Soil Erosion — Causes and Effects

J. Ritter, P.Eng.

ORDER NO. 12-053 AGDEX 572/751 OCTOBER 2012

(replaces OMAFRA Factsheet, Soil Erosion — Causes and Effects, Order No. 87-040)

Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that WATER EROSION

affects all landforms. In agriculture, soil erosion The widespread occurrence of water erosion
refers to the wearing away of a field’s topsoil by the combined with the severity of on-site and off-site
natural physical forces of water (Figure 1) and wind impacts have made water erosion the focus of soil
(Figure 2) or through forces associated with farming conservation efforts in Ontario.
activities such as tillage.
The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by water is
Erosion, whether it is by water, wind or tillage, controlled by the following factors:
involves three distinct actions — soil detachment,
movement and deposition. Topsoil, which is high Rainfall and Runoff
in organic matter, fertility and soil life, is relocated The greater the intensity and duration of a
elsewhere “on-site” where it builds up over time rainstorm, the higher the erosion potential. The
or is carried “off-site” where it fills in drainage impact of raindrops on the soil surface can break
channels. Soil erosion reduces cropland productivity down soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate
and contributes to the pollution of adjacent material. Lighter aggregate materials such as very
watercourses, wetlands and lakes. fine sand, silt, clay and organic matter are easily
removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water;
Soil erosion can be a slow process that continues greater raindrop energy or runoff amounts are
relatively unnoticed or can occur at an alarming rate, required to move larger sand and gravel particles.
causing serious loss of topsoil. Soil compaction, low
organic matter, loss of soil structure, poor internal Soil movement by rainfall (raindrop splash) is
drainage, salinisation and soil acidity problems are usually greatest and most noticeable during short-
other serious soil degradation conditions that can duration, high-intensity thunderstorms. Although
accelerate the soil erosion process. the erosion caused by long-lasting and less-intense
storms is not usually as spectacular or noticeable as
This Factsheet looks at the causes and effects of that produced during thunderstorms, the amount
water, wind and tillage erosion on agricultural land. of soil loss can be significant, especially when
compounded over time.

Figure 1. The erosive force of water from concentrated

surface water runoff. Figure 2. The erosive force of wind on an open field.
Surface water runoff occurs whenever there is excess Cropping and Vegetation
water on a slope that cannot be absorbed into the The potential for soil erosion increases if the soil
soil or is trapped on the surface. Reduced infiltration has no or very little vegetative cover of plants and/
due to soil compaction, crusting or freezing increases or crop residues. Plant and residue cover protects
the runoff. Runoff from agricultural land is greatest the soil from raindrop impact and splash, tends to
during spring months when the soils are typically slow down the movement of runoff water and allows
saturated, snow is melting and vegetative cover excess surface water to infiltrate.
is minimal.
The erosion-reducing effectiveness of plant and/or
Soil Erodibility crop residues depends on the type, extent and quantity
Soil erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soils to of cover. Vegetation and residue combinations that
resist erosion, based on the physical characteristics completely cover the soil and intercept all falling
of each soil. Texture is the principal characteristic raindrops at and close to the surface are the most
affecting erodibility, but structure, organic matter efficient in controlling soil erosion (e.g., forests,
and permeability also contribute. Generally, soils permanent grasses). Partially incorporated residues
with faster infiltration rates, higher levels of organic and residual roots are also important as these provide
matter and improved soil structure have a greater channels that allow surface water to move into the soil.
resistance to erosion. Sand, sandy loam and loam-
textured soils tend to be less erodible than silt, very The effectiveness of any protective cover also
fine sand and certain clay-textured soils. depends on how much protection is available at
various periods during the year, relative to the
Tillage and cropping practices that reduce soil organic amount of erosive rainfall that falls during these
matter levels, cause poor soil structure, or result in soil periods. Crops that provide a full protective cover
compaction, contribute to increases in soil erodibility. for a major portion of the year (e.g., alfalfa or winter
As an example, compacted subsurface soil layers cover crops) can reduce erosion much more than can
can decrease infiltration and increase runoff. The crops that leave the soil bare for a longer period of
formation of a soil crust, which tends to “seal” the time (e.g., row crops), particularly during periods of
surface, also decreases infiltration. On some sites, a highly erosive rainfall such as spring and summer.
soil crust might decrease the amount of soil loss from Crop management systems that favour contour
raindrop impact and splash; however, a corresponding farming and strip-cropping techniques can further
increase in the amount of runoff water can contribute reduce the amount of erosion. To reduce most of
to more serious erosion problems. the erosion on annual row-crop land, leave a residue
cover greater than 30% after harvest and over the
Past erosion also has an effect on a soil’s erodibility. winter months, or inter-seed a cover crop (e.g., red
Many exposed subsurface soils on eroded sites tend clover in wheat, oats after silage corn).
to be more erodible than the original soils were
because of their poorer structure and lower organic Tillage Practices
matter. The lower nutrient levels often associated The potential for soil erosion by water is affected by
with subsoils contribute to lower crop yields and tillage operations, depending on the depth, direction
generally poorer crop cover, which in turn provides and timing of plowing, the type of tillage equipment
less crop protection for the soil. and the number of passes. Generally, the less the
disturbance of vegetation or residue cover at or near
Slope Gradient and Length the surface, the more effective the tillage practice
The steeper and longer the slope of a field, the in reducing water erosion. Minimum till or no-till
higher the risk for erosion. Soil erosion by water practices are effective in reducing soil erosion by water.
increases as the slope length increases due to the
greater accumulation of runoff. Consolidation of Tillage and other practices performed up and down
small fields into larger ones often results in longer field slopes creates pathways for surface water runoff
slope lengths with increased erosion potential, and can accelerate the soil erosion process. Cross-
due to increased velocity of water, which permits slope cultivation and contour farming techniques
a greater degree of scouring (carrying capacity discourage the concentration of surface water runoff
for sediment). and limit soil movement.

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FORMS OF WATER EROSION
Sheet Erosion
Sheet erosion is the movement of soil from raindrop
splash and runoff water. It typically occurs evenly
over a uniform slope and goes unnoticed until most
of the productive topsoil has been lost. Deposition
of the eroded soil occurs at the bottom of the slope
(Figure 3) or in low areas. Lighter-coloured soils
on knolls, changes in soil horizon thickness and
low crop yields on shoulder slopes and knolls are
other indicators.

Rill Erosion
Rill erosion results when surface water runoff Figure 3. The accumulation of soil and crop debris at the
concentrates, forming small yet well-defined lower end of this field is an indicator of sheet erosion.
channels (Figure 4). These distinct channels where
the soil has been washed away are called rills when
they are small enough to not interfere with field
machinery operations. In many cases, rills are filled
in each year as part of tillage operations.

Gully Erosion
Gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion
where surface channels are eroded to the point
where they become a nuisance factor in normal
tillage operations (Figure 5). There are farms in
Ontario that are losing large quantities of topsoil
and subsoil each year due to gully erosion. Surface
water runoff, causing gully formation or the
enlarging of existing gullies, is usually the result
of improper outlet design for local surface and
subsurface drainage systems. The soil instability
of gully banks, usually associated with seepage of
groundwater, leads to sloughing and slumping
(caving-in) of bank slopes. Such failures usually
occur during spring months when the soil water
Figure 4. The distinct path where the soil has been washed
conditions are most conducive to the problem.
away by surface water runoff is an indicator of rill erosion.

Gully formations are difficult to control if corrective

measures are not designed and properly constructed.
Control measures must consider the cause of the
increased flow of water across the landscape and be
capable of directing the runoff to a proper outlet.
Gully erosion results in significant amounts of land
being taken out of production and creates hazardous
conditions for the operators of farm machinery.

Figure 5. Gully erosion may develop in locations where rill

erosion has not been managed.

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 EFFECTS OF WATER EROSION
On-Site
The implications of soil erosion by water extend
beyond the removal of valuable topsoil. Crop
emergence, growth and yield are directly affected by
the loss of natural nutrients and applied fertilizers.
Seeds and plants can be disturbed or completely
removed by the erosion. Organic matter from the
soil, residues and any applied manure, is relatively
lightweight and can be readily transported off the
field, particularly during spring thaw conditions.
Pesticides may also be carried off the site with the
Figure 6. Bank erosion involves the undercutting and
eroded soil.
scouring of natural stream and drainage channel banks.
Soil quality, structure, stability and texture can
be affected by the loss of soil. The breakdown of
Bank Erosion
aggregates and the removal of smaller particles or
Natural streams and constructed drainage channels
entire layers of soil or organic matter can weaken
act as outlets for surface water runoff and subsurface
the structure and even change the texture. Textural
drainage systems. Bank erosion is the progressive
changes can in turn affect the water-holding capacity
undercutting, scouring and slumping of these
of the soil, making it more susceptible to extreme
drainageways (Figure 6). Poor construction
conditions such as drought.
practices, inadequate maintenance, uncontrolled
livestock access and cropping too close can all lead Off-Site
to bank erosion problems. The off-site impacts of soil erosion by water are not
always as apparent as the on-site effects. Eroded
Poorly constructed tile outlets also contribute
soil, deposited down slope, inhibits or delays the
to bank erosion. Some do not function properly
emergence of seeds, buries small seedlings and
because they have no rigid outlet pipe, have an
necessitates replanting in the affected areas. Also,
inadequate splash pad or no splash pad at all,
sediment can accumulate on down-slope properties
or have outlet pipes that have been damaged by
and contribute to road damage.
erosion, machinery or bank cave-ins.
Sediment that reaches streams or watercourses
The direct damages from bank erosion include loss
can accelerate bank erosion, obstruct stream and
of productive farmland, undermining of structures
drainage channels, fill in reservoirs, damage fish
such as bridges, increased need to clean out and
habitat and degrade downstream water quality.
maintain drainage channels and washing out of
Pesticides and fertilizers, frequently transported
lanes, roads and fence rows.
along with the eroding soil, contaminate or
pollute downstream water sources, wetlands and
lakes. Because of the potential seriousness of
some of the off-site impacts, the control of “non-
point” pollution from agricultural land is an
important consideration.

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 Climate
The speed and duration of the wind have a direct
relationship to the extent of soil erosion. Soil moisture
levels are very low at the surface of excessively drained
soils or during periods of drought, thus releasing the
particles for transport by wind. This effect also occurs
in freeze-drying of the soil surface during winter
months. Accumulation of soil on the leeward side
of barriers such as fence rows, trees or buildings, or
snow cover that has a brown colour during winter are
indicators of wind erosion.

Unsheltered Distance
Figure 7. Wind erosion can be severe on long, unsheltered,
smooth soil surfaces. A lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, crop residue,
etc.) allows the wind to put soil particles into
motion for greater distances, thus increasing
WIND EROSION
abrasion and soil erosion. Knolls and hilltops are
Wind erosion occurs in susceptible areas of Ontario
usually exposed and suffer the most.
but represents a small percentage of land — mainly
sandy and organic or muck soils. Under the right Vegetative Cover
conditions it can cause major losses of soil and The lack of permanent vegetative cover in certain
property (Figure 7). locations results in extensive wind erosion. Loose,
dry, bare soil is the most susceptible; however, crops
Soil particles move in three ways, depending on
that produce low levels of residue (e.g., soybeans
soil particle size and wind strength — suspension,
and many vegetable crops) may not provide enough
saltation and surface creep.
resistance. In severe cases, even crops that produce a
lot of residue may not protect the soil.
The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by wind is
controlled by the following factors:
The most effective protective vegetative cover
consists of a cover crop with an adequate network of
Soil Erodibility
living windbreaks in combination with good tillage,
Very fine soil particles are carried high into the
residue management and crop selection.
air by the wind and transported great distances
(suspension). Fine-to-medium size soil particles are
EFFECTS OF WIND EROSION
lifted a short distance into the air and drop back
Wind erosion damages crops through sandblasting
to the soil surface, damaging crops and dislodging
of young seedlings or transplants, burial of plants
more soil (saltation). Larger-sized soil particles that
or seed, and exposure of seed. Crops are ruined,
are too large to be lifted off the ground are dislodged
resulting in costly delays and making reseeding
by the wind and roll along the soil surface (surface
necessary. Plants damaged by sandblasting are
creep). The abrasion that results from windblown
vulnerable to the entry of disease with a resulting
particles breaks down stable surface aggregates and
decrease in yield, loss of quality and market value.
further increases the soil erodibility.
Also, wind erosion can create adverse operating
conditions, preventing timely field activities.
Soil Surface Roughness
Soil surfaces that are not rough offer little resistance
Soil drifting is a fertility-depleting process that can
to the wind. However, ridges left from tillage can
lead to poor crop growth and yield reductions in areas
dry out more quickly in a wind event, resulting in
of fields where wind erosion is a recurring problem.
more loose, dry soil available to blow. Over time,
Continual drifting of an area gradually causes a textural
soil surfaces become filled in, and the roughness is
change in the soil. Loss of fine sand, silt, clay and
broken down by abrasion. This results in a smoother
organic particles from sandy soils serves to lower the
surface susceptible to the wind. Excess tillage
moisture-holding capacity of the soil. This increases the
can contribute to soil structure breakdown and
erodibility of the soil and compounds the problem.
increased erosion.

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The removal of wind-blown soils from fence rows,
constructed drainage channels and roads, and
from around buildings is a costly process. Also,
soil nutrients and surface-applied chemicals can be
carried along with the soil particles, contributing to
off-site impacts. In addition, blowing dust can affect
human health and create public safety hazards.

TILLAGE EROSION
Tillage erosion is the redistribution of soil through
the action of tillage and gravity (Figure 8). It results
in the progressive down-slope movement of soil,
causing severe soil loss on upper-slope positions and
accumulation in lower-slope positions. This form
of erosion is a major delivery mechanism for water Figure 8. Tillage erosion involves the progressive down-
erosion. Tillage action moves soil to convergent areas slope movement of soil.
of a field where surface water runoff concentrates. Also,
exposed subsoil is highly erodible to the forces of water EFFECTS OF TILLAGE EROSION
and wind. Tillage erosion has the greatest potential for Tillage erosion impacts crop development and yield.
the “on-site” movement of soil and in many cases can Crop growth on shoulder slopes and knolls is slow
cause more erosion than water or wind. and stunted due to poor soil structure and loss of
organic matter and is more susceptible to stress
The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by tillage is under adverse conditions. Changes in soil structure
controlled by the following factors: and texture can increase the erodibility of the soil
Type of Tillage Equipment and expose the soil to further erosion by the forces
Tillage equipment that lifts and carries will tend to of water and wind.
move more soil. As an example, a chisel plow leaves
In extreme cases, tillage erosion includes the
far more crop residue on the soil surface than the
movement of subsurface soil. Subsoil that has
conventional moldboard plow but it can move as
been moved from upper-slope positions to lower-
much soil as the moldboard plow and move it to
slope positions can bury the productive topsoil
a greater distance. Using implements that do not
in the lower-slope areas, further impacting crop
move very much soil will help minimize the effects
development and yield. Research related to tillage-
of tillage erosion.
eroded fields has shown soil loss of as much as 2 m
Direction of depth on upper-slope positions and yield declines
Tillage implements like a plow or disc throw soil of up to 40% in corn. Remediation for extreme
either up or down slope, depending on the direction cases involves the relocation of displaced soils to the
of tillage. Typically, more soil is moved while tilling upper-slope positions.
in the down-slope direction than while tilling in the
CONSERVATION MEASURES
up-slope direction.
The adoption of various soil conservation measures
Speed and Depth reduces soil erosion by water, wind and tillage.
The speed and depth of tillage operations will influence Tillage and cropping practices, as well as land
the amount of soil moved. Deep tillage disturbs more management practices, directly affect the overall soil
soil, while increased speed moves soil further. erosion problem and solutions on a farm. When
crop rotations or changing tillage practices are not
Number of Passes enough to control erosion on a field, a combination
Reducing the number of passes of tillage equipment of approaches or more extreme measures might be
reduces the movement of soil. It also leaves more crop necessary. For example, contour plowing, strip-
residue on the soil surface and reduces pulverization cropping or terracing may be considered. In more
of the soil aggregates, both of which can help resist serious cases where concentrated runoff occurs, it is
water and wind erosion. necessary to include structural controls as part of the

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overall solution — grassed waterways, drop pipe and RESOURCES
grade control structures, rock chutes, and water and OMAFRA Factsheet, Universal Soil Loss Equation
sediment control basins. (USLE), Order No. 12-051.

More details on these and other best management BMP 06, Soil Management.
practices can be found in OMAFRA publication
BMP 26, Controlling Soil Erosion on the Farm.
BMP 26, Controlling Soil Erosion on the Farm.

SUMMARY The original Factsheet was written by OMAFRA staff with

Soil erosion remains a key challenge for Ontario input from G. Wall and I.J. Shelton, Ontario Institute of
agriculture. Many farmers have already made Pedology, and C.S. Baldwin, Ridgetown College of Agricultural
significant progress in dealing with soil erosion Technology. It was revised by Jim Ritter, P.Eng., Engineer,
problems on their farms. However, because of Soil Management, OMAFRA, Brighton, and reviewed by Adam
continued advances in soil management and crop Hayes, Soil Management Specialist — Field Crops, OMAFRA,
production technology that have maintained or Ridgetown, and Anne Verhallen, Soil Management Specialist
increased yields in spite of soil erosion, others are — Horticulture, OMAFRA, Ridgetown.
not aware of the increasing problem on farmland.
Awareness usually occurs only when property is
damaged and productive areas of soil are lost.

The increase in extreme weather events predicted

with climate change will magnify the existing water
and wind erosion situations and create new areas
of concern. Farmland must be protected as much
as possible, with special attention to higher risk
situations that leave the soil vulnerable to erosion.

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 Agricultural Information Contact Centre:
1-877-424-1300
E-mail: [email protected]
Northern Ontario Regional Office:
1-800-461-6132

www.ontario.ca/omafra

POD

*12-053*
ISSN 1198-712X
Également disponible en français
(Commande no 12-054)