Scan 08 Oct 2022
Scan 08 Oct 2022
Scan 08 Oct 2022
Significance of variation
in the ecosystem, using their
fill well-defined places, or niches,
Population ofseveral organisms
to
of DNA copying during reproduction
is important for the maintenan
reproduce. The consistency
to use niche. Iherefore, reproduction is linked to the
that particular stahit
design that allows the organism
of populations of species.
in the earth's temperahse
be changes in organisms such as rise or fall
the niches or ure,
Sometimes, there can
organisms were suited tto a
meteorite hits etc. If a population of reproducing
changes in water levels or the population could be wiped out. However
were drastically altered,
particular niche and if the niche these populations, there would be some chance for
some variations have
occurred in a few individuals in
were a population of
bacteria living in temperate waters, and if the
them to survive. For instance, if there
due to global warming, most of these bacteria would die, but the few
temperature of water increases here are thus useful for the survival of
and grow further. Variations
variants resistant to heat would survive
species over time.
MODES OF REPRODUCTION
1. Aseu Reproduction
mitotic divisions and
In this mode of reproduction, certain body cells of the organism undergo repeated
created from
form two or moresimilar individuals. In asexual modes of reproduction, new generations are
a single parent. It takes place in
unicellular organisms, some plants, and some multicellular animals like
invertebrates and all the vertebrates. The parent individual
sponges and Hydra. t is absent in the higher
splits,buds or to form identical daughter cells or individuals.
fragments
Asexual reproduction occurs by various ways
aBinary Fission: It is the division of the body of an individual into two equal halves, each of which
functions as an independent daughter individual. Many bacteria and protozoa split into two halves
through binary fission. Depending upon the plane of division, binary fission is of the following types
() Simple Binary Fission (Irregular Binary Fission) Division can occur through any plane,
ie., the plane of division can pass through any axis, e.g., Amoeba.
the body of an organism ir el-i) |
Fraamentation: It is the proOcess or breaking up of two or
(R called fegments, each of which grows into a new individual. Fragmentation is quite commonmore
in simpl
parts
part
Such as algae, fungi and bryophytes.
muitcellular organisms
filamentous alga, Spiroqura
commonly observed in green
e.g, Fragmentation is
Cell-wall
Chloroplast
Pyrenoids
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
--
Fig. 5: Regeneration in Planaria
Regeneration Reproduction
1. This process occurs by asexual method only. 1. This process occurs by asexual and sexual
method.
2. The organisms are being cut or broken and 2. The individuals give rise to young ones of their own
each of the broken or being cut part grows kind.
into a separate new individual.
3. It is seen in simple organisms like Planaria, 3. It is seen in complex organisms like plants,
Hydra, etc humans, hens, dogs, etc.
() BuddingFew multicellular animals (e.g, Hydra) produce small buds, which gradually grows
lbmately acquiring the characteristic form of the parent organism. Organisms such as Hydra use
egeneratve cels for reproduction in the process of budding. In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth
due to repeated cell division at one specific site. Then, this bud grows into a tiny individual and when
fully mature, it detaches from the parent body and becomes an independent
individual.]
Tentacles
Bud
New bud
Developing Chain
of
Yeast bud buds
b d
Spere Formation (Sporulation) : Spore formation is a common form of asexual reproduction, which
occurs widely in Monera, Protista, Algae and Fungi.
body.
Spores are minute, single-celled, thin or thick-walled propagules,released from the parent
environmental
Generally, spOres are dispersive in nature and are able to withstand unfavourable
conditions such as dryness, extreme heat or cold.
During spore formation in fungi, a structure called sporangium develops from the fungal hypha.
that can eventually
Sporangium is a tiny blob-on-a stick like structure, which contan cells, or spores,
nucleus divides several times and each
develop into new individuals. Within the sporangium, the
nucleus, with a bit of cytoplasm, develops into a spore. Spores are covered by thick walls that protect
are liberated and
them until they comeinto contact with moist surface and begin to grow. The spores
they develop into new fungal hypha after reaching the ground or substratum. Example Rhizopus (bread
-
mould), Mucor
Note: Spores are means of perennation and not true form of reproduction.
Spores
Sporangium
Hyphae
A
Fig. 8: Spore formation in Rhizopus
(F) Vegetative Propagation (in Plants): Anumber of perennial plants propagate vegetativelyin nature. In
these methods, vegetative propagules (somatic parts) of the plant develop into new plants under suitable
conditions. Vegetative propagation is of two types - Natural and Artificial.
i2 How do
Organisms
Reproduce?
Blology- Class X
Propagation)
(Leveli
Natural (Vegetative
(a)
means
It is done by following
B v Roots Roots of
some plants develop adventilious buds whichgrowto form
Guava, Sweet potato, Dahlia, Asparaqus ete
eg Dalbergia (sheesham),
Stem
Root tuber
(Swollen root)
(i) By Stems
stem structures bearing a few hud
ouds
Underground stem: Different types of underground below
are given
take partin vegetative propagation. Some examples
Tubers: Potatoes are vegetatively propagated by tubers. These have buds or eyes over
their nodes. The buds produce new plantlets when a stem tuber or a part of it having an
Young shoot
Germinating eye bud
Tubers
(i) By Leaves: Legvés of many plants have adventtious buds and help in vegetative propagation.
e.g.. Begonia, Bryophyllum, Saintpaulia etc. The leaf buds fall on the soil and develop into new
plants.
Adventitious buds
Young plant
Petiole
- Leaf
New plant
Bud
Adventitious
roots
Parent Plant
New Plantlet
Adventitious
Roots
Grafting is done in Mango, Apple, Pear, Citrus, Guava and Rubber plant.
Cut
Scion- Stock
Fig.14:Grafting
14How do Organisms Reproduce? Biology Class x
(Level-h
Advantages of Vegetative Propagation
plants whichdo
do not prodtieo
vegetative propagation is usually a means of propagating
dormant period of seeds. Examples+
produce viable
Seeds, or produce very few seeds or have long
pineapple, orange, grape, rose and jasmine.
)Animals that are confined to one particular place and unable to look for a mate reproduc
asexually.
() Stable environments with very little change are favorable for organisms to reproduce asexualy
Micropropagation is the tissue culture technique used for rapid vegetative multplication of omamental plants
and fruit trees by using different parts as explants.
Micropropagation is also called clonal propagation. Each of the cultivated plant produced by this method
is
genetically identical to the original plant from which they were grown.
i n plant tissue culture, new plants are grown by using
living tissues or cells of the plant (explant). The
cells are then placed in an artificial nutrient medium where they divide
rapidly to form a small group of
undifferentiated cells callus. The callus is transferred to another medium
or
hormones for growth and differentiation. The plantlets are then
containing nutrients and
placed in the soil so that they can grow
into mature plants. Using tissue culture, many disease-free
plants can be grown from one parent plant.
This technique is commonly used for ornamental
plants.
Excised piece of differentiated tissue or
explant used to initiate growth in culture The non-dividing differentiated
cells of the explant when grown
on a nutrient medium forms a
mass of undifferentiated cells
Transfer to another nutrient (meristematic) called callus.
media containing hormones
for rooting and shooting
Formation of
new roots and
Transfer to soil shoots occur
2. Sexual Reproduction
If the zygote is to grow and develop into an organism which has highly specialised tissues and organs,
then it has to have sufficient reserve of energy. In very simple organisms, it is seen that the two germ-
cells are not very different from one another, or may even be similar. But as the body designs become
more complex, the germ cells also specialise. One germ-cell (female gamete) is large and contains the
food stores while the other is smaller and likely to be motile (male gamete). Differentiation of gametes has
led to differences in the male and female reproductive organs and differences in the bodies of male and
female individuals
FAC)T
FILE
Wny the Sexual Mode of Reproduction Produces Variations involves crossing
over between the
Meiotic division
meiotic division. accurate. Both
ametes are produced by which is not absolutely
of DNA,
and also the copying
Ogous pair of chromosomes
of these factors result in variation. as of the cellular apparatus
DNA, as well
from copying of the
one involves results in
variations. Variations are
cells
reation of two
e new
accurate and
hence
to different
mechanism is not absolutely organisms to adapt
nE DNA copying the survival of the species as these can help variation.
Userul for ensuring results in
GITVironmental
Sexual mode of reproduction
conditions. asexual over reproduction
advantages
and has many fusion
evolved process because it results from the
reproduction is a highly the offsprings
Sexual diversity of characters in In sexual reproduction, there
Sexual reproduction promotes distinct individuals.
from two different and sexually therefore, it plays a prominent role
of fwo gametes coming of characters and
new combination
increasing opportunity for
evolution.
is an necessary for
It leads to variation, which is
in the origin of new species. pattern of accumulated
different
involved have quite
the two parents combination of variants.
In sexual mode of reproduction result in new
individuals would
variations from two
vanations. Combining
-Petal
-Ovary Sepal
Carpel is the femalereproductive part and consists of stigma, style and ovary. Carpels have a
swollen ovary at the base, an elongated middle style and a termtnal stigma which is sticky in
nature. The ovary contains ovules. Each ovule has an egg cell, the female gamete. In plants, the
fusion of male and female gametes takes place when pollen grains are transferred from anther to
Fertilization in Plants
In plants, pollination is followed by fertilization. Once the pollen grain is deposited on a suitable stgma.
it gives rise to a pollen tube which grows chemotropically through the style and reaches the ovary where
called micropyle.
e ocated. Ihe pollen tube normally enters the ovule through a small opening
Inside the ovule, the pollen tube releases two male gametes into, the embryo sac. The embryo sa
ouie contains the-egg. One male gamete fuses with the egg. The fusion of the male gamete with tne
Temale gamete is called fertilization and it results in the formation of a zygote. The zygote divides
male gamete fuses with
repeatedly (by mitotic divisions) to form embryo within the ovule. The other
an
called triple fusion and forms a triploid
ne two polar nuclei to form an endosperm. This process is as fertilization occurs twice,
endosperm (3n) which nourishes the growing embryo. Thus, inside embryo
sac,
it is called double-fertilization. After fertilization, the ovule developsa tough coat and is gradually
converted into a seed. The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit. Meanwhile, the petas, sepals,
stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off.
Pollen grain
Stigma
9A
Pollen tube
-Style
Ovary
Antipodal cells
Egg Cell
Synergids
Fig. 17: Longitudinal section of a flower showing growth of pollen tube
Longitudinal section of a pistil showing pollen germination one pollen tube
showing its growth through the style and entry into the embryo sac through micropyle
Seed Seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under appropriate
conditions. This process is known as germination. Plumule develops into the shoot whereas radicle
develops into the root.
Plumule
(future shoot)
Cotyledon- - Radicle
storef d)
(future root)
Fig 18:Germination of Bengal gram seed
Reproduction in Human Beings
Puberty
.The age at which the Sex hormone and gametes begin to be
produces and the Boy and Girl become sexually mature is
called Puberty.
Ureter-
Bladder
-Prostate gland
-Penis
-Urethra
Vas
deferens
Testis
Scrotum
Testes
1) Testes
It is primary reproductive organ in male.
It is located outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum
because sperm formation requires a lower temperature
than the normal body temperature.
Functions of Testes -
Formation of Sperms.
Secretion of testosterone.
Testosterone
-
It is the Male sex hormone.
It helps in the development of secondary Sexual characters.
-
It regulates the formation of Sperms.
2)Vas Deferens
Vas deferens delivers sperms from testes to urethra.
4) Urethra
Forms a common passage for both and Urine.
Sperms
Sperms
-
They are tiny bodies that consists of mainly genetic material and a
long tail that helps them to move towards the female germ cell.
Human Body: Reproductive System
The male and female reproductive systems are controlled by hormones
by the pituitary gland in the brain, and the reproductive organs themselves.
produced
Brain
The Reproductive Organs
Ihese organs make, mature, and store gametes, or sex cells, in
the human body. The male
gametes are called sperm and femae
gametes are called ova or egg cells. Each gamete contributes
half of an offspring's DNA, providing genetic variation through
hypothalamus sexual reproduction.
infundibulum
Ireters -
anterior posterior
pituitary pituitary
vas deferens8-
Pituitary Gland bladder epididymis
head
The pituitary gland secretes hormones
that control the reproductive organs.
signals the production of sex prostate
thormones and controls ovulation
and the menstrual cycle in women.
urethra
penis
testis
epididymis
body
seminiferous tubules epididymis tail
fallopian tubes
Ovary ovary
uterus mature
G99
vagina
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Female Reproductive System
Oviduct or -
Fallopiann
tube
Ovary-
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina-
Ovary
-
2)Fallopian tube/Oviduct
It is the primary reproductive organ in female. It performs
two major functions
3) UterusS
4) Vaging
It receives sperms from male partner, serves as a Birth
Canal.
5) Cervix
- Uterus is connected to vagina through a narrow opening
called Cervix.
Fertilization &Development of Embryo
The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual
intercourse.
They travel upwards and reach the oviduct where they may
encounter egg.
The embryo gets nutrition from the mother's blood with the
help of a special tissue called Placenta.
Placenta
-It is a disc shaped structure embedded in the uterine wall.
-
It helps in exchange of nutrients, oxygen and waste products
between the embryo and mother.
Gonorrhoea
4) Surgical Methods
Vasectomy Tubectomy
Blocking of Vas deferens in male Blocking of fallopian tube in females.