3.1.

INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

In the earlier chapters of this book, you have learnt
about the various lifeprocesses such as nutrition, respiration.
transportation, excretion, control and cOordination, that are
essential in order to sustain 1ife. All these life functions are
aimed at keeping the organisms alive and growing. In this
chapter, you will study about reproduction which isofa special
biological process related with the production a new
generation of individuals of the same species. Though, the
reproduction is not an essential process for the survival of
an individual, it is essential for multiplication and
perpetuation of the species.
Reproduction may be defined as the production of
new generation of individuals of the same species
that are physically independent of their parents.
3.1.1. Why do organisms reproduce ?
HOW DO C Reproduction is an energy spending process which is
indivídual
not at all essential to maintain the life of an
ORGANISMS organism. Even then, the organisms reproduce. They
reproduce to increase in number. All the members produced
REPRODUCE from the parents look like parents as well as they look very
much like themselves. Thus, reproduction results in the
Chapter Overview increase of members which look alike. The organisms which
look similar to each other belong to the same species.
3.1. Introduction and Definition Moreover, reproduction provides group immortality by
3.1.1. Why do Organisms Reproduce ? replacing the dead individuals with new ones for the survival
3.1.2. Why do the Organisms of the species on this earth.
Belonging to Same Species Look 3.1.2. Why do the organisms belonging to same
Similar to Each Other ?
species look similar to each other ?
3.1.3. The Importance of Variation
3.2. Types of Reproduction oos The reproducing organisms create new individuals
3.2..1. Asexual Reproduction2 which are similar to each other and look exactly similar to
3.2.1.1. Fission ast their parents. Do you know why ?They look similar because
3.2.1.2. Fragmentation oe their body designs are similar. To produce similar body
a designs, they produce similar blue prints. This is possible
3.2.1.3. Regenerationonly when a mechanism of production of similar copies of
3.2.1.4. Budding osnle blue print is involved in the process of reproduction. That is
3.2.1.5. Spore Formation true, the reproduction involves a mechanism, called DNA
3.2.1.6. Vegetative Propagation in copying or DNA replication which is capable of producing
Plants
similar multiples of blue prints. We have learnt in class IX
3.2.1.7. Propagation by Plant Tissue that nucleus contains chromosomes which carry information
Culture
for inheritance of features from parent to the next generation
3.2.2. Sexual Reproduction in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
3.3. Sexual Reproduction in Plants DNAcopying is an essential phenomenon of reproduction
3.3.1. The Parts of a Flowerthrough which the organisms pass on their body features to
3.3.2. Pollination
their offsprings. Similar copies of DNA molecules carry
3.3.3. Fertilízation in Plants similar molecular composition and, in other words, similar
Formative Assessment Exercise 3(a) genes for production of similar features. The molecule of
DNA in the cell nucleus possesses informations in the form
Contd.. of genes to synthesize specific kind of proteins. If this
189
 Pradeep's SCIENCE BIOLOGY
190
consequently the production
informationis changed, of the.
Overview contd..n.
3.4. Reproduction in Human Beings kind of proteins will also be changed. The
proteins
act
enzymesto carry out specificfunctions. Thus. a change in theas
3.4.1. Primary and Secondary Sex structure of DNA may cause achange in the information that
lead to change in the kind of protein
Organs ultimately
3.4.2. Primary and Secondary sexual this DNA sequence. Change in the structure of protein may
of
formed frOm
the formation of a different kind enzyme
Characters
What is Puberty ?
result
to the
in
production of a different kind of feature. thatleads
We have learnt from the above paragraph that
3.4.3. Male Reproductive System of a DNA copy is the basic eventinthe process of Creation
3.4.4. Female Reproductive System
3.4.5. Sexual Cycle in Females
Cells usually employ chemicals to build copies of their
This process results in the production of two similar
ireproductDNA.ion.
3.4.6. Fertilization DNA in a reproducing cell. The two copies of the copies
of
3.4.7. Post-fertilization Changes molecule, which are similar with each other, Come to two DNA
3.5. Population Control daughter cells. Therefore, DNA copying is small
3.6. Reproductive Health and accompanied by the creation of another cellular always
Sexually Transmitted Diseases Finally, the DNA copies are separated into two similar
each with its own cellular apparatus. Finally, a cell dividee
apparatus.
3.7. Child Bearing and
Women's Health give rise to two daughter cells.
These two daughter cells, thus formed, are exactly similar
Formative Assessment Exercise 3(b) with each other due to their similar genetic make up. Then:
NCERT Text Book Activities With are, however, chances that they may not be exactly similar
Discussion and Conclusion They may be identical or may be slightly
NCERT Text Book Questions and other. It all depends on how accurately thedifferent with each
process of DNA
Exercises with Answers copying has occurred. In fact, no biochemical reaction is
NCERT Exemplar Problems with absolutely reliable. Therefore,,iit is always expected that
Answers, Hints and Solutions of copying of DNA is not truely identical each time. process
It may
Summative Assessment Exercise cause a slight difference during each DNA copying. As aresult.
the two copies of DNA may be similar, but not
Higher Order Thinking Skills original.
Some of these copies of DNA may possessidentical to the
Questions with Answers such drastic
Summative Assessment Mock Test3 variation from the original that their survival becomes
Such individuals having distinct variations difficult.
s fail to survive and
simply die. On the other hand, some variations in the DNA
inse abot copies may create such individuals
ooabo o o a slight variation in its feature. Thiswhich can survive but with
nolo may lead to the evolution of species,variation in DNA copying
as has been discussed in
Delovatot the next chapter.
lli Ar3.1.3. The Importance of Variation
We all know that a particular kind of
in a particular kind of habitat vegetation groWS
or a particular niche. For
example, xerophytes have specific adaptations and survive in
a particular kind of ecological niche
know that the ecological niches keep on(i.e.. desert). We also
Usually the DNA copying, which is an changing with time.
essential feature of
reproduction, remains consistant
This helps the offsprings to adaptgenerations after generatonS
the particular kind of nicne
in the ecosystem. Both niches and the
organisms inhabiting in them are in perfectpopulations of the
hormony so ui
they continue to survive as long as both remain
unchangeu
Thus, stability of populations of species in particular niches
are maintained by the process of
reproduction.
 IOW DO
ORGANISMS REPRODUCE 191
However, there are chances that niches can change due to reasons beyondthe control of the organismns.
The changes may be in the form of increased tenperature on carth, varying water levels, meteorite hits, or
any other ecological disbalances. Under such conditions any alteration in the particular kind of niche is
surely going to hit the consistant population. The population of species may be wiped out due to sudden
alteration of niche. However, a few individuals of the population of a species may survive the changed
niches which have undergone variation in their features due to variations in DNA copying mechanism. As
stated earlier, the biochemical reactions, undergoing inside the body cells, are not always absolutely reliable.
There are chances of changes in DNA copying resulting in the production of such organisms which are
suited in the
changed niches. If a such inheritable changes
which help them to survive under population of reproducing organisms achieves
the organism has not changed and changed niches then the organisms have chances to survive. In case, if
the niche has altered drastically then the organism 1s Sürey
wiped ouL. ror example, if a population of bacteria is growing in temperate water and has developed na
environmental hormony. Suppose the temperature of water is somehow increased due to global Warmns
then the bacteria willdefinitely die. However, only those will survive which have developed
heat. Variations are thus useful for the resistance to
survival of species over time.
3.2. TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
All the reproductive methods of living organisms are broadly categorised into two types : 1.
Asexual
reproduction and 2. Sexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction, the new individuals are produced Dy
any means other than the fusion of sex gametes, The sexual reproduction, on the other hand,
fusion of two sex 1nvoves
gametes, one arising from male sex and the other from female sex.
3.2.1. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves the participation of single individual parent and occurs without the
formation of sex organs or gametes. Thus,
Asexualreproduction may be defined as the production of offsprings by a single parent without
meiosis, formation of gametes, fertilisation and transfer of genetic materials between individuals.
This method is a common means of rapidly increasing offsprings under favourable conditions and
occurs as a result of repeated mitotic divisions in certain body cells. Asexual reproduction mostly occurs in
unicellular organisms (like bacteria, protozoans, etc.), some plants (like algae, fungi, bryophytes, etc.) and
certain multicellular animals (like sponges and Hydra). In this method of reproduction, the young one
receives all its genes from one parent. Asexual reproduction occurs in the following ways :
1. Fission, 2. Fragmentation, 3. Regeneration, 4. Budding, 5. Spore formation,
6. Vegetative propagation in plants, 7. Propagation by tissue culture.
3.2.1.1. Fission : Fission is the common method of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms,
such as bacteria, yeasts, diatoms, mycoplasmas and protozoans (e.g., Amoeba, Paramecium, etc.). It involves
the splitting of a parent cellinto two or more than two separate daughter cells. Thus,
Fission may be defined as the splitting of a unicellular organism into two or more than two
separate daughter cells.
Asexual reproduction by fission may further be divided into two types : (a) binary fission and
(6) multiple fission.
(a) Binary fission (Fig. 3.1 and 3.2). This is the division of parent cell into two small, nearly equal
sized identical daughter cells. The two daughter cells then grow into adult organisms. So, fission of single
parent cellresults in the formation of two new unicellular organisms. Hence, it is called binary fission
(binary =two). Fission usually occurs in unicellular organisms, such a_ Amoeb (Fig. 3.1), Paramecium
(Fig. 3.2) and Leishmania (which causes kala-azar). In these organisms, binary fission occurs in adefinite
orientation. The cells of Leishmanja have a whip-like structure at one end of the cell. During the binary
fission the nuclear divisto is followed by the appearance of aconstriction in the cell membrane. The
 Pradeep's SCIENCE: BIOLOGY
192

FGURE 3.1.Asexual reproduction by binary fission in Amoeba

FIGURE 3.2. Asexual reproduction by binary

fission in Paramecium
membrane then grows transversely inwards (i.e.,
Separates the cytoplasm into two equal parts, eachcentripetally)
with
from near the middle of dividing cell
which
from each other and behave as one nucleus. The two daughter cells
two may separate
(b) Multiple fission (Fig. 3.3). independent organisms.
daughter individuals. During multipleThisfission,
is the division of parent cell
the
into several small, nearly equal sized
daughter nuclei. Then the daughter nuclei get nucleus of parent cell divides several times into many
cytoplasmdivides into as many pieces as the numberarranged along the periphery of the parent cell. Later, the
membrane. Finally, the parent cell divides into severalof nuclei. Each uninucleate piece develops an outer
uninucleate daughter individuals which behave
independent organisms. This type of fission occurs in malarial as
daughter cells are produced from one parent cell, parasitePla[mod' y m, in which about 1000
each capable of invading a
TABLE 3.1. Differences between Binary redblood cell.g
Fission and Multiple Fission
Binary Fission
1. It results in the production of two Multiple Fission
individuals. 1, It results in the production of
2. It occurs under favourable
conditions. several individuals.
2. It occurs both under fay
ourable and unfavourable
3. Nucleus of the parent cell divides only once to conditions
3. Nucleus of the parent cell
form two nuclei.
to form a number of undergoes repeated divisiOns
4. Cytoplasm divides after nuclear division. daughter nuclei.
4. Cytoplasm does not divide after each
nuclear division.
5. No part of parent body is left unused. 5, Apart of the body (covering and
residual
left unused. cytoplasm) 1s
 HOW DO 193
ORGANISMS REPRODUCE
Cell
Daughter Cells

Nucleus
Cytoplasm

Wall of
B cyst broken
C

FIGURE 3.3. Reproduction by multiple fission

3.2.1.2. Fragmentation : Some multicellular organisms have simple body organisation. These organisis
are comprised of a random collection of cells without differentiation of specialised tissues and organs. suen
organisms reproduce by breaking of their bodies into small pieces. Each of these picces is called afragment.
These fragments grow into new individuals and the mode of reproduction is called fragmentation. For example,
the green filamentous alga-Spirogyra has a multicelular body with similar celkls. Each çell of Spirayyra may
divide and growth of the filament occurs simply by cell division, The filamentof Spirogyràmay break into small
fragments (pieces) and each fragment may grow into a new plant.
Fragmentation is the method of reproduction in many filamentous algae, mycelial fungi and thalloid
bryophytes. However, there are many other multicellular organisms which possess different cell types in
their complex bodies to perform different specialised functions. The reproduction in such organisms 1s
carried by specific cells of the body.
3.2.1.3. Regeneration : In certain organisms (e.g., planarians), new individuals can be regenerated
from small body fragments. This method is applied by certain organisms for asexual reproduction and
multiplication.
Regeneration may be defined as the ability of an organism to regenerate its lost parts of the
body which have been removed, as by injury or autotomy (self-amputation of body parts,
e.g., some lizards can break off part of the tail).
Regeneration is common in lower plants (e.g., Algae, fungi, etc) and animals (Hydra, Planaria and
Sponges). A mature filament of Spirogyra (an alga) or hypha of Mucor (a fungi) breaks into two or more
pieces and each piece grows into a aew indiidual. This method of reproduction in plants is called
fragmentation. Similarly, if the body of Hydrgis cut into small pieces, even a fragment measuring 1/6 mm
can regenerate into an entire individuat. Regeneration in Planaria is shown in figure 3.4.
3.2.1.4. Budding : Formation of a daughter individual from a small projection, the bud, arising on
the parent body is called budding. Thus,
Budding may be defined as the production of new individual from an outgrowth of the
parent individual.
Budding occurs in yeast, some protozoans and certain lower animals (e.g.. Hydra, Scypha, Syllis,
Salpa, etc.) In multicellular organisms, such as Hydra (Fig. 3.5), a bulging on the body appears as a result
of repeated mitoticdivisions in the cells. It results in the formation of a lateral outgrowth, called bud. The
bud enlarges in size by further divisions of the cells and attains the shape of parent to which it is attached.
Finally, it separates from the parent body and starts behaving as new Hydra.
 Pradeep's SCIENCE:
194 BIOLOGY (X

FIGURE 3.4. Regeneration in Planaria

Tentacles

Body -Developing New Hydra

Bud New H y d r a h
Parent Hydra separated
from parent
B C
FIGURE 3.5. Hydra reproducing asexually by budding
Budding is the most common method of asexual reproduction in budding yeast (a
Saccharomyces)that takes place under favourable conditions (i.e.,when it grows in sugar solution).fungus
During
:
this process a small bud-like outgrowth appears at one end of the parent cell which gradually
size (Fig, 3.6). The nucleus enlarges and divides into two daughter nuclei. One daughter nucleusenlarges
goes imto
the bud and the other remains in the parent cell. Gradually the bud becomes almost of the same size as he
 nrds Romal

HOW DO 195
ORGANISMS REPRODUCE
Daughter
Buds
Developing Bud

Nucleus

Mother Cell E
Vacuole B C D

FIGURE 3.6. Budding in yeast

parenttcell. Then a constriction appears at the base of bud and a separating wall is laid down. Sometimes a
bud may produce another bud over it which is still attached to parent cell forming a false myceitumo
pseudomycelium.
3.2.1.5. Spore formation : Spores are usually produced in sporangia (sing. sporangium). ne ou
flagellated and non-motile (those which can not swim) spores are called aplanospores. The tlageilated au
motile spores are called zoospores. Thus, Spores
Sporangium
A spore is a single or several celled
reproductive structure that detaches
from the parent and gives rise, directly
or indirectly, to a new individual. Columella
Reproduction by the formation of spores
is a common method of asexual reproduction
in some bacteria and most of the fungi. Duringii )
the formation of spores (aplanospores or
zoospores) the-fungal hypha develops an
Sporangiophore
enlarged sporangium. The nucleus of
developing sporangiamdivides several times.
Each nucleus, within the developing
sporangium, gets surrounded by a bit of Stolon

cytoplasm and develops into a spore (Fig. 3.7).

The spores mature inside the sporangium. They
are liberated by rupturing of sporangial walls
and dispersed to grow on new substratum. Each
Rhizoidal Hyphae
spore grows into a new hypha after germinating
in new habitat, ground or substratum. FIGURE 3.7. Formation of sporangia
Examples, Rhizopus, Mucor, Aspergillus, and spores in a fungus (Rhizopus),
Penicillium, etc.
3.2.1.6. Vegetative Propagation in Plants : Vegetative propagation in plants is a method of asexual
reproduction in which the parts other than seeds are used as propagules (i.e., the structural unit that is
employed in place of seed). In fact, it is a method of propagation in those plants which have lost their
capacity to produce seeds or produce non-viable seeds (e.g., Banana, seedless Grapes, Rose, Pineapple,
etc.) Among flowering plants,every part of the body, such as root, stem, leaf or bud takes part in vegetative
propagation.
 Pradeep's SCIENCE:
196 in plants are :
BIOLOGY ()
Some most common natural methods of Ivegetative propagation in soil (e.g.
(0 Modified tuberous oots.can be propagatedvegetatively when planted Sweet potato).
Guava).
(iD The buds present on the roots can growinto leafyshoots(e.g.,
Eichhornia or water
(i) Underground modified stems such as rhizomes (e.g.. Ginger,
Corms (eg, Colocasia, Banana, ete ). bulbs (e.g.. Garlic, Onion, etc.), etc. hyacinth, etc,),
(iv) Some plants develop adventitious buds on their leaves which develop into new
Bryophvllum). (Pig. 3.8) plants (e.g

FIGURE 3.8. ABryophyllum leaf showing adventitious buds.

Artificial methods of vegetative
Horticulturists for commercial productionpropagation are man-made and developed by plant growers and
of crops. Some common artificial
) Cutting metnods.
are e
() Layering
(iüi) Grafting.
() Cutting. The small piece of any plant
cutting. Stem cuttings are most commonly employed organ (stem, root or leaf) used for propagation is called
grape. phalsa, rose, sugar cane, etc. In this method, for propagation of many horticultural plants such as
natural position in the wet soil. It gives off roots from about
the
20-30 cm long pieces of stem are planted in
Acutting develops a new plant, similar to the lower end and shoot buds from the aerial nodes.
parent plant. otsuloot a o bo
(ü) Layering (Fig. 3.9). In layering, the
are detached from the parent plant for roots are artificially induced on the stem branches before they
layering and (b) Air layering propagation. Layering is done by two common methods: (a)
Mound

Branch
Branch

Tongueing -Stem Ringing Stem

Notching
Soil
Sol

Roots
Roots

FIGURE3.9. A-B Vegetative propagation by layering

 1Rot

HOW DO ORGANISMS
(ii) REPRODUCE
Grafting (Fig. 3.10).
197
Graftingis a method in which
partsa
two plants are joined in such
waythat they grow as one plant.
Graftingis done between the two
closely related dicotyledonous plants
havingvascular cambia. The rooted
Graft
plantin which grafting is performed
iscalledthe stock. The portion of Sofon
other plant (bud, branch, etc.) that Stock
is grafted on to the stock is called A
scion. During grafting, about 4-12
inches long scion, with all the buds
intact, is placed on the cut end of
the stock and tied in such a way that
ihe cambium of the two come in
pontact with each other. The joint is
. C D

covered with a layer of wax or clay FIGURE 3.10. Different stages in grafting
toDrevent the evaporation of water
or entry of pathogen. All the buds
of stock must be removed.
TABLE 3.2. Differences between Scion and Stock.
Scion Stock

1. tis the upper part of the composite grafted plant. 1. It is the basal part on which grafting is done.
2. It has a shoot system with desired traits. 2. It has an extensive and strong root system.
3. It generally is taken from local variety of plant
3. Itgenerally is taken from high yielding exotic variety conditions.
of plant. which is suitable for growth under local
water
4. Scion provides high and better quality yield of 4. Scion provides good anchorage, and adequate
flowers and fruits. and minerals to composite plant.
system. A very young
Generally, the stock belongs to a wild variety which possesses an efficient root
stock can support many scions
scion can be made to flower if grafted on a mature stock. Similarly, single support the grafting of sweet
citrus can
belonging to different varieties. For example, a mature stock of
grange, lemon, limne and grape fruit.
3.2.1.7. Propagation by Plant Tissue Culture : This method includes propagation of plants by culturing
cells, tissues and organs. In this method, the plant cells or tissues are cultured on a sterilized (free from
the hormones. A proper medium is important in
microorganisms) medium containing necessary nutrients and results in the formation of an undifferentiated
culture technique. The culturing of cells or tissues
plant tissue cellular mass, which is then transferred to another
mass of cells, called callus, Callus is a fast growing
medium for differentiation of plantlets. The plantlets are then transplanted to separate pots or nursery beds
mature plants are then transplanted in the fields. This
and allowed to grow for a definite period of time. The important plants, such as Orchids, Dahlia,
technique is employed for quick multiplication of commercially
Gladiolus, Chrysanthemum, Carnation, etc. reproduction.
types of asexual
Figure 3.11 shows a summarised account of the different
3.2.2. Sexual Reproduction
individuals) by
Sexual reproduction may be defined as the production of offsprings (new female parent)
and the other from
the fusion of two gametes (usually one from male parentorganism,
to form a diploid zygote which develops intoa
mature
 Pradeep's sCIENCE:1 BIOLOGY (
198
Binary
Fission
Zoospores
Multiple
Aplano Fission
spores Spore Fission
Formation

Fragmentation

Tissue
Culture ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION Budding

Vegetative
Propagation Regeneration

FIGURE 3.11. A summarised account of the different modes of

asexual reproduction
The act of fusion of gametes is called fertilisation, which may be defined as "fusion of two gametes
to form a single cell
(zygote)."d
As stated earlier, the sexual mode of reproduction involves two individuals - one acting as male and
the other acting as female. Sometimes, the individual is one but the sex
organs are separate (as in many
plants) which produce different gametes. In any case, the two gametes, belonging to different sex, fuse with
Cacn other to form a zygote leading to the development of a new generation. In most of the cases, formation
of gametes involves meiosis so that the chromosome number
becomes half in
organism is diploid, i.e., the somatic cells of the organism have 2n number of gametes. For example, if an
gamete formation results in the production of haploid (n) gametes. chromosomes, the meiosis in
nuciei of gametes. The two nuclei (belonging to two gametes) each Fertilisation
having
brings about fusion of
single
(haploid), fuse to form zygote having a double set of chromosomes, i.e.,, diploid (oneset of chromosomes
other set maternal). The zygote develops into an adult body of the set paternal and the
In majority of animals, including human beings, male and organism.t bo bit ool
individual may be either male or female. Such organisms are calledfemale individuals are separate, ie., an
in one individual. Some plants are also unisexual, i.e., they have only one sex
unisexual e.g., Papaya, Cucurbits, etc. But majority of flowering
plants and afew animals (like tapeworm, earthworm, garden snail,
hermaphrodite, i.e., each individual has both male and female sex organs.star fish, etc.) are bisexual or
Higher animals possess gonads, the
(reduction) division. The testis, which areprimary sex organs. The gonads produce haploid gametes by meiotic
male gonads,produce sperms after meiosis
ocytes. The ovaries (sing. ovary), which are female gonads, produce in primary spermat
o0cytes. Meiosis is an essential feature of sexual life cycle which provideseggs or ova after meiosis in primary
mosomes by half. This ensures production of diploid number of mechanism for reducing the chro
External and Internal Fertilisation. In certain aquatic chromosomes in zygote, when the gametes fuse.
gametes are shed outside the body and fertilisation takes placeanimals (such as fishes and amphibians), the
outside. It is called external fertilisation. In
terrestrial animals, fertilisation is internal. In case of reptiles, birds and mammals, including
the male gametes are inserted into the female's reproductive tract where human beings,
of male gametes from testis into the female reproductive tract occurs at the fertilisation takes place. Transfer
time of mating or copulation.
The organs involyed in the process of mating are called copulatory organs or accessory sex
organs.
 Rot

HOW DO ORGANISMS
TABLE 3.3. REPRODUCE
Differences
199

between External Fertilization and Internal Fertilization

External Fertilization Internal Fertilization
outside the body of
1. t occurs the female organism. organisn.
Both male and the female I. toccurs inside the body of the female
2.
outside their body. discharge their gametes Z. Male discharges the garnetes into the reproductive
gametes
tract of the female. The female releases the
method of inside its reproductive tract.
3. It is not a sure fertilization. 3. It is a sure method of fertilization.
4. Embryo develops unprotected, outside the body of outside
the female. 4. Embryo is well protected but may develop
or inside the body of the female.
Advantagesof sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction, Sexual reproduction has several
advantages over asexual eproduction because it involves : (0) Fusion of male and female gametes coming
from male and female organisms. Since the fusing gametes come from two different and sexually distinct
individuals, the offsprings exhibit diversity of characters, and (ii) Meiosis during gametogenesis provides
opportunities for new combination of genes. It plays a prominent role in the origin of new species and
leads to variation required for evolution.
Gamete formation, inside the gonades of diploid organis1ms, involves meiosis or reduction diviston.
Thegamete mother cell is diploid (2n), i.e., it has two sets of chromosomes. This single diploid cell aivies
h ntetosts to fom 4 haploid daughter cells. Each daughter cell becomes agamete, either male or female.
Each gamete possesses single set of chromosomes. That means this division involves copying of the DNA
as well as the cellular apparatus.There is a stage in such nuclear division where crossing over of chromosomes
takes place. This is very important step which results a slight different composition of chromosomes 1n
gametes. Fusion of these gametes results in the formation of a slightly different individuals which show
variations. The variations which lead to the appearance of such characters which fit to the changing
environment result in the survival of the species. Chances of variation. therefore, are much more in sexual
compatible
mode of reprocuction as compared to asexual reproduction. Moreover, chances of the production of
Generations are also more in sexual reproducuion.oluelasob
The variation generated due to DNA First 2n =4
2n = 4 2n =4
copying during gamete formation moves on to 2n =4
Generation
the next generation. This happens by the
No Meiosis
process of combination of DNA belonging to No Meiosis
two different individuals. Again a new variation
appears during DNA copying at the time of 2n (2n
gamete formation in this generation that has Gamete Gamete Gamete
already variations accumulated from previous
generations. Thus, two different individuals in 4n =8 Second 4n =8
a population would have distinct patterns of
Generation

accumulated variations. Since all the different No Meiosis

No Meiosis
variations occur in living organismns, it is
assumed that these do not have any bad effects. 4n
Combining the distinct variations from two or (4n
Gamete
more indíviduals during sexual reproduction Gamete

would thus create new combinations of

varients.
As stated above, the meiosis plays very
important role in the life cycle of an organism.
sexual
each
We are now aware of the fact that (8n=16
fusion results in the combination of DNA copies
from two individuals doubling the DNA content
each
Third Generation
mneiosis,
In the nex generation. If there is no twice the
new generation will result in havinggeneration had, DNA coptent will continue to increase
amount of DNA that the previous by doubling in each sexual fusion.
 Pradeep's sCIENCE : BIOLOGY (O
200
If this process continues for few generations, First 2n = 4
Very soon a situation will arise when the 2n 4 2n =4) Generation 2n =4)
amount of DNA will not be accomodated
inside the cell and there will be no other Meiosis
cellular contents except DNA, Furthermore,
Meiosis Meiosis
Meiosis
atime will comc when there will be only DNA n
on carth and there will be no room for
anything else. This situation is explained
diagrammatically : 2n 4 Second 2n =4
To avoid the situation shown above, Generation
Nature has solved the problem by creating a
special kind of cell division during the Meiosisies Meiosis
formation of gametes, This cell division is
called meiosis or reduction division. During
meiosis, the chromosome number or DNA
content of parents becomes half in their
gametes. Again the number becomes same
in the next generation when the two gametes
carrying half chromosome number fuse with 2n =4)
cach other. This is explained diagrammati
cally : Third Generation
3.3. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
In flowering plants, all the steps of sexual reproduction occur within specialised reproductive organs,
called the flowers. Thus, a flower may be defined as a specialized condensed reproductive shoot of
towering
3.3.1.
plants on which are inserted the essential reproductive parts.aue
The parts of a lower (Fig. 3.12)
A typical angiospermous flower consists of four whorls of floral appendages attached on the
The receptacle is the top of the flower stalk (pedicel). The four whorls of floral appendages are:receptacle.
1. Calyx or sepals
2. Corolla or petals
13Androecium or stamen
3Gypoecium (Pistil) or carpels

Petal
(Corolla)

Carpel Stigma
Style Anther Stamen
(Gynoecium) Ovary Filament (Androecium)

Sepal (Calyx)
Thalamus
FIGURE 3.12. A typical flower showing floral parts
 DO ORGANISMS
HOW
Calyx. It is the
REPRODUCE greenin colour
201

1. in outermost whorl of floral leaves, called sepals. generally

protective function. Occasionally they are brightly Sepals are
and
2. Corolla. It is the collection of
petals.
coloured. brightly colouredto
insect Petals
pollinators, Calyx and Corolla are are generallyparts showy and
large,of the flower because they are not
attractthe
directlyinvolved in reproduction, non-essential Each
Androecium. It 1S the collection of stamens, the male reproductive organs of the flower.
consists of Usually
stamen anther and filanment. The filament is a long bears an anther at thetop.inside the
anthers are bilobed and contain four pollen sacs stalk that grains are made(reduction
(microsporangia). The pollen
pollensacs. Pollen grains are haploid microspores formed inside the pollen sacs by
meiosis
becomes
division)is diploid microspore mother cells.
Initially, each uninucleate, but soon it
nucleate. The two male nuclei along with a little microspore is
two gametes. Thus, each,
2-3
pollen grain produces two male gametes, when germinates cytoplasm differentiate
to produce
into
pollen tube.
organs of the
4. Gynoecium (or Pistil). It is the collection of carpels, the female reproductiveonly one carpel,
flower. Each carpel has a swollen ovary, long style and a terminal stigma. If aflower has or fused. The
called monocarpellary. Generally, the flowers have more than one carpels, either free
itis receives pollen
fusedcarpels form a single unit consisting of a common ovary, style and stigma. The stigma to receive
a suitable position basal-part
grains during pollination and support their growth. The style bears stigma inswollen
pollen and also provides passage for the entry of pollen tube. The ovary is the and hollow
that contains ovules. Each ovule has an embryosac that bears a haploid egg-t -the female gamete.
embryosac, which
In plants, the fusion of male gamete and female gamete (egg) takes place inside thethe stigma of same
transferred to
is locatedinside the ovule. Fusion occurs only when the pollen grains are
or another flower.
3.3.2. Pollination
The transfer of pollen grains from the opened anther of the stamen to the receptive sugna
of the carpel is called pollination.
Pollination is an important mechanismn by which the pollen grains, produced inside the pollen sacs of
reproductive organ. It is an essential
anthers, are transported by various agencies to the stigma of female male gametes from drying
process that facilitates successful fertilisation in plants. The pollen grains protect
wind, water, insects, birds, bats and
out. The common agents responsible for successful pollination are
many other living organisms.
Types of pollination. Pollination is of two types :
1. Self pollination
2. Cross pollination
of pollen grains from the anther of a flower
1. Self Pollination. Self pollination involves the transferflower borne on the same plant.
to the stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of another
pollen grains from the flower of one
2. Cross Pollination. Cross pollination involves the transfer of
plant to the stigma of the flower of another plant of the same species.
Pollination
TABLE 3.4. Differences between Self Pollination and Cross
Cross Pollination
Self Pollination

1. It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the 1. It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of
one flower to the stigma of another flower.
stigma of the same flower.
2. It requires an external agency for the transfer of
2. It does not require an external agency for the transfer pollen grains from one flower to another.
of pollen grains. 3. Such flowers produce large number of pollen grains.
3. Such bisexual flowers produce small number of
pollen grains.
4. It does not bring variations. 4. It brings about large number of variations.
202 Pradeep's sCIENCE:BIOLOGY (K)
333 Fertiliation in Plants (Fig. 313) Pollen Grains

Pollination results in the deposition of

related pollen grains Over the receptive stigma Stigma
of the capel. They absorb water, swell and
then gernminate to produce pollen tubes. One Style
pollen tube grows into the stigma, passes
through the style and then moves towards the Pollen Tube
ovanan cavity. Two non-motile male gametes
are formed inside the tube during its growth
through the style. After reaching the ovary,
pollen tube enters the ovule through the
micropyle. The tip of the tube finally pierces
Ovary
the egg apparatus end of the embryosac. After
penetration, the tip of pollen tube ruptures
releasing two male gametes into the
embryosac. The mature embryosac consists Embryo Sac Polar Nuclei
of an egg apparatus (one haploid egg and twoa
synergids), two polar nuclei and three Male Gamete - -Eg9
antipodal cells.
-Male Gamete
During the act of fertilization, one male
gamete fuses with the egg to fom the diploids aie
Zygote.The preeess is called syngamy (or aoll
generative fertilisation). The iploid zygote Micropyle
finally develops into embryo. The other male
gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei to form
the triploid (3N) primary endosperm nucleus. FIGURE 3.13. Fertilization in a flowering plant
The process is called triple fusion (or
vegetative fertilisation). This mechanism involving two acts of fertilisation in an embryosac is called double
fertilisation. After fertilisation, zygote develops into embryo, ovkte develops intoseed and the ovay develops
into the fruit.
A summarised account of sexual reproduction in plants is diagrammatically represented in Figure
3.14.

On 1. Reproduction is the production of new generation of individuals of the same species that
Your are physically independent of their parents.
2. Reproduction is an essential biological process for
Tips of the species. multiplication, perpetuation and continuity
3. All the reproductive methods are grouped under two broad categories : () Asexual
reproduction and (i) Sexual reproduction.
4. Asexual reproduction is the production of offsprings by a
single parent without meiosis,
formation of gametes, fertilisation and transfer of genetic materials between individuals.
5. The common methods of asexual
reproduction are :
) Fission, (i) Budding, (i) Spore
s ( ) Micropropagation in vitro and formation, (iv) Regeneration, () Vegetative propagation
(vii) Parthenogenesis.
6. Sexual reproduction is the production of new individuals by the
e(usuallyone male and the other female) following the act of fusion and fusion of two gametes
formation of zygote.
7. Fertilisation is the fusion of two gametes to form a
single cell (zygote).
 Roman
A

HOWD0 ORGANISMS
REPRODUCE 203

oVULE
Megasporogenesis
Melosis
ANTHER Functional Megaspore
Sporogenous Tissue
Spore mother cells Embryo Sac

Meiosis Pollen
Germination
Pollen Grain

Polination

Embryo Sac

Double fertilization leads

to the formation of
Fertilization leads to the triploid nucleus
formation of diploid zygote
Ovary Ovule Zygote Endosperm

Fruit Seed Embryo

FIGURE 3.14. Asummarised account of sexual reproduction in flowering

plants is diagrammatically represented

On
8. Reproductive parts of the angiospermous plants are found in the flowers. Aflower is a
Your specialized condensed reproductive shoot of flowering plants on which are inserted the
essential reproductive parts.
Tips 9. Atypical angiospermous flower consists of :() Calyx (whorl of sepals), (i) Corolla (whorl
of petals), (ii) Androecium (whorl of stamens), and (iv) Gynoecium (whorl of carpels).
10. Anthers produce pollen grains containing male gamete. Pollen grains are transfered from
anther to the stigma of the same or the other flower by the process of pollination.
11. Pollen grain germinates to produce pollen tube which acts as carrier of male gamete upto
the egg.
12. Finally male gamete fuses with the egg to form zygote. This process occurs inside the
embryosac and called syngamy. The second gamete fuses with the polar nuclei. This is
called double fertilisation.
13, After fertilisation, zygote develops embryo, ovules develop seeds and ovary grows to develop
fruit.