade 12 student and is assigned to accommodate
students in a Physics Exhibit in a school-based science fair. During the fair, a group of students
approached you and asked interesting questions about Modern Physics. Some of their questions
were, “can you explain the Postulates of Special Relativity by Einstein and their consequences”,
“how do you explain photoelectric effect”, and “give us an idea about the properties and absorption
spectra”. Present a strategic plan (including a script) as to how are you going to extensively deliver
your idea including all the necessary information about these anticipated questions. Your plan
will be evaluated based on the given rubric.

Criteria Excellent Good Fair Minimum Unacceptable
Analysis and Analysis and Analysis and Analysis and No analysis and
Depth of Analysis information information information information information
and Quality of presented is presented is presented is presented is presented.
Information excellent. very satisfactory. lacking.
Presented (30) satisfactory.
30 25 20 15 0
Script is
Script is clear Script is clear
Quality of the Script is clear somehow clear
and concise. but not concise.
and concise. No and concise.
script and Clarity Minimum Many No script and
grammatical Some
of Strategic Plan grammatical grammatical strategic plan
errors and grammatical
errors and errors and presented.
misspelled errors and
(20) misspelled misspelled
words. misspelled
words words.
words.
20 15 10 5 0
Activity 2. Word Problems
Objectives:
1. Apply the time dilation, length contraction and relativistic velocity addition to worded
problems.
2. Calculate kinetic energy, rest energy, momentum, and speed of objects moving with speeds
comparable to the speed of light.
3. Calculate radioisotope activity using the concept of half-life.
What you needed: ballpen, a separate sheet of paper, scientific calculator
What to do: Read and analyze the problem given. Show your complete solutions neatly on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. The positive muon (𝜇+), an unstable particle, lives on average 2.20𝑥10−16 𝑠 (measured in its
own frame of reference) before decaying. (a) If such as particle is moving, with respect to
the laboratory, with a speed of 0.900𝑐, what average lifetime is measured in the laboratory?
(b) What average distance, measured in the laboratory, does the particle move before
decaying?
2. A spacecraft of the Trade Federation flies past the planet Coruscant at a speed of 0.600𝑐. A
scientist on Coruscant measures the length of the moving spacecraft to be 74.0 m. The
spacecraft later lands on Coruscant, and the same scientist measures the length of the now
stationary spacecraft. What value does she get?
3. A proton (rest mass 1.67𝑥10−27 kg) has total energy that is 4.00 times its rest energy. What
are (a) the kinetic energy of the proton; (b) the magnitude of the momentum of the proton;
(c) the speed of the proton?

Reflection
Upon hearing these topics: Relativity, Photons, Particles Behaving as Waves, and Nuclear Physics,
how can you connect these terminologies to your life? How do they affect us people in the modern
society? Write your five-sentence answer in a separate sheet of paper.
RUBRICS
5 4 3 2 0
application is application is application is applications are at all.
consistent to the consistent to the concepts but concepts but with
concepts, and concepts, but with one or two more than two
References
Giancoli, D. (2014). Physics Principles with Applications. United States America: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Serway, R. A., Moses, C. J., & Moyer, C. A. (2005). Modern Physics Third Edition. United States of
America: Thomson Learning Academic Resource Center.
Young, H. D., Freedman, R. A., & Ford, A. L. (2012). Sears and Zemansky's Universtiy Physics
with Modern Physics 13th Edition. 1301 Sansome Street, Sanfrancisco, CA, 92111, United
States of America: Pearson Education, Inc.
Answers Key
(c) 𝑣 = 0.968𝑐
(b) 𝑝 = 1.94𝑥10−18 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚/𝑠
3. (a) 𝐾 = 4.50𝑥10−10 𝐽
2. 𝑙0 = 92.5 𝑚
vary. (b) 𝑥 = 1.36 𝑘𝑚
Students’ answers to this activity will 1. (a) ∆𝑡 = 5.05𝑥10−6 𝑠


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COPYRIGHT PAGE FOR UNIFIED LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEETS

First Edition, 2021

Development Team of the Learner’s Activity Sheets

Layout Reviewers: Ric Me D. Diaz

Management Team: Josita B. Carmen, Schools Division Superintendent

ELECTRICAL CHARGES & COULOMB’S LAW

Name: _________________________________________ Section: __________________

1. describe using a diagram charging by rubbing and charging by induction

Fig. 2. Charging by conduction

Fig. 3. Charging by induction

Each charge experiences a force of attraction of magnitude 2.81 N.

The magnitude and direction of the net force are

Fnet  Fnet2 , x  Fnet2 , y

1. Find the net force on q2

C. Calculate the two orthogonal components of F23 and F21

F21,x = F21 cos 90° = (3.46 × 10-14 N) (0) = 0

D. Calculate the net force, F2

  2.16 10 14

 4.08 10 14 N

What you need:

Rubric for Guide Questions 1 and 2

What you need:

Rubric for Guide Questions 1 to 6

What you need:

Column A Column B Column C

Positive The direction of the

What you need:

Christensen, Erik, OpenStax. Electricity Physics, M. Ahmad, 2020

Online Physics Tutorials. “Types of Charging”. Accessed on January 10, 2021.

Physics LibreTextsTM. “5.4: Coulomb's Law”. Accessed on February 2, 2021.

The Physics Classroom. “Coulomb's Law”. Accessed on January 10, 2021.

Tennessee Tech University. “Chapter 1. Electric Charge; Coulomb’s Law”. Accessed on

First Edition, 2021

Development Team of the Learner’s Activity Sheets

Layout Reviewers: Ric Me D. Diaz

Management Team: Josita B. Carmen, Schools Division Superintendent

ELECTRIC FLUX AND GAUSS’S LAW

Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________

1. calculate electric flux (STEM_GP12EMIIIb-12);

Fig.1. Electric Flux

ΦE = (500 V/m) (0.400 m2) cos 40o

Q Q = total charge within the given surface

Activity 1. Solve It: Electric Flux

What you need:

What you need:

2. Find the flux through a spherical Gaussian surface of radius a = 2 m

References for learners:

Christensen, Erik, OpenStax. Electricity Physics, M. Ahmad, 2020

Academic Resource Center Illinois Institute of Technology. “Gauss Law. Accessed on

General Physics 2 – Grade 12 (STEM)

First Edition, 2021

Development Team of the Learners’ Activity Sheets

Writer: Marvin T. Tejano

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

Time Allotment: 4 Hours

• Electric potential energy is the energy stored in a

That equation is justified more on Figure 1. It is

• For a system of several point charges (like that of Fig. 3),

Materials needed: ballpen, and scientific calculator (if necessary)

b. an electric dipole (Fig. 5b):

Name: _______________________ Section:

Name: _______________________ Section:

Name:____________ Section: