Electricity Basics

Technical Training
Engineer's Manual
Basics of Crane Electrics
\1A DECKBLATT 04-01.DOC TECHNICAL TRAINING STS

Technical Training
\1A DECKBLATT 04-01.DOC TECHNICAL TRAINING STS

Technical manual
Basics of crane electrics
Table of Contents Technical Training
Section A
Electricity Basics
Page Page
Atoms and Charges 1 Mixed connection of resistors 17
Charge, Current and Resistance 2 Extended parallel connection 18
Conductors and insulators 3 Loaded potential divider 20
The electrical circuit 4 Electrical work 21
Kinds of current 5 Electrical performance 22
Electrical current and its effects 6 Induction procedures 24
Electric tension 7 Self induction 25
Electrical resistance 8 Frequency 27
Specific resistance 9 Pulsed DC 29
Electrical resistance of wires 10 Notes 30
Ohm´s law 11
Serial connection of resistors 13
Unloaded potential divider 15
Parallel connection of resistors 16
\1C TABLE OF CONTENTS 04-01.DOC TECHNICAL TRAINING STS

Engineer's Manual
Crane electrics basics
Section B
Electrical components
Page Page
Identification letters from A to G 1 Z- Diode 30
from H to T 2 Light emitting diode (LED) 31
from U to Z 3 Capacitor 33
Switches 4 Starter Battery 35
Hoist Limit Switch 9 Starter 37
Proximity switch 10 Alternator 38
Relay 13 Hoist drum rotation indicator 40
Self holding relay 14 Cable reel 41
Relay Types 15 Anemometer 42
Time relay 17 Eddy current brake 43
Solenoid valve 20 Outrigger pressure indicator EI40 44
Proportional valves 21 Inclination indicator 45
Resistors 23 Light barrier 47
Resistor colour codes 23 Fuses 48
Adjustable resistors 24 Melting fuses 49
Temperature controlled resistors 26 Automatic circuit breaker 50
Diodes 26 Fuse ratings 51
Recovery diode, Power diode 28 Notes 52
Switching diode 29

Engineer's Manual
Section C
Measuring in the field
Page
Important notes 1
Digital Multi meter 2
Analog Multi meter 3
Snap-on Ampere meter 4
Measuring voltage with a multi meter 5
Measuring current with a mult imeter 8
Short circuit measurements 9
Resistance measurements 10
Diode measurements 12
Measuring wire continuity 13
Notes 14

Engineer's Manual
Section D
Electrical schematics
Page
Important notes about our circuit diagrams 1
Symbols 3
Notes 15
Electrical schematics AC 80 UW (58998640)
Electrical schematics AC 80 OW (58998740)

Engineer's Manual
Section E
Electrical dictionary
Page Page
A Accumulator to avalanche voltage 6 M Magnet to moving coil meter 25
B Base to brush holder 7 N Negative plate to number of turns 26
C Capacity to current intensity 11 O Ohm to oxy-hydrogen gas 27
D Darlington to dry charged 13 P Parallel connection tp PTC 29
E Eddy currents to exciting wiring 16 R Rating to resistor 31
F Farad to full charge 18 S Secondary winding to switching resistor 34
G Gas derivation to Graetz rectifier 19 T Technical current direction to Triac 36
H Henry to hybrid circuit 20 U 37
I Induction to ionic semi-conducter 21 V Varistor to voltage drop 38
K 22 W Watt to winding 39
L Lead sulphate to LDR 23 Z Z-diode to Zener effect 40

Engineer's Manual
Section F
Electrical Equations
Page
Electrical equations 1

Engineer’s Manual
Electricity basics Technical training
Atoms and electrons

If a body is reduced to ever smaller components, e.g. copper, an atom will be arrived at the end.
From many tests physicists like Rutherford and Bohr have concluded, that the composition of
an atom must be similar to the composition of our solar system.
According to this model an atom consists of a sun – the nucleus – and planets which surround
this nucleus on circular and elliptical tracks – the electrons.
Their tracks surround the nucleus like a shell and form the so called electron shells.
The electrons on the outer shell are called valence electrons , they are furthest away from the
nucleus and therefore easiest to influence from the outside.
They determine the chemical and electrical behaviour of the atom.
Atom and charge

The components of an atom show different charges.
The nucleus consists of protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge).
The electrons have a negative charge.
A neutral atom behaves electrically neutral to the outside as it consists of as many protons
as electrons.
a) hydrogen atom b) Aluminium atom
\B ELECTRICITY BASICS.DOC A 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING STS

Engineer’s Manual
Charge, current and resistance

The free electrons of the conductor are driven through the atomic structure by electrical pressure in one direction. This pres-
sure is called voltage in electrical terms.
In this way, the conductive electrons transport their negative charge in a certain direction. A flow of electrons is determined
in this way.
The electrical current (flow of electrons) in a metallic conductor consist of the controlled movement of the free electrons in
the conductor.
Depending on the composition of the material a resistance is set against this flow of the electrons. With a variable number of
free electrons in the conductor material the material has a high or low resistance.
Voltage The electrical unit of the voltage is Volt (V) and the formula symbol is U.
Current The electrical unit of the current is Ampere (A) and the formula symbol is I.
Resistance The electrical unit of the resistance is Ohm ( Ω ) and the formula symbol is R.

Engineer’s Manual
Conductors and insulators

Various materials show a great difference in their ability to conduct electrical current .
In electrical engineering, materials are therefore categorised in three main groups:
1. Conductors
Materials that conduct electrical current well are used as conductors.
They are, for example metals, carbon and some liquids. These materials have low electrical resistance.
Copper is most commonly used nowadays for electrical wiring.
2. Non-conductors (insulators)
Materials that do not conduct electrical current well are used as insulators.
Examples of insulators are air, rubber, glass, porcelain and various plastic materials.
Plastic is most commonly used for insulating electrical wires nowadays.
3. Semi-conductors
Materials that are only conductive under certain conditions are called semi-conductors. Without external influence semi-
conductors act like non-conductors. Through external impact (e.g. heat, light or magnetic fields) semi-conductors become elec-
trically conductive.
Examples of semi-conductors are selenium, silicium and germanium.
Semi-conductors are used in many electronical components nowadays.

Engineer’s Manual
The electrical circuit

A simple electrical circuit consists of a voltage source, a conductor to, an electrical consumer and a return conductor.
Example of a simple circuit
The electron flow runs from the negative pole of the voltage source through the conductor, to the consumer through the conductor and
back to the positive pole of the voltage source.
Before the electron theory was known it was assumed that positive charge carrier was responsible for the conduction mechanism and
therefore current would flow from the positive pole to the negative pole of the voltage source.
Although this assumption has been disapproved this direction of the current was retained for practical reasons, and to distinguish it
from the flow of electrons it is called technical direction of current.
The technical direction of current is ruling for us in electrical engineering.
Technical direction of current:

The electrical current flows from the positive
pole of the producer of voltage through the
consumer to the negative pole.

Engineer’s Manual
Kinds of current
Direct current
Is an electrical current that always flows in the same
direction and at the same strength of current.
time related direct current diagram
Alternating current
is a current that changes its direction and strength
periodically.
time related alternating current diagram
Undulatory current
is a current that consists of a direct current and an
alternating current.
time related undulatory current diagram

Engineer’s Manual
Electrical current and its effects

Thermal effect Electrical current always generates heat in its conductor. The electrons give up a part of their
movement energy in the conductor; this produces heat. This behaviour is unwanted in electrical
wires. However, in other areas it is made use of(e.g. in fuses, heating systems, soldering iron etc.).
Actinism The thermal effect of the current causes the wire element in a light bulb to glow and so provide
lighting. Gases such as neon are stimulated by electrical current to increase lighting effect.
Magnetic effect Electrical current always produces a magnetic field.

A magnetic field builds up around a conductor through
which electrical current passes. This is made use of in
electric motors, relay coils, solenoids etc.
The formula symbol for current is I.
The unit of electrical current is Ampere.
The symbol of the unit for current is A.
Multipliers and parts of the unit

1 kA 1 Kiloampere 1000 A
1 mA 1 Milliampere 0,001 A
1 µA 1 Mikroampere 0,000 001 A
1 nA 1 Nanoampere 0,000 000 001 A

Engineer’s Manual
Electric tension (voltage)

A drive is needed to move electrons, which presses the electrons <in> like
a pump on one side of the circuit and <sucks electrons off> at the other
end.
This drive is called producer of voltage or voltage source.
Every voltage source possesses an internal electrical resistance which
limits the electrical current.
Substitute diagram of a source of voltage with internal re-
sistance
Electrical voltage can be produced from mechanical energy (e.g. generator), from chemical energy (e.g. batteries or accumula-
tors), from friction (e.g. static charging of folia)or from light energy (e.g. solar cells).
The formula symbol for voltage is U.

The unit of tension is Volt.
Unit symbol for Volt is V.

1 MV 1 Megavolt 1 000 000 V
1 kV 1 Kilovolt 1 000 V
1 mV 1 Millivolt 0,001 V
1 µV 1 Mikrovolt 0,000001 V

Engineer’s Manual
Electrical resistance
The movement of electrons within a conductor is inhibited by the action of
the atoms in the conductive material.
This <resisting> of the conductor to the flow of current is called resistance.
The resistance in electrical conductors is dependent on the conductive material
used.
Each wire and each consumer has an electrical resistance. Resistance is unwanted in wires.
1 Ohm equals the resistance a current of 1 A flows at a voltage of 1V.
Components which oppose the flow of current, are also called resistors.
We distinguish between the component resistor and the property to oppose a resistance to the current.
The formula symbol for resistance is R.
The unit for resistance is Ohm.
The unit symbol for resistance is Ω.

1 MΩ 1 Megaohm 1 000 000 Ω
1 kΩ 1 Kiloohm 1 000 Ω
1 mΩ 1 Milliohm 0,001 Ω

Engineer’s Manual
Specific resistance
Each material opposes the flow of electrical current at a different resistance.
This resistance depends on the internal structure of the relative material (atomic structure and number of free elements)and
is referred to as specific resistance.
Comparison of the various materials is based upon measuring the resistance at 20˚C in a wire of 1m of length and a cross sec-
tion of 1 mm².
The specific resistance of a conductive material equals in number its resistance at 1m of length, 1 mm² cross-section and at a
temperature of 20 °C.
The formula symbol for the specific resistance is ρ (rho).
The unit of the specific resistance is Ω × mm²

M
Examples of conductive materials and their specific resistance (at 20° C):
Material spec. resistance ρ in Ω × mm²

m
Silver 0,016
Copper 0,0178
Aluminium 0,0278
Platinium 0,1
Iron 0,13

Engineer’s Manual
Electrical resistance of wires

The electrical resistance of wires can become the greater:
- The greater the length of the conductor l,
- The smaller the cross-section of the conductor q,
- The greater the specific resistance ρ.
This can be summarised in the following formula: This formula can be rearranged according to various
values:
Resistance ρ·l Conductor length R·q
R = ________ l =
q ρ
Spec. resistance R·q

R resistance in Ω
ρ =
Ω · mm²
l
ρ spec. resistance in ————
conductor cross-section ρ ·l
m
q =
l conductor length in m
R
q conductor cross-section in mm²

Engineer’s Manual
Ohm's law
If a voltage is applied to a resistance and the circuit is closed a specific current flows through the resistor.
The strength of this current depends on the voltage applied and the resistor.
The strength of current I increases at the same rate as the

voltage U.
The strength of current I increases in proportion to the rate of

resistor R.
In summary this means:

The greater the voltage U or
The lower the resistance R,
The greater the strength of current I.

Engineer’s Manual
Ohm's law
If this is summarised in one formula Ohm's law is received:
voltage U I strength of current in A

current strength I = U voltage in V
resistance R R resistance in Ω
Ohm's law
in formula symbols:
U
I =
R
By rearrangement of the equation two more formulas of Ohm's law as a triangle:
Ohm’s law are created
Ohm's law:
U U
R = U = R·I
I
R · I

Engineer’s Manual
Serial connection of resistors

A serial connection of resistors is given when the same current passes through all resistors in series when a voltage is ap-
plied..
The strength of current is the same in all resistors in a serial circuit. The total resistance (Rges) of resistors connected in series
is the sum of resistors (R1, R2, R3 etc.).
The total resistance of a serial connection of resistors can be calculated according to the following formula:
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + Rn
The strength of current is calculated according to the following formula: (Ohm's law):
U
I =
Rges

Engineer’s Manual
Serial connection of resistors

As in serial connections the same current passes through each resistor the current causes a voltage drop at each resistor,
which is directly dependent on the resistor value.
A higher voltage drop results from a higher resistor value and vice versa.
Assumably, partial voltages behave to each other like the corresponding resistors.
The following formulas are received thereof:

U1 R1 U2 R2 Utotal Rtotal
= = =
U2 R2 U3 R3 U1 R1
The sum of partial voltages (U1, U2, U3 ...) at the resistors makes up the total voltage (Utotal).
The individual partial voltages can be calculated using Ohm’s law (U = I · R).
The following formulas result thereof:

Utotal = U1 + U2 + U3 + Un
U1 = I · R1 U2 = I · R2 U3 = I · R3 Un = I · Rn

Engineer’s Manual
Unloaded potential divider

A serial connection of two resistors (R1 , R2) with the help of Potential divider rules:
which the voltage (U) applied can be split in two voltages is
referred to as un loaded potential divider. R1 R2
U1 = U · U2 = U ·
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
The equation applies only when the same current passes
through both resistors, that is when no current is taken off
between the two resistors (unloaded potential divider)
By the corresponding choice of R1 and R2 all voltages between
zero and the total voltage U can be set.
Resistors R1 and R2 are sequentially passed through by the For voltage potential divider cir-
same current I. The formulas for serial connection of resistors cuits a resistor with a variable
therefore apply.. current draw (potentiometer)
If these formulas are rearranged the rules of voltage poten- can be used.
tial dividers are arrived at.

Engineer’s Manual
Parallel connection of resistors

A parallel connection of resistors is given when the current Ohm’s law can be used to calculate the partial cur-
branches into partial currents and passes through the resis- rents:
tors at the same time. The same voltage is applied at all resis- U U U
tors. I1 = I2 = I3 =
R1 R2 R3
In the parallel connection of The total resistance of each connection is smaller than the
resistors the total current I smallest individual resistance. This can be explained by the
is split into several partial fact that each added parallel resistor causes the total current
currents I1, I2, I3. to increase, i.e. the total resistance decreases and becomes
The total current is smaller than the smallest individual resistance.
therefore the sum of the The formula for the total resistance can be derived from
partial currents: these facts.
I = I1 + I2 + I3
The smallest current passes through the greatest resistance
and the highest current flows through the smallest resistance.
Formula for the total resistance: The result for two resistances is therefore:
1 1 1 1 1 R1 · R2
= + + + Rges =
Rges R1 R2 R3 Rn R1 + R2

Engineer’s Manual
For calculating an extended serial connection the compen-

Mixed connection of resistors sating resistance (R1,2) for the parallel resistances (R1 ,R2)
Extended serial connection is calculated first. In this way a substitute circuit diagram
in form of a serial connection is received.
If a serial connection of resistors includes a parallel connec-
tion of resistors the connection is referred to as an extended
serial connection.
Then the serial connection is calculated.

Engineer’s Manual
Mixed connection of resistors

Extended parallel connection
If a parallel connection of resistors includes a serial connec-
tion this connection is referred to as an extended parallel
connection
For calculating an extended parallel connection the com-

pensation resistance (R1,2) for the serial resistances (R1
,R2)is calculated first.
In this way a substitute circuit diagram as a pure parallel
connection is created.

Engineer’s Manual

Extended parallel connection
Then the parallel connection is calculated.

Engineer’s Manual

Loaded potential dividers
The unloaded potential divider becomes a loaded potential The following rule for voltage division applies:
divider (= extended serial connection)when a consumer is
Ub R2,b R2,b Parallel resistance in Ω
added.
= R1 Partial resistance in Ω
U R1 + Rb U Total voltage in V
Ub Load voltage in V
For the parallel resistance applies:

R2 · Rb
R2,b =
R2 + Rb
The partial voltage Ub (load voltage) used is applied to the

parallel resistance R2,b. The total voltage U is effective at
the total resistance R1 + R2,b.

Engineer’s Manual
Electrical work
Every time a body is lifted mechanical work is done. This work W depends on the force F applied and the time s taken. It can
be calculated using the formula W = F · s.
Similar thoughts resulted in the expression electrical work. If in a circuit a current I is passed through a voltage U within a
certain time electrical work W is done.
The following formula applies to electric work:
W=U·I·t U voltage in V
I current in A
t time in s
W electrical work in Ws
(1 VAs = 1 Ws)
I units are entered into the formula the result received is VAs. One VAs corresponds to one Ws (Wattsecond).
Electrical work is often indicated by the larger unit kWh (Kilowatt hour).
The formula symbol for electrical work is W.

The unit for electrical work is Wattsecond.
Unit symbol for electrical work is Ws.
Multipliers of the unit
1 kWh 1 Kilowatt hour 3 600 000 Ws
1 Wh 1 Watt hour 3600 Ws

Engineer’s Manual
Electrical performance
The faster a work is done the higher the performance. Performance P can therefore be defined as work W per time.
The resulting formula for electrical performance is:
W U·I·t
P = =
t t
P performance in W
(1 VA = 1 W)
U voltage in V
P=U·I I current in A
If units are entered into this formula the unit for electrical performance the volt-ampere (VA) or as in practice the Watt (W) is received.
If Ohm’s law is used in the formula for performance two further formulas for electrical performance are arrived at. These formulas are
most suitable for determining the performance in resistors..
P=U·I (performance formula) P=U·I (performance formula)
U=R·I (Ohm's law)
U
P=R·I·I
I = (Ohm’s law)
R
P = R · I2 (changed performance formula 1) U·U
P=
R
U2
P= (changed performance formula 2)
R

Engineer’s Manual
Electrical performance
Formula symbol for electrical performance is P.
The unit for electrical performance is Watt.
Unit symbol for electrical performance is W.
Until 1977 performance was indicated in PS (horse power),this indication can still be found in older machines today.
(1 PS = 736 W).

1 MW 1 Megawatt 1 000 000 W
1 kW 1 Kilowatt 1 000 W
1 mW 1 Milliwatt 0,001 W
1 µW 1 Mikrowatt 0,000001 W

Engineer’s Manual
Inductions procedures
Induction of movement (Generator principal)
If an electrical conductor is moved vertical to a magnetic field electrical voltage is induced in it during the movement.
This procedure is generally referred to as induction of movement (inducere = lat. to induce) as a voltage is produced in the
magnetic field by moving a conductor.
As all generators are based on the principal of induction of movement it is also referred to as the generator principal.
The amount of the induced voltage increases proportionally to the density of the magnetic field, the speed of movement and
the conductor length brought into the magnetic field.

Engineer’s Manual
Induction procedures
Self induction
If a coil is connected to electrical voltage a magnetic field builds up around the coil. This magnetic field can be improved when
a iron core is integrated into the coil.
Among others such coils are used in solenoids, ignition coils, electric motors, relays and magnetic valves.
When a magnetic field is built up (switched on) or falls (switched off) self-induction occurs in a coil, i.e. a self-induced volt-
age.
Self induction when switching on
When a coil is switched on voltage is induced until the magnetic field has
completely built up.
This self-induced voltage counteracts the voltage applied.
Therefore the current increases very slowly when the coil is switched on un-
til the coil has completely built up its magnetic field.
When applying direct current to a coil the current increase to its

final value is delayed. The coil acts like a consumer of voltage.

Engineer’s Manual
Induction procedures
Self induction when switching off
When a coil is switched off voltage is induced until the magnetic field has com-
pletely exhausted.
This self-induced voltage acts in the direction of the voltage previously applied.
In coils with a high number of windings the induced voltage can be multiple of the
voltage previously applied (e.g. the ignition coil in the car 12 V>18kV).
This high self-induction voltage can be harmful to switches (formation of arcing at
the switch contact) and other components in electric circuits.
Free-wheel or erase diode

In order to avoid damage caused by high self-induction to compo-
nents of an electric circuit a diode is connected anti-parallel to all
When the direct current at a coil is switched off very coils (except for proportional valves)
high self-induction voltage can occur. The coil acts
like a source of voltage with a very high initial volt-
age.
The induction voltage is „erased“ (cut short) by this diode,

therefore it is referred to as free-wheel of erase diode.

Engineer’s Manual
Frequency
Frequency f is the number of modulations (phases) per second. The unit Hertz (Hz) has its name from the German physicist
Heinrich Hertz.
1 Hertz corresponds to one phase per second .
The frequency f is the higher the shorter the time T (in s)of the period. That means that the frequency is the reciprocal value
of the time phase. The following formula therefore applies:
1 Examples:
f= 1
T f= = 2 Hz
0,5 s
At a phase time of 0.5 s the result is a
frequency of 2 Hz .
(2 modulation per second)
1
f= = 2 Hz
0,25 s
At a phase time of 0,25 s the result is a
frequency of 4 Hz.
(4 modulations per second)

Engineer’s Manual
Frequency
The formula symbol for frequency is f.
The unit of frequency is Hertz.
Unit symbol for frequency is Hz.

1 MHz 1 Megahertz 1 000 000 Hz
1 kHz 1 Kilohertz 1 000 kHz

Engineer’s Manual
Pulsed direct current (Pulse bandwidth control)

In order to provide for a step-less control of direct current drives (e.g. direct current motors or proportional valves) pulse di-
rect current is often used.
An electric circuit (e.g. proportional amplifier) switches the initial voltage within a steady phase time T on and off.
The switch on time (pulse time Ti)and the switch off time (break time Tp) is changed within this period time.
At a short pulse time Ti (and a long break time Tp) little current passes through to the consumer (e.g. proportional valve)
during this time phase; it does little work (W).
When the pulse time Ti becomes longer (break time Tp becomes shorter) the current increases during one phase to the con-
sumer. The consumer does more work (W).
U Voltage (V)
W electr. work (Ws)
T period time (s)
Ti pulse time (s)
Tp break time (s)
As the initial current changes its value permanently it cannot be measured with a simple digital multimeter.
The current should be measured using a analogue measuring device.

Engineer's Manual
Electrical components Technical Training
Identification Letters
In order to allow for a clear identification of each component of the circuit diagram each component receives a designation.
This designation consists of an identification letter and a numbering (e.g. S319.1 = switch No. 319.1).
The identification letters are standardised and give information on the type of the component used.
Kennbuchstabe Bezeichnung der Bauteile Designation of Components

Identification Letter
A Anlage, Baugruppe, Teilegruppe Arrangement, subassembly
B Umsetzer von nicht elektrischen auf elektrische Converter from non electrical values to electri-
Grössen und umgekehrt, z.B. Steuerhebel, cal values and vice-versa, e.g. joystick, trans-
Messwertgeber ducer
C Kondensator Capacitor, Condenser
D Binäres Element, Speicher Binary element, memory
E Verschiedene Geräte und Einrichtungen, Kabel- Different appliances and facilities, cable drum,
trommeln, Schleifringe slipring
F Schutzeinrichtung, Sicherungen, Unterbrecher Protective gear, fuse, circuit breaker
G Stromversorgung, Generator, Batterie Power supply, Generator, Battery
\C ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS A 03-01.DOC B 1 TECHNISCHE SCHULUNG STS

Engineer's Manual

H Kontrollgerät, Meldegerät, Signalgerät Monitoring, signal and warning device
K Relais, Schütz Relay
L Induktivität, Drosselspule, Spule, Inductive, throttle, coil
M Motor Motor
N Regler, Verstärker Control system, amplifier
P Messgerät, Prüfeinrichtung, Anzeige- Measuring appliance, testing device, indicating

Instrumente device
R Widerstand Resistor
S Schalter, Wähler Switch, selector
T Transformator Transformer

Engineer's Manual

U Modulator, Umsetzer von elektrischen in andere Modulator, converter from one electric
elektrische Größen dimension into another electric dimension
V Halbleiter, Röhre Semiconductor, valve
W Übertragungsweg, Leitung, Antenne Conduction, line, antenna
X Klemmen, Klemmleisten, Klemmkasten, Stek- Terminal, terminal block, terminal box, plug,
ker, Steckverbindungen, Kabeltrommeln ohne connections, cable drum without slip ring,
Schleifring
Y elektrisch betätigte mechanische Einrichtungen, Electrically operated mechanical device,

Magnetventile solenoid
Z Abschluss, Entstörglieder, Entstörfilter, Begren- Screening unit, screening filter, equaliser,

zer, Gabelabschluss, Ausgleichseinrichtung limiter

Engineer's Manual
Switches (identification letter: S)

Consumers use switches for switching on and off or converting. They operate as opening or closing contacts or as
changeovers. The name does not give any information on the arrangement of the switch or its operating mode.
Switches often receive their designations from their functioning or operating mode (e.g. limit switch, bridging switch, hoist limit switch,
pressure switch or proximity switch).
Depending on their task switches are used in various ways. We use a great variety of different switches.
closing contact Examples for switch operations:

When it is operated the switch Manual operation
closes a power circuit. Switch does not latch
Manual operation
Switch latches
opener
When it is operated the switch Operation by lever or roller lever
Opens a power circuit Switch does not latch
Inductive operation (inductive coil opera-

tion)
Changeover switch
Thermal switch (in the example
When it is operated the switch
changes from one circuit into an- at 80°)
other circuit. Pressure switch (e.g.oil or air
pressure)
Switch does not latch.

Engineer's Manual
Switches (Identification letter: S)

Examples of switches that are used on our cranes:
Roller lever switch
There are various options of roll switches.
They are manually operated (e.g. by weights, switch bars, cams, levers etc.)
Keys, push buttons

Key controlled switches, manually operated. They close the circuit just as long as
they are operated, i. e. they do not latch.
They are often used in form of a key switch.
The key is for security. Only with the key can you switch.
Toggle switches, converters

Switches are operated manually. They switch on on initial operation
and switch off when they are used again, that means that they "latch".
They are also used in form of a key switch.

Engineer's Manual
Switches (Identification letter S)

Level - switch
Level switches are used on liquid levels. They monitor the level of the liquid
and operate when it is too low or too high (e.g. hydraulic oil or level of the cooling
water).
Micro- switch
Micro- switches are mechanically operated
(e.g. by control cams, levers or by a control plunger).
Micro- switches connect very fast, but they are designed for
a low capacity only.
Vacuum-switch Vacuum switches are operated through a vacuum. Among others

they are used in the suction pipe of motors, to control
air filter pollution.
Pressure switch
Pressure switches are operated by air or oil pressure. Ready set as well as ad-
justable types are used.
Among others they are used in the brake system, hydraulic system and motors
(motor oil pressure). In the hydraulic system pressure switches are used to
control the filter: when the dynamic pressure in front of the filter increases
they switch on a control light (in older units a pressure difference switch was
used in this case).

Engineer's Manual

Pressure difference switch

The pressure difference switch compares the pressure in front of and after a
hydraulic pipe filter.
This switch contains a permanent solenoid which is held in a certain position by
a spring. The magnetic plunger changes its position when the pressure difference
increases. When the preset pressure drop is reached, the permanent solenoid
operates a Reed contact (coil operated switch).

Engineer's Manual
Thermal switch
Thermal switches are activated by temperature changes. In most types, the tem-
perature to be measured operates on a bi-metal strip which operates the switch
contact.
The types we use are pre-set at a fixed temperature level. In most cases tempera-
ture switches control the warning lights, among others they are used in the hy-
draulic tank and transmission.

Engineer's Manual

Hoist limit switch, Type 12 (Manufacturer No. 31 002 06 0012)
Hoist limit switch Type 12 consists two Function:

integrated field resistors.
If the hoist limit switch weight is not lifted the hoist
These field resistors allow the computer to limit switch is closed, between the wires 1 and 4 a
distinguish between the following states: resistance of 826 Ω (4,75 kΩ parallel to
1 kΩ) can be measured.
hoist limit switch closed
hoist limit switch open
short circuit
interruption
If the hoist limit switch weight is lifted the

hoist limit switch opens, between wires 1 and 4
a resistance of
4,7 kΩ can be measured

Engineer's Manual

Proximity - switch (Initiator)
Proximity switches are non contact switches which operate by sensing an electrical conduc-
tive material (e.g. metal) by the proximity of the two.
Functioning:
The sensor coil causes a magnetic field at the initiator head. If an electrical conductive
object approaches the initiator head, power is taken away from this magnetic field.
The electronic of the initiator calculates this power and switches the power stage on.

Engineer's Manual

Important note to proximity switches:
Proximity switches are electronic components that must be connected with the correct polarity.
Proximity switches do not function or are destroyed when they are not correctly connected.
In our units we use different proximity switches. They should always be connected in accordance with the
circuit diagram.
Proximity switches cannot be checked by measuring the resistance but by measuring the voltage in
electrical connected state.
At switching currents of over 100 mA or 250 mA (depending on the type) the proximity switches are damaged or an in-
tegrated overload protection is initiated. When this overload protection has been initiated it can be "unlocked" by
switching off and restart of the power supply.
Proximity switches have a LED showing the state of operation of the switch.
2-pole proximity switches only operate with the consumer connected, as they receive their power supply from
this consumer.

Engineer's Manual

Connections of proximity switches:
Proximity switch type connection symbol
3 pole, with connecting cable (opener) Brown = + (Plus)
Blue = – (Mass)
Black = S (Signal)
3 pole, with connecting cable (closing contact) Brown = + (Plus)
Blue = – (Masse)
Black = S (Signal)
3 pole, with plug-in connector (opener) 1 =.+ (Plus)
3 = – (Mass)
2 = S (Signal)
3 pole, with plug-in connector (closing contact) 1 = + (Plus)
3 = – (Mass)
4 = S (Signal)
2 pole, with connecting cable (opener) Black = + (Plus)
White = S (Signal)
2 pole, with connecting cable (closing contact) White = + (Plus)

Black = S (Signal)
2 pole, with plug-in connector (opener) 4 = + (Plus)

1 = S (Signal)
2 pole, with plug-in connector (closing contact) 1 = + (Plus)

4 = – (Mass)

Engineer's Manual
Electrical components Technical training
Relay (Identification letter: K)

Relays are electromagnetic (remote-) controlled switches with one or more switching contacts (= operation contacts).
To operate these contacts a plunger is moved by the magnetic field of a

coil (relay coil) when the control current passes through the coil.
Relays with more than one set of contacts are called multi-pole relays.
In this case the plunger moves an insulated bar which initiates
operation of all contacts simultaneously.
When the coil is switched off a very high voltage occurs (self-induction).
Therefore a recovery diode is often built in the relays or their sockets.
Depending on the type of relay the working contacts are designed as opening,
closing changeover or contacts.
Important
The working current flows through the operation contacts, the control current flows through the coil of the relay.
Always measure the control current, mass and operation contacts at the relay.
Newer relays can be manually operated for checking the operation contacts for initiating the operation contacts, so
the operation contacts can also be measured when they are disassembled. (measuring the resistance).
The working voltage, control current and operation voltage are often indicated on the relay, they must be strictly
followed to avoid damage to the relay.
\D ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS B 03-01.DOC B 13 TECHNISCHE SCHULUNG STS

Engineer's Manual
Relay (Identification letter: K)

Locking relay
Relays are often arranged as locking relays. Sometimes this function cannot be seen from our circuit diagrams immediately.
Simplified sketch of a relay Function:

in locking design
Switch S 2 is closed, which energises the relay coil of K 1.
The two relay contacts of K1 close.
The lamp H1 is lit as it receives current from the relay contact
K1.2.
If the switch S 1 is opened again relay K1 remains energised, as it re-

ceives current from its own contact K1.1 (self-locking contact).
Lamp H1 remains lit.
Self-locking can only be cancelled by interrupting the circuit, i.e. the re-
lay coil of K 1 must be without current for a short time.
Switch S 1 is activated for a short time, the relay coil is without current
And opens the two relay contacts.
The lamp H 1 is no longer lit.

Engineer's Manual
Relays (Identification letter: K)

Examples of relays that are used on our cranes:
Picture Symbol Manufacturer Description Contact-

Type capacity
Finder 4 pole relay Permanent capacity:

5A
Recovery diode and
55.34.9.024.0090 monitoring-LED are
integrated in the relay.
Mechanical monitoring
and manual operation
Schrack 4 pole relay Permanent capacity:

6A
recovery diode and
EMG 10 monitoring -LED are
REL/KSR integrated in the relay
G 24/21-LC
Mechanical monitoring
and manual operation

Engineer's Manual
Relays (Identification letter: K)

Examples of relays that are used on our cranes:
Picture Symbol Manufacturer Description Contact-

Type capacity
Single pole relay Permanent capacity:

Bosch
Recovery diode 10 A
0332204204 integrated in the relay
short term capacity:
20 A
Single pole relay Permanent capacity:

Schrack
Relay is firmly fixed 8A
EMG 10 with the socket
short term capacity:
REL/KSR Recovery diode, reverse 10 A
G 24/21-LC battery protection and
monitoring –LED are on
the socket

Engineer's Manual
Time relays (Identification letter: K)

Time relays have electronic (formerly motor driven) delay facilities.
The period of delay is usually adjustable.
In later relays the operation mode (releasing retarded, delay retarded, etc.) is also adjustable.
The operation mode is selected in accordance with the function needed for the crane electrics.
The function can be seen from the symbol of the time relay in the electric circuit diagram.
For a better understanding this symbol can be imagined like a small parachute.
Relay switches on with a delay. Relay switches off with a delay.

.
The „parachute“ delays switching The „parachute" delays switching
on of the contact. off of the contact.

Engineer's Manual

Example of a time relay that is used on our cranes:
Finder Multifunction – time relay, type 82.01
This time relay can be used for four functions (operation

modes), therefore it is called multifunction time relay.
The operation mode (AI, DI, SW, BE) is selected with a

turn key.
The maximum time of delay is adjusted with the turn key

for the time basis (–, 1 s, 10 s, 1 m, 10 m, 1 h, 10 h) if
needed for fine adjustment reduced with the multiplier po-
tentiometer.
The position of the key „–„ at the time basis switches off the
delay time and the time relay works like a normal relay.
The LED of the time relay lights green when it is switched

to operation voltage and red when the time relay is
switched on.

Engineer's Manual

Modes of operation of the Finder Multifunction – time relay, type 82.01
connection-
scheme
Mode of AI BE SW DI
operation keys
Mode of Starting delay Dropping delay Impulse relay Closing line transient
operation (impulse starting)
Description of Switch S1 is closed. Switch S1 is closed. Switch S1 is closed. Switch S 1 is closed.

the function After the set time the The relay is energised The relay is energised The relay is energised
relay is energised and stays immediately. If switch S1 is immediately, and drops after Immediately and drops after
energised until switch S1 is opened again, the relay only the set time, but is the set time without
opened. drops out after the set time. energised again after the set opening switch S 1.
time etc.
(pulsing relay).

Engineer’s Manual
Solenoid valves (Identification letter: Y)
Solenoid valves are electro-magnetically operated directional spool valves, they are the
link between the electrical control and the hydraulic or pneumatic systems.
In operation, plunger movements occurs, when the coil is energised, thus creating a magnetic
field. Spring operation returns the plunger when the coil is de-energised.
Important:
Coils of solenoid valves of the same type are interchangeable. Please observe the exact type des-
ignation.
In order to avoid high induction voltages a diode has been incorporated into the plug of the sole-
noid valve.
Some solenoid valves have a manual operation option in order to facilitate checking. This can
operate the plunger directly. The manual operation option must not be used for operating the
crane when the electrical control is defective.
In many connector plugs for solenoid valves incandescent lamp IEEE or LED are in-
corporated; they only indicate the presence of voltage, they do not indicate whether
the solenoid valve or the valve are working.
Always check the solenoid valve spools for:

Voltage, mass, current , resistance, breakdown IEEE against housing or mass.
\E ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS C 03-01.DOC B 20 TECHNISCHE SCHULUNG STS

Engineer’s Manual
Proportional valves (Identification letter: Y)
Proportional valves are the link between electric and hydraulic. They are directed by
electronic controls (proportional valve amplifier, PDC or SPS).
Proportionally to the electrical current that passes through the spool of the valve a rotor
is operated. The rotor extends the piston towards a spring .
In this way it can be set that the piston moves proportionally to the working current of
the valve spool.
We use solenoids with specially defined power – current relation.
Important:
Check the signal from the amplifier with an analogue voltage meter, as the
current signal is not “DC”.
Also check the spool resistance and breakdown IEEE against housing or mass.
Proportional valves must not be fitted with idle diodes, as the amplifiers would
get a response via the self-induction voltage of the valve spools.

Engineer’s Manual
Resistors (Identification letter: R)
Resistors are components with a desired resistance value, they impose a resistance to the electrical current.
We distinguish between 3 types of resistors:
Fixed resistors
Adjustable resistors
Thermal resistors
Fixed resistors
Fixed resistors are Ohmic resistors with a fixed non-adjustable resistor value.
According to the ICE – standards fixed resistors are produced as wire wound, carbon layer, metal layer ,
metal film or plastic track resistors .
Fixed resistors have 2 connectors.
The value is printed on the resistor as a figure or as a colour code (4 or 5 coloured rings).
The maximum capacity of the resistor, which can be read from the data sheet, must not be exceeded.

Engineer’s Manual

Fixed resistors colour code – tables
Resistors with four rings Resistors with five rings

Engineer’s Manual

Adjustable resistors
With adjustable resistors the resistor value can be adjusted within a certain range. The resistor range is
usually printed on the resistor.
The resistor value is adjusted by means of a sliding contact which moves across a resistance path.
Depending on the design adjustment can be made by a rotary spindle, a slider or by screw adjuster.
Adjustable resistors whose value can be adjusted by turning a spindle are called potentiometers.
The three connections are called:

E = input (+)
S = collector
A = output (-)
The supply current is applied at the input and the output, the voltage produced by the adjusted resistor
can be taken from the collector (see Ohm's law).
The capacity indicated by the manufacturer always applies to the complete resistor path. If the current
only passes through part of the resistor path the capacity is correspondingly less.
Adjustable resistors are used in our cranes as length sensors, angle sensors, required value reducers etc.
Adjustable resistors are also produced with tappings at certain positions of the winding IEEE, a fixed voltage can be taken
from or be put on the winding IEEE (e.g. SL 740).

Engineer’s Manual

Examples of adjustable resistors
Spindle- Potentiometer
The spindle is turned with a screw driver. The spindle moves the
collector over the resistor path.
Wire- Potentiometer
By turning the potentiometer shaft a collector is moved across the

resistor path.
The resistor path consists of a special resistor wire which is wound
on an insulator.
Layer- Potentiometer
By turning the potentiometer shaft the collector is moved across

the resistor path.
In the layer potentiometer the resistor path usually consists of a
carbon layer.
Spiral- wire- Potentiometer
By turning the potentiometer shaft a collector is moved across the

resistor path.
We usually use 10- turn spiral potentiometers in our cranes (10
turns from one end of the resistor path to the other end).

Engineer’s Manual

Temperature dependent resistors (Thermistor)
Temperature dependent resistors change their resistor values corresponding to the ambient temperature.
We categorise them in two different categories, the posistor resistors and the thermistor resistors.
Posistor resistors have an excellent conductivity in cold state, their resistor value increases
with rising temperature.
They have a positive temperature coefficient and are therefore called PTC- resistors (Positive
Temperature Coefficient).
Symbol of PTC resistor

Thermistor resistors have an excellent conductivity in hot state, their resistor value de-
creased with rising temperature.
They have a negative temperature coefficient and are therefore called NTC- resistors (Nega-
tive Temperature Coefficient).
Symbol of NTC resistor

We often use NTC resistors for temperature control (e.g.. motor oil, hydraulic oil,
cooling water etc.)
A check can only be carried out with the corresponding data sheet from the manufacturer.
In this procedure the resistor is heated to certain temperatures and the corresponding resistor
value
diagram is compared with the value on the data sheet.
temperature control
with NTC resistor

Engineer's Manual
Diodes (Identification letter: V)
The diodes we use are semi-conductor components (mostly

silicon) with two connectors.
To be able to distinguish the connectors they are called an-
ode and cathode.
In most cases the cathode is marked by a coloured ring on

the diode.
Diodes can let current flow through in one direction

and to close the flow in the opposite direction.
The "valve effect" is of a great technical importance.
The forward direction can easily be seen from the

circuit diagram when the symbol of the diode is re-
garded like a "funnel".
\F ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS D 03-01.DOC B 26 TECHNISCHE SCHULUNG STS

Engineer's Manual
Diode (Identification letter: V)
In forward direction diodes reduce their voltage by their

threshold voltage, depending on the design by about 0.4 to
0.8 Volt.
Threshold voltage means the voltage needed for the cur-

rent to start flowing through a diode set at forward direc-
tion.
In blocking direction diodes do not conduct the current in a

big range of voltage, they block. Only when the maximum
blocking voltage is exceeded diodes start conducting in
blocking direction. They are usually damaged in this proc-
ess (overheating).
On data sheets of diodes the maximum current loads

(in Ampere) are indicated for the forward direction
and the blocking voltage (in volts).
This values must not be exceeded as the diodes will

be overheated and damaged.
Defective diodes conduct or block in both directions.

Engineer's Manual

Use of diodes
Due to their electrical properties diodes are used in many different areas.
We use diodes as:
Free-wheel diodes
In coils (e.g.: solenoid valve coils and relays); in this case they reduce the high self-
induction voltages. This high voltage which arises when the coil is switched off cause
damage to the contacts and the semi-conductor components in the electrical equipment.
To suppress this voltage a diode in the form of a free-wheel diode is set anti-parallel.
The current that flows through the coil when it is switched off can continue to flow in its
original direction via the diode and can so be reduced. The self induction voltage is
hereby restricted to the forward voltage of the diode used.
The free-wheel diode should have a minimum forward voltage of 0.5 A and a blocking
voltage of 400 V.
Power diodes
In the rectifier. Formerly solenoid valve coils were only designed for a voltage of 24 V and
were damaged by the charging voltage of a generator (abt. 28 V).
That is the reason why a rectifier was incorporated into the power supply of the solenoid
valves in older units.
The power diodes of the rectifier reduce the voltage by the threshold voltage (abt. 3 V) to
a voltage that the solenoid valve coils can cope with.
Symbol of a power-diode

Engineer's Manual

We use diodes as:
Switching diodes
in the power circuit. When a diode is used as a switching diode its property to let electri-
cal current through in one direction and to block the flow in the opposite direction is
taken advantage of. Switching diodes are used in our units very often therefore they are
often assembled in form of diode arrays.
Diode arrays are circuit boards on which several diodes have been soldered. The com-
plete diode array is marked in our circuit diagrams by one identification (e.g. V 300);
The individual diodes are not individually marked. Individual diodes of a diodes array
can only be determined by means of their terminals as indicated in the circuit diagram
diode gate
(e.g.: V 300 terminal 1 and 2).
Example of a circuit with switching diodes:

Only contact S 1 is closed. Current flows through relay coil K 1 and via diode V 1
through relay coil K2. Diode V 2 blocks, and so no current can flow through relay coil
K 3. Relays K 1 and K 2 are switched on.
Only contact S 2 is closed. Current flows through relay coil K 2. Diodes V 1 and V 2
block, and so no current can flow through the relay coils of K 1 and K 3. Relay K 2 is
switched on.
Only contact S 3 is closed. Current flows through relay coil K 3 and via the diode V 2
through relay coil K 2. Diode V 1 blocks, and so no current can flow through relay coil
K 1. Relays K 2 and K 3 are switched on.
circuit with diodes switching

Engineer's Manual

We use diodes as:
Z- Diodes (Zener - Diodes)

Are silicon diodes with a specific property: in blocking direction they become electrically
conductive at a voltage dependent on the design. This voltage is called Zener- voltage.
In forward direction a Z-diode works like a normal silicon diode. In almost all cases
Z- diodes are used in blocking direction, to limit, reduce or stabilise voltages. (e.g.: on
SLI circuit boards. Symbol Z- diode
Example of a circuit with Z- diode:

A drop resistor Rv and a Z- diode, with a Zener voltage of 5.6 Volts are connected in se-
ries, the Z- diode is used in blocking direction. The supply voltage of the series connec-
tion is 24 Volts. The voltage of 5.6 Volts as fixed in the design is now adjacent to the Z-
diode, therefore there is a voltage of 18.4 Volts (24 V – 5.6 V) at the drop resistor Rv.
If the supply voltage is increased to 28 V, a constant voltage of 5.6 V is still adjacent to the
Z- diode, but the voltage at the drop resistor is increased to 22.4 V (28 V – 5.6 V).

Engineer's Manual

We use diodes as:
Light emitting diodes (LED)

Are used in forward direction. As they emit light they are called "light emitting diodes".
(LED).
Depending on the material LEDs light in red, green, yellow, white or blue.
LEDs are often used as indicators on circuit boards (e.g.: SLI, SPS) or in control lights as Symbol LED
they have a longer life time than light bulbs. The connectors of the LEDs are called anode
(+) and cathode (-).
In a new diode the anode can be seen from the mostly longer connecting wire.
LEDs must only be operated at the maximum voltage UF as specified by the manufac-
turer and the maximum current IF to make sure they are not overloaded.
If an LED is to be used at a higher operating voltage than specified by the manufacturer a LED connectors
resistor is connected in series before the LED. This drop resistor limits the
voltage UF and the current IF of the LED.
Example:
A LED with the operating data UF = 2 V and IF = 2 mA is to be used at an operating volt-
age of UB = 28 V. The correct drop resistor RV is to be determined.
URV = UB - UF URV = 28 V – 2 V = 26 V
URV 26V
RV = RV = = 13000 Ω = 13 kΩ
IF 0,002 A

Engineer's Manual

We use diodes as:
Light emitting diodes (LED)

as control lights (e.g.: suspension level AC 80 etc.). We use special LEDs in control lights.
They are fitted with a readily fixed drop resistor and can be operated direct at a voltage
of max. 28 V. The drawing of current at this LED is about 14 mA at 28 V and about 12
mA at 24 V. Furthermore a bridge rectifier* is integrated into this LED so that a re-
verse polarity to direct current is impossible and the LED can also be operated at alter-
nating current.
The LED has an 8 mm Midget Groove-connector for operation in corresponding plug-in
sockets.
* Bridge rectifier :
A simple bridge rectifier consists of one circuit of 4 diodes and has 2 input connectors and
2 output connectors.
Due to the property of the diodes to let the current through in one direction only the out-
put connectors of the bridge rectifier always have the same polarity, the polarity of the
input connectors do not play a role.

Engineer's Manual
Capacitor (Identification letter: C)
Basic design
A capacitor consists basically of two electrically conductive bodies (areas) which are separated by
a insulating layer.
The insulating layer of a capacitor is called dielectric.
Functioning
If a capacitor is connected to a voltage the areas are charged up to this connected voltage and store the electric charge.
The electric charge of the capacitor remains for a short time only as the dielectric does not dispose of an endlessly large electric resistance
and the capacitor discharges through current leakage.
The higher the self-discharging time of the capacitor the higher value it is, customary values in this range are 1000 to 10000 seconds.
An electrically charged capacitor acts like a power supply until it is discharged..
Capacity
The higher the areas used inside the capacitor the more electric charge it can store.
The storage capacity of a capacitor is called capacity (formula symbol: C) its measuring unit is Farad (F).
As Farad is a very large unit parts of this unit are often indicated for capacitors.
Parts of the unit
1 µF 1 Microfarad 0,001 F
1 nF 1 Nanofarad 0,000 001 F
1 pF 1 Picofarad 0,000 000 001 F

Engineer's Manual
Capacitors (Identification letter: C)

Capacitors are made from the most various materials that determine their electric properties.
Apart from the capacity these properties include polarity and maximum operating voltage.
Capacitors are destroyed by:

Reverse poling
Exceeding their maximum operating voltage
Too quick charging and discharging
Examples of capacitors
Picture symbol description
Electrolytic-capacitor (poled)
- Large capacity (0,47 µF to 10000 µF)
- Explodes at reverse poling or excess voltage
and sets poisonous gases free in the explosion
- Is used e.g. in our AC 435 as impulse limiter
of the hoist rotation indicator.
Metal- plastic- capacitor (unpoled)
- Medium capacity (0,01 µF to 1 µF)
- Is used e.g. on our SLI circuit boards.
Ceramic- disc- capacitors (unpoled)

- Low capacity (1 pF to 47 nF)
- is used e.g. in our SLI shielded plugs

Engineer's Manual
Starter battery (Identification letter: G)
Lead batteries are energy stores (accumulators). They change chemical energy into electric energy.
When a lead accumulator is charged, electric energy is changed into chemical energy.
The basis of every lead accumulator is the cell. Its housing contains the positive – plus electrode and
the negative – minus electrode. The electrodes consist of grid-like lead of lead dioxide. The electrodes
are dipped in sulphuric acid diluted in distilled water, the so called electrolytes.
Each cell of a lead accumulator has a nominal voltage of 2 V, for larger voltages than 2 Volts more
cells of the same type are connected in series and combined in one common housing.
The storage capacity of a lead accumulator is called capacity.

model of a lead The capacity is indicated in Ampere hours (Ah). The influence of the temperature is very important.
accumulator
Low temperatures result in reduced capacity.
Measuring the terminal voltage (pole voltage) of an unloaded lead accumulator does not
assure its state of charging. The main criterion is density of the acid, another important
feature is the starting behaviour.
Symbol battery
The density of the acid is measured at 20° Celsius using an acitometer.
In a charged lead accumulator the acid density should be 1.28 kg/l, the quiescent voltage of a cell is at
about 2.12 V. In uncharged lead accumulators the acid density should be 1.18 kg/l, the quiescent volt-
age of a cell is at about 1.83 V (final discharging voltage).
Symbol 2 batteries
in series connection

Engineer's Manual
Starter battery (Identification letter: G)
Serial plate
The serial plate of a lead accumulator gives info on the manufacturer, serial No. (e.g.: Varta
70038), nominal capacity (e.g.: 200 Ah) and the short current (e.g.: 630 A).
The nominal capacity of a lead accumulator corresponds to the charging amount the accumulator
can discharge until the final discharging voltage (1.83 V) is reached. An accumulator of 200 Ah
capacity, for example, can discharge 20 A for 10 hours.
The short current indicates the current that can flow when the poles of an accumulator are
bridged.
Charging of lead accumulators:

- Measure the acid density, charge when smaller than 1.21 kg/l at 20° C;
- If the battery remains insitu, disconnect the wires;
- Defrost frozen accumulators before charging them, if not there is a danger of explosion!
- Unscrew sealing plugs of the cells before charging
- Charging current only 1/10 of the capacity, e.g. 200 Ah – 20 A; express-charging only until
gases develop;
- Charge only until acid density and charging voltage do not increase anymore within two
hours.
- Refill distilled water after charging; make sure the pole clamps and the connecting cables
fit properly, grease the poles. Oxidized connecting cables cause losses.
Important:
When re-fitting the accumulator: Switch the main switch off, first connect the plus-line then the minus.
When removing an accumulator: Switch the main switch off, first disconnect the minus-line then the plus-line.
Attention danger of explosion !
Explosive gas can develop in lead accumulators. Never allow a naked light or flame near an accumulator!

Engineer’s Manual
Starter (Identification letter: M)

Internal combustion engines must be started at a minimum rpm, as compression and friction resistances have to be overcome.
The friction resistances are greatest when the engine has cooled off or the outside temperatures are low.
The starter takes the power it needs from the battery. The starter can
A starter mainly consists of a direct current only operate efficiently when the capacity of the battery is sufficient and
inverted- speed motor, a single-pole device its state of charge is good.
and a pinion gear.
Functioning:
An inverted-speed motor is a motor in which The connectors B + and B – are connected direct to the battery.
rotor winding and exciter windings are con- The 24V, 50A supply from the battery is connected to a single pole sole-
nected in series; it develops a very high noid via an auxiliary relay. When powered, the starter motor drive pinion
starting torque. Engages the engine flywheel gear and turns the engine. When the engine
starts and the starter motor is switched off, the drive pinion retracts
from the flywheel gear..
Important:
A starter should not be activated for more than 10 seconds with-
out interruption. Wait at least 30 seconds before repeating.
Ensure that the cables and the connectors are sound as the volt-
age drop between the battery and the starter must not be too
great.
\G ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS E 03-01.DOC B 37 TECHNISCHE SCHULUNG STS

Engineer’s Manual
AC - generator (Identification letter: G)

An AC – generator (old term: dynamo) is required to supply power to the vehicle systems and for
charging the battery.
The 3-phase AC – current produced by the generator must be rectified, as only direct current
only is suitable for charging the battery.
The rectifier consists of a cooling board which is combined with the generator. 6 performance
diodes are pressed into this board. The voltage is controlled by transistors, which are electronic
components and fitted to the generator in the brush collector gear circuit..
AC generator 3-phase The generator light (not: charge light) must have sufficient performance from the generator to be
extinguished at low rpm.
When the ignition is switched on this light will glow and it goes off when the engine is
running. This only indicates correct functioning of the generator, it does not indicate the
state of charge at the battery. When the generator is defective the light shows only at
higher rpm. The light bulb should be 24 V, 3 W.
An AC – generator can only be operated when the systems and the battery are con-
nected.
The starter battery must not be connected at the wrong poles or without the engine
running. Neither must it be wrongly connected for a starting aid.
This can damage the diodes in the rectifier and the voltage control.
During electric welding operations the diodes of the rectifier can be damaged. This
should be avoided by disconnecting the battery cables.

Engineer’s Manual
AC - Generator (Identification letter: G)
An AC generator has four terminals:

Schnittbild eines Drehstrom- Generators
B+ (30) to battery positive pole

D+ to generator control light
and operation hours con-
trol
B- (31) to battery negative

pole
W to rpm meter at
Diesel engines

Engineer’s Manual
Hoist drum rotation indicator

The hoist drum rotation indicator is to indicate the state of movement and the speed of rotation of the hoist drum, when the hoist control
lever is used by the driver. We use two different design of hoist drum rotation indicators, both made by Krüger Co. as well as two other
designs:
1. with rubber notched disc at the control lever

This was fitted to our big lattice boom cranes for some time. The sender is driven by a flanged wheel through a spring mounted
friction wheel. The voltage arising from this process is converted into pulses and transferred to a stepping motor in the indicator
through the electronics in the distributor. Here, the pulses are converted into rotation of the notched rubber disc. The rpm of the
disc correspond to the number of pulses.
2. with pulse indicator in the control lever

This type was fitted to telescopic cranes for some time. The sender is driven by the flanged wheel through a spring mounted fric-
tion wheel. The voltage arising from this process is converted into pulses and transferred to the electronics inside the distributor.
The pulses are boosted here and transferred to the pulse indicator in the control lever. A thumb button indicated the pulses and
the rpm corresponded to the number of pulses.
3. with pulse indicator in the control lever (current series)

The pulse indicator produces a sound and vibrating signal, it is provided by one (previously two) approximation switch per hoist
drum. The approximation switch is operated by control cams which are fitted laterally at the flanged wheel. In some units, for
resolution, this signal is fed to a syncro monitor, a printed circuit board (meter card) or to the safe load indicator (SLI). A syncro
control has not yet been provided.
4. with pulse indicator in the control lever (current AC 25 and AC 40 series)

The pulse indicator produces a sound and vibrating signal, it is provided by an pulse limiting board via an integrated approxima-
tion switch. The board is inside the housing of the lower limit switch. The approximation switch is operated by a toothed wheel,
which is driven by the hoist drum.

Engineer’s Manual
Cable reel (Identification letter: E)

Cable reels (technically: spring operated – cable reels) provide for the automatic reeling of cables and other leads for services at varying
locations.
Our units are driven by a clock type spring which is tensioned when the cable is reeled off by the extending boom.
For correct rewinding – the reel is pre–tensioned.
A low pre-tension will cause a deep sag in the cable at long extensions.
A over pre-tension can damage the cable and/or the spring if the number of spring turns is exceeded.
Pretension the spring – cable reels with 4 to 6 forward turns, in most cases this corresponds to the distance between the mounting point
of the reel and the anchor point of the cable at the sheave head.
Check that the remaining cable length and the reel-off available corresponds to the total telescope length.
Sliprings and collectors (brushes) provide for the transmission of current to the wire fitted to the revolving – cable reel.
The most frequent failures are:
corrosion of the contact areas

freezing tight or breaking off of the brushes – sticking in holders
spring fracture or dislocation, detectable by a hitting noise;
replacing a spring can be very expensive and may not be economic.

Engineer’s Manual
Wind indicator (Identification letter: G)

A vane anomometer fitted to the boom head provides the voltage for the monitoring de-
vice in the crane cabin. It indicates the wind speed in meter per second (m/s) and in
Beaufort* .
The vane anomometer is maintenance free. An integrated self-controlling heating system

prevents the unit from freezing tight. The sensor consists of a tacho – generator with in-
tegrated rectifier bridge. The output voltage is proportional to the number of revolutions
and is transmitted directly to the control device.
Measuring range 0 to 35 m/s, this corresponds to

wind force 1 to 12 (0 to 15 V)
heating capacity 6 to 15 W
heating voltage 24 V
*Beaufort- Scale, originally 12-, now 17- part scale for determination of the wind force
(wind force 1 to 17).

Engineer’s Manual
Eddy current brake (Identification letter: Y)

An Eddy current brake is built into the undercarriage upon request of the cus-
tomer or according to the country regulations.
Working principle
if a metal disc (=rotor) moves in a magnetic field eddy currents are pro-
duced that build up an opposing magnetic field, a counter force. This
force brakes the movement of the rotor. The stronger the magnetic field
and the faster the rotor moves the higher is this counter force.
Example
If the switch is open no current flows, no magnetic field is built up by the
coils and the rotor moves unhindered.
If the switch is closed current flows and the coils build up a magnetic
field and the rotor is braked to a standstill.
High currents flow in this process and great heat is produced.

Engineer’s Manual
Support pressure control EI 40 (Identification letter: A)

The support pressure control EI 40 Controlled are 1. the programmed admissible minimum
serves to monitor and to control the 2. the adjustable admissible maximum support pressure (type- specific)
support hydraulic pressure.
The force in the support cylinders is Set up
detected by the pressure sensors
and indicated by console in tons. 1. 4 pressure sensors , type DAVS 602, with integrated amplifier, fitted into the support cylinders.
Nominal pressure 600 bar

Peak pressure 1000 bar
Supply voltage 15 to 18 V
Signal voltage 2,500 V at 600 bar
Plug setting Pin A +18 V, supply
Pin B 0 V, supply
Pin C Signal Minus
Pin D Signal Plus
2. Monitor console EI 40, mounted on the chassis or in the crane cabin
operating voltage 24 V (22 to 30 V), secured at 1 AmT

supply of the pressure sensors abt. 18 V
incoming - signal 0 to 2,500 V
display 4 analogue instruments with type specific scale, illuminated
maximum limit adjustable for each support with Poti, value can be seen after
a toggle switch has been operated , upon reaching an optical
and acoustic signal, which can be switched off.
Minimal limit internally adjusted, when falling below optical and acoustic
signal, optical by a red control lamp, acoustical by Piezzo
signal sensor.
The control lamp serves at the same time to switch off the
acoustic signal
Exit Relay- exit, protected by 2 AmT
Both fuses are mounted on the board inside the console.
\H ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS F 03-01.DOC B 44 TECHNISCHE SCHULUNG STS

Engineer’s Manual
Tilt indicator (Identification letter: A)

We mount various systems: in our present units serially the FSG – system in older units
according to the customer specification or the country regulations.
1. Strawson´s Inclinometer
The relay box and the sensor / indicator unit is mounted to the superstructure so the crane
driver can observe the tilt of the crane from his seat.
The ready-for-operation and, the tilt when a warning is given or it is switched off, is indicated by
lighting of the three LED on the relay box.
Functioning is checked by the test push-button.
A red light spot shows the inclination on the round scale of the sensor/ indicator unit;
A warning is given optically and acoustically on the dashboard.
Supply 24 V reverse battery protected

Fuse 2 AF in the relay box
LED green on ready for operation nil inclination
LED green & amber on pre-warning low inclination
LED amber & red on max. permissible inclination
Test button used LED green off, LED amber and red on
2. FSG Berlin, X / Y indicator type GA- X/Y- dig / 56
The pendulum indicator is mounted to the superstructure according to the X and Y axles, the
display unit is integrated with the dashboard, or in the ECIS / PDC- display.
Indication of the inclination is seen by 5 LED per semi-axle.
The range of indication can be changed from ± 1° (green) to ± 5° (red), if the range is exceeded the
outer LED will blink.

Engineer’s Manual
Tilt indicator (Identification letter: A)

3. PAT, Type EI 50
Inclination sensor NG 210 is mounted on the crane within the slew ring and senses the inclina-
tion of the crane in the length and transverse. The electronics are also included in its housing.
The display unit EI 50 shows the inclination from 0 to ± 5°, with 10 LED per semi-axis.
A ten times greater sensitivity can be selected with this unit.
In the intersection point a LED indicates the corresponding state of operation.

Engineer’s Manual
Light barrier
The system we use is a one-way light barrier system, i.e. the beams of the sender must pass the measuring distance once.
Among others this system was used in the boom of the AC 615 for exact determination of the safety position.
When the infrared radiation from the optics of the sender meets the receiver, the receiver initiates a relay in the crane elec-
tric; this signal can be loaded to 100 mA.
Functioning of the sender can only be checked with a test unit.
The receiver alone, however, can be checked with a cigarette lighter with a flint, when the lighter is held in front of the re-
ceiver and lit several times. The sparks activate the receiver for a short time and a short illumination becomes visible in its
optics.
The sender has a service life of about 10 years.

Engineer’s Manual
Fuses (Identification letter: F)

If the current in the wires or the electrical components exceed the set limits an overload cut-off switches off the current auto-
matically.
Fuses or automatic cut-outs are most commonly used as overload cut-off.
Fuses and automatic cut-outs serve the supervision of electric

circuits and interrupt the circuit in a hazardous overload situation
Overload cut-offs must cut off in the case of:

Overload The current exceeds the admissible nominal value of the wire or of the receiver for a longer
period
Short circuit a short current is in the circuit
Important:
Fuses must never be repaired or bridged, when a fuse is to be changed it must be replaced by a new one of the
same size; if not this can result in severe damage of the electric equipment or in a fire in the wiring.

Engineer’s Manual

Fuses
Fuses whose alloy melts after a short while when it is overloaded and melts immediately in the case of a short circuit, so interrupt the
current.
There are various options of fuses.
The cut-off time of a fuse at overload is different depending on the type used: there are extremely fast (FF),
fast (F), medium fast (M), inert (T) and extremely inert (TT) fuses.
The nominal current and the cut-off time are printed or pressed on the fuses.
A fine fuse with the imprint 1 AM means a nominal current of 1 Ampere and a medium fast cut-off time.
Examples of fuses
Car-fuses Flat fuse Fine fuse Miniature fuse

- only for voltages up to 50 V - only for voltages up to 50 V - for voltages up to 250 V - for voltages up to 250 V
- nominal value of 8 to 40 A - nominal value of 1 to 40 A - nominal value of 0,032 to16 A - nominal value 0,16 to 4 A
- were used in our older models - used in our current models - used in many of our SLI - used e.g. in our CGC
circuit boards console and on PDC boards

Engineer’s Manual
Automatic cut-out (circuit breakers)

Automatic cut-outs or circuit breakers are often used in-
stead of fuses, as, among other things, they can be
switched on again after they had been activated. For
smaller over-currents the thermal contact (Bimetal con-
tact) switches off overload depending on time.
For higher over-currents or short currents a magnetic coil
initiates the immediate cut-off of the circuits in danger
through a trigger device (electromagnetic instantaneous
tripping).
Automatic cut-outs are mainly used for voltages of up to
400 V and nominal values of 1 to 32 A.

Engineer’s Manual
Notes

Engineer’s Manual
Notes

Engineer’s Manual
Measuring practise Technical Training
Important
Always use your multi measuring meter (Multimeter) when taking readings in the crane electrics. Make sure that the bat-
teries still have enough voltage, check the connecting cables and clamps for damage and functioning.
Proper tools only give you exact measuring results.
Test lamps must only be used for measuring circuits without electronic components, e.g. lightening equipment. They can ab-
sorb a great amount of current which can lead to faulty connections of relays and proximity switches, they can also damage
electrical components.
Always switch off the voltage first before separating wires of components.
Damages by short circuits are avoided in this way.
Do not replace blown fuses by fuses with higher current rating. This can cause overheating of the cables or other problems.
The cause of blown fuses are usually of the following:

1. the current flow is permanently too high, e.g. caused by a defective component or too many users are connected
or
2. the current flow is much too high because conductors under mutual voltage are wrongly connected with one another
and there is no user in this connection (effective resistance) = short circuit.
Always find and remove the failure first before a new fuse is put in.
If a defective component has to be replaced find the cause of the defect first and remove it before a new component is put in
and supplied with voltage.
Do not remove function disorders by bridging (bridge connection), you will put safety appliances or other important connec-
tions out of operation.
\I MEASURING PRACTISE A 04-01.DOC D 1 TECHNISCHE SCHULUNG STS

Engineer’s Manual
Measuring devices
Digital- Multimeter
In comparison to the classical magneto-electric meter (analog multimeter) the outstanding fea-
tures of electronic multimeters with a digital display, also referred to as digital multimeter are
robustness and clear readability. As the functioning is not dependent on the position; readings
can be taken in locations that are difficult to reach.
In some types the electronic unit provides for additional functions such as:
Storage of the measured values
Retention of extreme values
Acoustic signal at continuity check
Automatic mode switch
LCD- display unit are used in most cases as they have the lowest need of power.
Some devices display automatically when the voltage of the battery falls below the admissible
value for sound operation.
The following readings can mostly be taken with a digital multi-meter:

Direct voltage
Alternating voltage
Direct current
Alternating current
Resistance
Diode- conducting state voltage

Engineer’sManual
Measuring devices
Analog- Multimeter
Analogue- multimeters consist of measuring units which are largely made up by move-
able mechanical parts (e.g. turning coil).
Therefore they can have a built-in inaccuracy and must, in most cases, be used as pro-
vided by the manufacturer – mostly laid flat down. Apart from personal mistakes caused
by inaccurate reading of the scale, inaccurate indications of the measuring devices must
be taken into account. Inaccurate indications of analogue devices are indicated as a per-
centage of the final value of the measuring range.
For exact readings the measuring range should be chosen in such a way that the pointer
indicates in the last third of the scale.
Changes of the measured values are easier to be seen on an analogue meter than on a
digital meter. Therefore a analogue meter is well suited for measuring the resistance of
potentiometers and to measure the current of proportional valves.
The following readings can mostly be taken with an analogue multimeter:

Direct voltage
Alternating voltage
Direct current
Alternating current
Resistance

Engineer’s Manual
Measuring devices
Snap-on ammeter
By means of a snap-on ammeter currents can be measured in a wide range without
touching and without separating the circuit.
For measuring the tongs of the measuring device are put around the wire which is to be
measured. If a current flows through the wire to be measured a magnetic field builds up
around them which can be evaluated through the snap-on ammeter. Indication is in Am-
peres on a LCD display.
Very high currents can be measured with a snap-on ammeter, e.g. when the starter mo-
tor or the generator are operated
In some models the electronics provide for some additional functions, e.g.:
Storing the values measured
Keeping extreme values
Measuring bushes are often fitted to digital snap-on ammeters in order to measure other
values apart from the current.
The following readings can be taken by means of a digital snap-on ammeter:

Direct voltage
Alternating voltage
High direct current
High alternating current
Resistance

Engineer’s Manual
Measuring the voltage with a multimeter

The unit of electric voltage is Volt (V) and the formula symbol is U.
Always use a voltage meter or a multimeter set at the measuring range V to
measure electric voltage.
Voltage can only build up between two points, e.g. between the clamps of a
producer and the clamps of a user.
In order to keep the indication at correct polarity fix the plus-pole measuring
wire at a position nearer to the plus-pole of the producer and the minus pole
measuring wire nearer to a position to its minus-pole.
For measuring electric voltage at a user connect the measuring device to the
connection clamps of the user.
For measuring electric voltage of a producer connect the measuring device to

the connection clamps of the producer.
For measuring the voltage the meter must be connected

parallel to the circuit

Engineer’s Manual
Measuring practise Technical training
Voltage – measuring with the multimeter

First select the measuring range of your multimeter – with an unknown measuring unit always begin in the highest possible range.
Clamp on the minus- measuring wire to the minus pole of the user or to the mass, the plus- measuring wire to the connection which is to
be measured. The meter must always be positioned parallel to the circuit.
Always follow a systematic order:
1. first measure at the producer or the fuse and then follow the path of the current as
indicated in the circuit diagram to the component that has failed
or
2. Start with the component that has failed, e.g. the magnetic valve and follow the
path of the current to the producer.
Always concentrate on one circuit and try to avoid skipping of interlinkings, you may
easily lose the right path.
At relays always measure control current, mass connection and all other connected re-
lay contacts. For easier checking some cog relays have a manual operation.
If a voltage is detected at a mass connection either the connection to the mass is inter-
rupted or a transition resistance has built up in it.
If you measure at measuring cabinet X2 check the reasonable supply voltage as well as
all fuses, also check the plugs for tight fitting.
If you check switches operate them several times and measure the switching function
each time.
Never forget to check the mass - connections, they are just as important as the plus
connections.
Attention ! Voltages of over 50 V are hazardous
\J MEASURING PRACTISE B 04-01.DOC D 6 TECHNISCHE SCHULUNG STS

Engineer’s Manual
Voltage – Measuring with the multimeter

Example of a measuring sequence
For measuring the voltage set your multimeter at the corresponding

measuring range and connect the minus- measuring wire to the
crane structure.
Pick up the voltage with the plus measuring wire of the multimeter
beginning with the consumer or the fuse.
In complicated connections it is more practical to begin in the mid-

dle if the current path.
Indicated voltage
wrong or right

Engineer’s Manual
Measuring the current with the multimeter

The formula symbol of electric current strength is I and the unit is
Ampere (A).
Measure electric current with an Amperemeter or a multimeter

set at the measuring range Ampere.
Always set your multimeter at the corresponding measuring range

first, then connect the measuring wires with the object to be measured.
For unknown measuring units always choose the highest possible

measuring range.
Make sure the maximum measuring range of your meter is not ex-
ceeded. Some meters are not secured against higher ranges of current
when the current to be measured exceeds the maximum measuring
range the meter will be damaged. Danger of accident!
Example:
Separate the voltage first, then separate the circuit and connect the
measuring wires 1 and 2 for measuring the electric current; the meas-
uring meter is connected in series.
The current must flow through the measuring meter.
Current only flows in a closed circuit.
Attention ! Currents of over 50 mA flowing through human
bodies are dangerous to life.

Engineer’s Manual
Short current - measuring with a multimeter
Causes for the activation of a fuse:

1. because of a defective component the current flow is permanently too high
or
2. the current flowing is permanently too high because lines that are under mutual
voltage are wrongly connected without a consumer being interconnected = short cir-
cuit
Measuring a short circuit
Example: the fuse F 1 has triggered
Possible causes:
1. light bulb H 1 has failed, a too high current can flow
2. Magnetic coil Y* is defective: short circuit against the housing (accidental ground)
or overheated because of winding ground.
3. Intermittent contact at a detachable connection, causing sparks which can cause
a high current flow.
4. Alive wire is connected to the structure (e.g. insulation is defective)
Measuring procedure:
Do not replace the fuse, measure with your multimeter in the measuring range resis-
tance between the exit of the fuse and the structure, the resistance measured must
correspond to the resistance of the consumer(s).
Should the resistance measured equal zero the reason is a short circuit
To the structure at one of the components: cable, relay, diode or magnetic coil.
Continue measuring after separating the component to be checked to earth.
Loose connections can be checked by slightly pulling the cables, abrased wire can be
detected by measuring to earth, also coils can be failure tested by measuring
the resistance.

Engineer’s Manual
Resistance - measuring with the multimeter

Electrical resistance has the formula symbol R and the unit Ohm (Ω).
Measuring the resistance
Direct measure the resistance with a resistance meter such as an Ohm-meter
Measuring bridge or a multimeter set at the measuring range Ohm (Ω).
While measuring the circuit must be voltage free and all condensators must be dis
charged. External currents would interfere with the result.
Separate the resistance if the measured result is unclear.
Indirect measure the resistance value by measuring the current and the voltage. The
resistance value can be calculated by means of Ohm’s law:
voltage U
resistance = R=
current I
Potentiometer or Trimmer:
For measuring the resistance at changing resistances an analogue meter should be pre-
ferred over a digital meter, as interruptions are easier to detect. Measure the total
resistance at the connections E (1) and A (3).
Measure the loop resistance at connections E (1) and A (3) while moving the brush from
the entrance to the exit.
Repeat this procedure with connections A (3) and S (2).
The loop resistance measured must show continuous changes, jumps or interruptions
indicate a defect.
Defective potentiometer or trimmers are useless, they cannot be repaired.
Attention, with small trimmers the brush can get stuck in its end position. In this case,
too the trimmer becomes useless..

Engineer’s Manual
Resistance, measuring examples – measuring with the multimeter
light bulbs 1,09 Ω Magnetic valve 17,33 Ω

light bulbs have a very low The resistance of magnetic
resistance, in operation it or relay coils is usually indi-
increases. cated on the coils; an in-
The operating resistance is crease in temperature
calculated or measured indi- causes an increase in resis-
rectly by measuring the tance.
voltage and the current.
Wiring, strand 0,28 Ω

Wires should have a very
low resistance; watch meas-
uring errors or tolerances of
the multimeter!
Low-resistive or high-resistive ?
If the measured resistance value of a consumer is very low, i.e. it is directed to 0 Ohm, the consumer is low-resistive.
If the measured resistance value of a consumer is very high however, i.e. it is directed to many Ohms, the consumer is highly
resistive.

Engineer’s Manual
Diodes – Measuring with the multimeter
Diodes are measured with the multimeter set at the measuring range diode measuring.
The semi-conductor diode allows the current to flow in one direction and closes it for the opposite
direction.
Switch off the voltage, separate the diode from the circuit, measure in both directions:
Connect the plus-measuring wire of your meter with the plus pole of the diode (anode) and the
minus-measuring wire with the minus pole of the diode (cathode).
If the diode is okay, flow-through voltage is indicated, e.g. 474 mV (picture A).
If you just change poles for your second measuring your meter display indicates overflow. (pic-
ture B).
If a low resistance is measured in both directions ,the diode is defective.
The diode is also defective if a very high or an endless resistance is measured both
directions.
The functioning of a diode can also be checked by voltage measuring. To do so separate the diode
from the the circuit.
Measure in flow direction:
If voltage is applied to the plus pole of the diode (anode), a similarly high voltage must be meas-
urable at the minus pole of the diode (cathode).
Measure in locked (inverse voltage) direction:
If voltage is applied to the minus- pole of the diode (cathode) no voltage must be measurable at
the plus pole (anode).

Engineer’s Manual
Lines (wires, mains) – Measuring with the multimeter

Measuring of a line
It is useful to set the multimeter at the measuring range resistance (Ω) or diode- measuring (humming tone).
Damage caused by mechanical impact such as pinching, overstressing etc. often occurs in long lines.
This can cause resistance in the line – the line itself becomes a consumer – and can lead to a loss of voltage.
This can lead to OPEN- circuit of relay coils etc.
In this case too, follow a systematic order to reach optimal measuring results.
Measure
1. all cores against each other
for wrong connections (rupture)against housing (plugs) and mass,
do not forget the shielding that might eventually be present.
In this procedure the wire must be disconnected from connections.
The resistance measured must be infinite
or a humming tone must not be heard.
2. all cores for perfect passage

if you connect two cores at one side of the wire with each other, you
can measure these cores in pairs.
The resistance measured must be zero Ω
or the humming tone must be audible.

Engineer’s Manual
Notes

Engineer’s Manual
Crane electric basic knowledge
Circuit diagrams Technical training
Important notes on our circuit diagrams

Circuit diagrams in crane electrics are designed as current flow plans as semi-combined and independent designs according
to DIN, IEC and in-house standard. The diagrams are issued in the A4 format.
If one component consists of several parts the circuit symbols used can be shown separately. Each of these individually
shown circuit symbols includes the designation which is common to the component. Symbols, which belong together me-
chanically can be connected with a broken connecting line.
Circuit symbols are arranged in such a way that each current path can easily be followed.
Circuits are arranged to give a clear survey.
The main purpose is the recognition of the function of a circuit.
For easier orientation each sheet is divided into fields which are numbered on the upper part of the sheet from the left to
the right. The area going to the lower part of the sheet is referred to as current path. Together with the number of the
sheet and the designation of the components they serve the reading of various circuits and switching arrangements.
Each individual current path is usually designed from the top to the bottom in its direction of flow.
The horizontal lines at the upper part of the sheet are the symbols of the lines that (almost always) carry voltage, the lower
ones are the symbols of the mass connectors.
All horizontals are designed to show where they come from and where they lead to.
Below each current path the function of the arrangement above it is described in a short text.
\K CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS.DOC D 1 TECHNISCHE SCHULUNG STS

Engineer’s Manual
Important notes on our circuit diagrams

Dash – dot frames define parts of circuits, they indicate a group or functional associations.
Branches of separately shown components are indicated by an arrowed lines.
These lines include the designation of the target of this connection; uniformity is not necessary; differences must be taken
into consideration in circuit diagrams of the various types of groups.
All components are shown in off-position; the circuits are without voltage. If, as an exception, a component is shown in on-
position, e.g. the hoist limit switch, this is indicated by an arrow Ý pointing to the top, next to the switch symbol.
The following likewise important data is found on the bottom line:
Drawing number
Unit number/ serial number
Date of compilation
State of change
Sheet number
Format
All this information must relate to the crane to be tested. Identification is possible with the construction card (crane card).

Engineer’s Manual
Symbol Bezeichnung Designation
Intervallschaltung für Wischer Wiper with interval circuit
Geber für Druckanzeige Sensor for pressure determination
Schleifring Slipring
Schmelzsicherung Fuse
Schutzschalter Circuit breaker
Schutzschalter mit thermischer Auslösung Thermal circuit breaker
3-fach Schutzschalter 3-fold circuit breaker

Engineer’s Manual
Anemometer, Generator mit Heizwiderstand Anemometer, generator with heating resistor
Batterie Battery
2 Batterien 2 batteries
Drehstromgenerator Alternator
Drehstromgenerator Alternator
Leuchte Lamp
Rundumleuchte Rotaflare lamp

Engineer’s Manual
Akustischer Signalgeber, Horn Audible alarm, horn
Akustischer Signalgeber, Klingel Audible alarm, bell
Akustischer Signalgeber, elektronisch Audible alarm, electronic bleep
Relais, Spannungsabhängig Relay, voltage dependent
Zeitrelais einstellbar Time relay, adjustable

abfallverzögert off-delay

Engineer’s Manual
Zeitrelais einstellbar Time relay, adjustable

anzugsverzögert on-delay
Kammrelais-Spule Multicontact relay, coil
Kammrelais – Wechsler – Schliesser Multicontact relay, break-make, normally open
Relais, Spule und Schaltkontakt Relay, coil and switch
Querverweis mit Angabe des Zieles Cross-reference with destination noted
Querverweis mit Angabe des Zieles Cross-reference with destination noted
Querverweis mit Angabe der Herkunft Cross-reference with origin noted

Engineer’s Manual
Induktion, Drossel Inductance coil, inductor
E-Motor 24 V Electric motor, 24 volt
Motor mit Schalter, z.B. Wischermotor Motor with switch, i.e. wiper motor
Wischermotor mit Parkstellung Wiper motor with park position
Startermotor Starter motor
Startermotor Starter motor

Engineer’s Manual
Startermotor mit Anlass-Relais Starter motor with relay
Anzeigeinstrument, Windspeed display

Windgeschwindigkeit
Temperaturanzeige 70 bis 120°, Temperature gauge 70 to 120° celsius

mit Beleuchtung illuminated
Druckanzeige 0 – 5 bar, Pressure gauge 0 – 5 bar,

mit Beleuchtung illuminated
Festwiderstand Resistor

Engineer’s Manual
Potentiometer Potentiometer
Temperaturfühler mit Schaltkontakt, Temperature sensor with switch,

Schliesser normally open
Druckfühler mit Schaltkontakt, Pressure sensor with switch,

Öffner normally closed
Vorglühwiderstand mit Bimetallkontakt Glow resistor with bi-metal contact
Druckschalter, Öffner Push-button switch, normally closed,

double action
Druckschalter, Wechsler Push-button switch, normally closed,

break-make, double action

Engineer’s Manual
Schlüsselschalter, Schliesser Key switch, normally open, double action
Rollenschalter, Öffner Roller switch, normally closed, single action
Schalter betätigt durch Druck, Öffner Switch operated from pressure, normally closed
Näherungsschalter als Öffner, Proximity switch, normally closed,

drei Anschlusskabel, three connecting cables,
Funktion: Endschalter für Hilfsausleger senken function: boom angle lowering limit
Näherungsschalter, drei Anschlusskabel Proximity switch, three connecting wires, nor-

als Öffner mally closed
Näherungsschalter, drei Anschlusskabel Proximity switch, three connecting wires, nor-

als Schliesser mally open

Engineer’s Manual
Näherungsschalter als Öffner, Proximity switch, normally closed,

gezeichnet mit Schleifring X5100 drawn with slipring
Näherungsschalter, zwei Anschlusskabel Proximity switch, two connecting wires black

schwarz und weiß, Öffner, wird durch umpolen and white, normally closed, is changing to nor-
zum Schliesser mally open if cables are connected transverse
Näherungsschalter, zwei Anschlusskabel Proximity switch, two connecting wires white

weiß und schwarz, Schliesser, wird durch um- and black, normally open, is changing to nor-
polen zum Öffner mally closed if cables are connected transverse
Näherungsschalter Proximity switch,

Engineer’s Manual
Zünd-Anlassschalter Ignition key switch
Taster, in Neutralstellung geöffnet, zwei Rich- Switch, 2 directions, normally open,

tungen single action
Schalter, in Neutralstellung geöffnet, zwei Rich- Switch, 2 directions, normally open,

tungen double action
Diode, gezeichnet in verschiedenen Positionen Diode, drawn in different positions
Optokoppler Optocoupler
Leuchtdiode LED LED, light emittting diode
Diodenkette Chain of diodes

Engineer’s Manual
Lösbare Verbindung Detachable connection
Steckdose Socket
Stecker (Dose) Socket
Stecker (Pin) Pin
Stecker und Dose Pin and socket
Dose und Stecker Socket and pin
Magnetventil Solenoid valve
Proportional-Magnetventil Proportional solenoid valve

für die Kranbewegung erforderlicher Strombe- current range for the crane motion is
reich liegt zwischen 250 – 800 mA between 250 – 800 mA
Betätigt durch Druck Operated from pressure

Engineer’s Manual
Betätigt durch Temperatur Operated from temperature
Lautsprecher Speaker
Antenne Antenna
Ý Das neben diesem Symbol gezeichnete Bauteil The component next to this symbol is displayed
ist in betätigter Form dargestellt in operated status

Engineer’s Manual
Notizen

Engineer’s Manual
Notizen

Engineer’s Manual
Electrical dictionary Technical Training
Electrical Dictionary
Edition 09 / 1999
Technical Training
S. Weinberger
\L DICTIONARY-04-01.DOC F 1 TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWR

Engineer’s Manual
This manual was created by Technical Training. It is intended to be a reference-book and shall facilitate introduction into crane electrics.
There is no claim of completeness,
suggestions for supplements and improvements are welcome;
do not hesitate to contact us.
Edition 09/1999
S.Weinberger
Customer Service
Technical Training

Engineer’s Manual
Contents
Seite Seite
A Accumulator to avalanche voltage 6 M Magnet to moving coil meter 25
B Base to brush holder 7 N Negative plate to number of turns 26
C Capacity to current intensity 11 O Ohm to oxy-hydrogen gas 27
D Darlington to dry charged 13 P Parallel connection to PTC 29
E Eddy currents to exciting wiring 16 R Rating to resistor 31
F Farad to full charge 18 S Secondary winding to switching transistor 34
G Gas derivation to Graetz rectifier 19 T Technical current direction to Triac 36
H Henry to Hybrid circuit 20 U 37
I Induction to ionic semi-conductor 21 V Varistor to voltage drop 38
K 22 W Watt to winding 39
L Lead sulphate to LDR 23 Z Z-diode to Zener effect 40

Engineer’s Manual
A
Accumulator
Energy storage. During charge phase with direct current, electric energy is converted into chemical energy. During discharge phase,
the stored chemical energy is converted is converted back into electric energy.
An accumulator battery consists of several connected accu cells.
Acceptor
Doping agent for semi-conductors to receive p-type conduction. Samples: Boron, Aluminium, Gallium and Indium.
Acid tester
acid siphon (glass-type tube with intake bulb), in which there is an aero-meter for the measurement of the acid density.
Acid protection grease
acid resistant and acid free grease to protect the battery terminals from battery acid.
Alternating voltage
Voltage, which changes its direction according to a certain, most often periodical, law.
Characteristic value: frequency.
Alternating current
current caused by alternating voltage, which permanently changes its direction following the rhythm of the alternating voltage. Zero
passage (instantaneous value zero) and peak value temporally correspond with the change of the voltage only if there are exclusively
ohm resistors in the circuit. If the circuit additionally contains inductive or capacitive reactive impedances, zero passage and peak
value of current and voltage are temporally shifted (phase shift).
Ampere, symbol: A
Measurement unit of the electric current strength.
Ampere-second, symbol: As or C (= Coulomb)
Measurement unit of the electric charge.
Ampere-hour, symbol: Ah
Measurement unit of the electric charge. 1 Ah = 3600 As. The capacity of lead batteries is indicated in Ah.

Engineer’s Manual
Analogue circuit
electronic circuit, which converts continuously changing input values (e.g. voltages) into "analogue" output values and displays the re-
sult.
Anion
a negatively charged ion by surfeit of electrons relative to the positive charge on the nucleus.
Anode
a) semiconductor diode: terminal where forward current from the outer circuit enters the diode.
b) thyristor: main terminal where forward current enters the thyristor.
Anti-interference capacitor
capacitor, connected parallel to the terminals of an electric device disturbing the wireless communication, has to shorten the interfer-
ence voltage.
Antimony
alloy constituent of the lead grids in batteries; Antimony has the property to harden lead.
Armature
a) wire wound core of a dynamo or electric motor: part of a comutator- or synchronous motor, in which a voltage is generated and
where the load current flows. In most cases this means the rotor (especially with direct current motor), however the stator can be ar-
mature, too.
b) iron part in an electromagnetic relay attracted by the exciting winding, which often does mechanical work.
Armature package
the lamina, electrically insulated against each other and slotted, pressed into to a package on the armature shaft.
Armature winding
wire or bar windings in the slots of the armature package whose ends are joined in the lamina of the collector.
Atom
smallest unit of matter or of chemical elements, consisting of atomic nucleus and electron shell.

Engineer’s Manual
Atomic nucleus
Mid-point and centre of gravity of the atom; nearly all the mass of the whole atom is concentrated in the nucleus. The nucleus has
positive electric charge and consist mainly of protons and neutrons.
Avalanche voltage (semiconductor)
Voltage on the pn-zone, at which the backward directed current exceeds a certain value.

Engineer’s Manual
B
Base, basis (Transistor)
middle zone of a transistor. The base connects emitter with collector, and its duty is to control the collector current.
Battery, lead/ acid battery
Battery, with electrodes (acting mass) consisting of lead compounds (positive electrodes) or of lead (negative electrodes). The electro-
lyte is diluted sulphuric acid.
Battery capacity
in ampere-hours (Ah), is the amount of current the battery can deliver.
Battery terminals
terminals to connect wires to the battery.
Battery water
replacement for the water of the electrolyte dissipated and evaporated during "gassing". Must correspond to special cleanness re-
quirements (see VDE 0510), use distilled water only!
Blocking layer
highly isolating zone at the p-n junction. The blocking layer, consisting of space-charges prevents further diffusion of charge carriers
and also blocks the current flow, if the p-n junction is polarized in blocking direction.
Brush springs
press the carbon brushes against the cylindrical surface of the rotor.
Brush holder
positioning guides for the carbon brushes.

Engineer’s Manual
C
Capacity (C),
the capacity is the ability of a capacitor to store electricity. C is equal to the amount of electric charge stored in the capacitor, provided
that the capacitor is charged at 1 V. C depends on the size of the capacitor and on the dielectric constant.
Measurement unit: Farad.
The capacity of a battery is the amount of electric charge that can be taken from it. Capacity depends upon the discharging current
and temperature of the electrolyte. Measurement unit: Ampere-hour (Ah)
Capacitance diode
junction diode, whose barrier capacitance is technically used. In integrated circuits capacitance diodes often are used as capacitors.
Capacitor (C)
a storage for electric charge. The capacitor consists of minimal two conducting surfaces or plates separated by insulating materials.
The most important characteristic of the capacitor is its capacity (C).
Carbon brushes
current brushes pressed against the rotor by the brush springs provide the electric conducting connections between the rotating arma-
ture and fixed leads.
Catalyst
material, whose presence speeds up, slows down, or gives a certain direction to a chemical reaction, without changing itself.
Cathode
a) at semiconductor diodes: terminal the forward current flows through from the diode into the outer current circuit.
b) at thyristors: main terminal, where the forward current leaves the thyristor.
Cell
smallest unit of a battery, consisting of positive and negative electrodes, container and electrolyte and also the parts needed for as-
sembly and connection.
Charge
see amount of electricity

Engineer’s Manual
Charging set
device to charge a battery (here in the meaning of stationary charging as opposed to charging by the generator). We can distinguish
between charging sets and automatic charging sets (quick charger).
Charging
transformation of electric energy into chemical energy caused by a current flow through the battery in a certain direction.
Charging current
Current, used to charge the battery. Charging current can flow as soon as the voltage of the generators is higher than the voltage of
the battery.
Chip
mono-crystal block of semiconductor material, most often silicon, carries a single planar transistor or an integrated circuit.
Coil
a piece of wire formed to a narrow winding spiral. The windings of the wire are electrically insulated against each other. Wire diame-
ter, coil cross section an coil length have high influence to the inductivity. Other word: wire winding, short: winding.
Collector (Transistor)
one of the three transistor terminals and the zone belonging to this terminal. The load current controlled by the base flows
through it..
The collector takes electrons from the base and transfers them to the collector terminal.
Collector (current changer)
arrangement of conducting components, isolated from each other in radial and axial direction; they are connected with carbon brushes
to enable current transmission from one circuit to the other with a sliding contact. Within direct current machines the collector is si-
multaneously used to rectify the armature currents.
Computer
complex electronic device, which very quickly and precisely solves large arithmetical problems; other expression: electronic
computer.
Conductor
Materials with high electric conductivity; metallic conductors are the best conductors.

Engineer’s Manual
Conduction electron
freely movable electron, not bound to any atom. In conductors, the whole current is transported by conduction electrons, in semicon-
ductors only a part.
Conductivity
the electric conductivity is the reciprocal value of the specific resistance. It only describes a property of the material, but says nothing
about components or circuits.
Conductance, measurement unit Siemens (S)
reciprocal value of the electric resistance.
Control
process where a value (controlled value) is continuously observed and compared with a reference value; depending on the result of the
comparison, the controlled value is changed in order to be adjusted to the reference value. The resulting process takes place in a closed
control loop.
Controller
device that can stabilize or change a value, e.g. current, voltage, speed , power etc. in a foreseen way.
Cooling attachment
mechanical component (plate or cast solid with cooling fins), in which semiconductor components are built in and that is used to dissi-
pate heat.
Corrosion
destruction of a material caused by chemical or electro-chemical attacks on the surface.
Control current
rather weak current, flowing through the base of a transistor, the gate of a thyristor or the armature winding of a relay.
In the load current circuit this causes the switching of a much stronger current.
Current
movement of the electricity in conducting materials from one pole of the current source to the other pole. Precondition for the current
is an electric voltage or an EMF. In circuit engineering, the current direction is from plus to minus (= technical current direction), that
is opposed to the electron current.

Engineer’s Manual
Circuit
conductor arrangement from one terminal of a current source via one or more consumers to the other terminal. If the circuit is inter-
rupted at some location, it is called open, otherwise it is called closed.
Current direction
a) generally speaking: from plus to minus
b) real moving direction of the electrons: from minus to plus.
Current intensity (I)
amount of electricity, which flows during 1 second through an arbitrary cross-section of a wire.
Measurement unit of the current intensity: Ampere (A)

Engineer’s Manual
D
Darlington-Transistor
two transistors in one housing, which are connected in such a way that the collector current of the first one gives the base current di-
rectly to the second, and so causing a very high total current amplification.
Delta connection
connection usual in three phase systems where the three windings of an electric motor are connected equi-directional in series to a
closed circuit.
Diffusion
automatic mixing of miscible fluids or gasses that have direct contact;
concentration differences are thereby compensated.
Digital circuit
electronic circuit, which converts continuously changing input values (e.g. time) into "digital" output values and displays the result by
numbers. E.g. digital clock.
Diode
Semiconductor component with two terminals with the property that it conducts electric current only in one direction and blocks it in
the other.
Direct voltage
Voltage which always has the same direction.
Direct voltage need not necessarily be constant but may change its value.
Direct current
Current which always flows in the same direction.
Direct current need not be constant. For example, the rectified current of generators has a certain ripple depending on the quality of
rectification and smoothing; on the other hand, battery current is completely free of short time changes in current intensity.
Discharging
change of chemical energy into electric energy (current flow directed opposite to charging).

Engineer’s Manual
Dissipation power
power consumption of an electronic component. Essential for the life time of the component is the maximum dissipation power given
by the manufacturer. This value may not be exceeded for a longer period because of the danger of overheating.
Donor
Doping agent for semiconductors, to receive n-type conduction; mainly: Phosphor, arsenic and antimony.
Doping
technical contamination of hyper-pure semiconductor material with minor amounts of acceptor or donator materials in order to in-
crease conductance of the semiconductor.
Dry charged
better "unfilled charged", battery without acid, whose plates are charged.

Engineer’s Manual
E
Eddy currents
whirl-like circular currents in a solid conductor caused by induction resulting from the magnetic flux inherent in it. Eddy currents in-
volve loss of performance, which is the higher, the faster the change of the flux. Remedy: dynamo sheet as soft-iron core, or ferrite core.
Ferrites consist of ceramic material with high permeability and have very low eddy-current loss, therefore usage in high frequency
coils. Important technical application: eddy-current brake.
Electric field
electric state between the poles of a current source or between charged conductors (wires, plates).
The electric field is characterized by the fact, that there is a force on an electric charge in it; the higher the charge and the stronger the
field, the higher the force.
The electric field can be indicated using flux lines (force lines).
Electric field strength (E)
Voltage difference between two conductors, per length unit, e.g. 1 cm. Between the plates of a plate-type capacitor E has the same
value at each location (= homogenous electric field).
Electric charge
Sum of all elementary charges stored in a capacitor or in a battery, or transported through a conductor.
Measurement unit: Ampere-second (As) or Ampere-hour (Ah); 1 Ah = 3600 As
Electric conductivity
denotes the ability of a material to conduct electricity. Electric conductivity is the reciprocal value of the specific resistance.
Electric potential
potential energy of an electric field with a certain field strength relative to the unit charge. The difference of potential between two
points in the electric field is the electrical voltage. It indicates the ability of the charge if it is moved from one place in the field to an-
other.
Electric charge (Q)
is the sum of all elementary charges stored in a capacitor or in a battery, or passed through a conductor. If in a wire or electrolyte a
current of constant strength (I) flows, the amount of electricity flowing in the time t is: the electric charge Q = I x t . There are positive
and negative charges.
Measurement unit: Ampere-seconds (As), Ampere-hours (Ah); other Expression: amount of electricity.
Engineer’s Manual
Electric power, Measurement unit Watt (W)

transported energy during a certain time interval divided by this time interval (1 W = 1 J/s).
Electrodes
Conductor of metal, metal alloy or carbon in very different forms depending on the application (pin, bar, plate, sheet,
wire grid etc.). Electrodes are connected with either pole of the current source, most often using current limitation or adjustment resis-
tors. Minimal count in an electrode arrangement: two, denoted as + (anode) and - (cathode).
Electrodes are needed to conduct electric current through vacuum, through gases or through electrolytes.
Electrolysis
conductance of electricity in electrolytes. During current flow the electrolyte is changed, because the charge transfer is combined with
a material transfer.
Electrolyte
solution of acids, lyes or salts in water. Electrolytes conduct the current relatively well; the charge carriers are ions.
Electromagnet
winding which generates a magnetic field when a current flows through it. An iron core in the centre of the winding multiplies in-
creases in the magnetic properties, caused by the strengthening effect to the magnetic field lines.
Electromagnetic field
an electric field and a magnetic field together are an electro-magnetic field. Moving magnetic flux lines cause an electric field strength,
and moving electric flux lines cause a magnetic field strength.
Electromagnetism
magnetic effect of the electric current. Each wire in which flows a current is surrounded by a magnetic field, whose strength mainly
depends on the strength of the current. The form of the wire (straight or wound) has influence on the form of the flux lines and there-
fore to the efficiency of the electro-magnetism.
Electromotive force (EMF)
a current source (e.g. battery) is the cause of a permanent electron surplus at the minus pole and electron deficit at the plus pole. The
EMF is at the same as the voltage, which is independent on the specific circuit and load. Example: terminal voltage of an unloaded
battery (open-circuit voltage).Measurement unit of the EMF: Volt. Other expression: internal voltage.

Engineer’s Manual
Electron
light-weight, negatively charged, stable (not declining) elementary particle; part of the atoms.
Electronic semi-conductor
conducts electricity by electrons. Examples of materials for electronic semiconductor: Silicon, Germanium, inter-metallic combinations.
Elementary charge
smallest possible amount of electric charge with negative or positive sign. Arbitrarily large amounts of charge are always integer mul-
tiples of the elementary charge.
Emitter (Transistor)
one of the three transistor terminals and also the zone belonging to it. The load current flows between emitter and collector, a small
control current flows between emitter and base.
Engage magnet
moves a pinion towards a gear, but it does not switch the starter current.
Exciting current
a direct current which flows through the exciting winding of direct current and three-phase current machines and generates the ex-
citing field.
Exciting wiring
generates the electromagnetic field between the poles, in which the armature rotates.

Engineer’s Manual
F
Farad, Abbr.: F
Measurement unit of the capacity of a capacitor.
1 F = 1 As/V is much too big for technical capacitors, hence decimal parts of this unit are used in practice:
microfarad µF
nanofarad nF
pikofarad pF
Flux line
imaginary line of the direction of force; the total of all flux lines together in a space form the force field (e.g. magnetic field)
Forward voltage
a) at semiconductor diodes: voltage between the terminals of the diode in the on state.
b) at thyristors: voltage between the main terminals of the thyristor in the on state.
Frequency (f)
Amount of periods per second of an alternating current. Let T be the duration of a period measured in seconds , then we have
f = 1/T (Hertz).
Measurement unit of the frequency is Hertz, short Hz.
Higher frequencies are noted in decimal multiples of Hertz, here some examples:
1 kHz Kilohertz
1 MHz Megahertz
1 GHz Gigahertz
Four-layer diode
uncontrolled thyristor, i.e. thyristor with permanently opened gate; also known as: Shickley diode

Engineer’s Manual
Full charge
charge where the chemical conversion has terminated. Lead/ acid batteries are fully charged if, at the end, acid density and voltage do
not increase further.

Engineer’s Manual
G
Gas derivation
is the gas mixture that arises during charging gassing. It is drained through a plastic tube to a safe area where it can cause no dam-
age.
Gassing
generation of gas at the electrodes of a lead/ acid battery, caused by decomposition of the water contained in the electrolyte into hydro-
gen and oxygen ("oxy-hydrogen") during current flow, especially at the end of charging.
Gate
control terminal respectively control electrode of certain semiconductor components, for instance of the thyristor, over which the con-
trol current flows.
Generator
denotes a motor driven current generator, which provides direct current for charging the battery in the vehicle (direct current genera-
tor or three-phase current generator with rectifier).
The generator is a machine, that converts mechanical energy (rotation) into electric energy following the principle of induction. The
generator consists primarily of an exciting winding and armature related rotor. There are direct current generators and alternating
current generators. Also called: current generator.
Germanium (Ge)
Chemical element, important base material for semiconductor components.
Grid plates
of a lead/ acid battery mainly consist of a lead grid with embedded active mass (lead grid as mass carrier).
Graetz rectifier
device or circuit of diodes to convert alternating current into direct current using an arrangement that allows the current to flow only
in one direction, and where both half-waves of the alternating or three phase current are rectified.

Engineer’s Manual
H
Henry, Abbr.: H
Measurement unit of the inductivity of a wire winding or of a straight wire. Often inductivity is given in millihenry (mH);
1 H = 1000 mH
Hertz, Abbr.: Hz
Measurement unit of the frequency.
High-speed charging
charging in a shorter time with a multiple of the rated charging current; this leads to a partially charged battery.
Hold current
minimal intensity of the switching current, below which a thyristor turns from conducting state back to an isolated state.
Hybrid circuit
microcircuit, consisting of several components or integrated circuits, which were manufactured separately and can be tested before as-
sembling.

Engineer’s Manual
I
Induction
Voltage generation caused by the change of flux in a magnetic field. This voltage is generated in a circuit separate from the exciting
circuit and creates an induction current.
We know:
a) magnetic induction = magnetic flux density (density of the magnetic field).
b) generation of a voltage in a conductor caused by the changing of the magnetic field interconnected with the conductor.
Inductivity, Measurement unit: Henry
ability of the exciting winding to induce a voltage into itself when the flux is changing.
Integrated Circuit, Abbr.: IC
electronic circuit, consisting of firmly connected semiconductor components on a single monolithic chip;
Advantages: cost-saving manufacturing and high economy of space.
Interference suppression filter
composed suppressor consisting of at least three suppressor elements.
Ion
Atom or molecule with one or more (exceeding) elementary charges. The electric charge of the ion may be positive or negative.
Ionic semiconductor
at the ionic semiconductor ions transport the electricity. In this process material is transported which changes the chemical state of
the ionic semiconductor. This makes the ionic semiconductor less useful for electronic components.

Engineer’s Manual

Engineer’s Manual
L
Lead sulphate
when a lead/ acid battery is discharged, the active mass of all plates (electrodes) is converted into a combination of lead, sulphur and
oxygen.
LDR
Abbreviation for "Light Dependent Resistor". The LDR material group contains semiconductors, whose conductivity increases with
growing amount of light intensity; see: photo resistor.

Engineer’s Manual
Magnet
Permanent magnet or an other material, e.g. soft-iron, which becomes magnetic in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet or elec-
tromagnet. The electromagnet behaves like the permanent magnet, as long as the current through its coil is flowing.
Magnetic field
magnetic state in a magnet and its closer environment, characterized among others by that a compass-needle turns itself in the direc-
tion of the field. The magnetic field is drawn using flux lines (lines of force). Flux lines are closed loops of different shape and length;
outside of the magnet they go from north pole to the south pole and from there through the inner of the magnet back to the north pole.
Behaviour is the same for permanent magnets and electromagnets.
Magnetic poles
North pole and south pole always come in pairs. The north pole is comparable to a source where flux lines come out and re-enter the
magnet at the south pole where they go back to the north pole in the inner. The north pole of the compass-needle points to the north,
the magnetic south pole.
Mass, active
(abbr. "mass") that part of the plates (electrodes), which changes its chemical composition during current flow.
Metallic conductor
Electron conductor with high conductivity. The metallic conductor is not changed during flow of current, which is different to electro-
lytes.
Metallized paper (MP)
very thin and very dense special paper for electric capacitors. Paper thickness between 6 and 16 µm. On the surface of this paper a
200 times thinner layer of metal is applied as conducting material. Capacitor made of this paper are called "MP capacitors".
Microelectronics
electronic circuit systems with extremely small dimensions of its components and conduction paths. Representatives are primarily in-
tegrated circuits, furthermore elements and circuits of thick film and thin film technique.
Miniaturization
manufacturing method of electronic components and complete circuits with the aim to reduce the size, in order to come to high econ-
omy of space and to save material.

Engineer’s Manual
Molecule
smallest part of a chemical composition, consisting of at least two atoms. As the atom the outside of the molecule is electrically neu-
tral.
Moving coil meter
sensitive device for measuring direction and strength of the electric current. Without rectifier,is only useful for direct current and for
alternating current with very low frequency (below 1 Hz)

Engineer’s Manual
N
Negative plate
negative plate, whose active mass (at charged battery) consists of metallic lead (Pb).
Neutron
electrical neutral elementary particle as part of the atomic nucleus; its main task is to stabilize the nucleus.
Non-conductor
electro-technical material of non-metallic kind, which is a poor conductor. Its specific resistance is very high. There are no ideal non-
conductors;
other term: Insulator.
NTC
Abbreviation for "Negative Temperature Coefficient". The NTC material group contains semiconductor resistors, whose resistance de-
creases with growing temperature; their temperature coefficient is negative.
NTC resistor
Semiconductor resistor with NTC property; its resistance decreases with growing temperature.
Number of turns
amount of all the turns of a winding.

Engineer’s Manual
O
Ohm
German physicist; measurement unit of the electric resistance, Abbr. Ω.
Ohm‘s Law
Current = Voltage I= U
Resistance R
Oxy-hydrogen gas
Explosive mixture of Hydrogen and Oxygen.

Engineer’s Manual
P
Parallel connection
equally charged poles are connected, i.e. the conductors of electric components are connected in such a way that the same voltage lies
at each component or group of components (current branching).
Parallel connection of resistors results in a total resistance which is smaller than that of the smallest simple resistor.
Parallel connection of capacitors results in a total capacitance which is the sum of the simple capacitances.
Permanent magnet
material, permanently carried through and surrounded by a magnetic field without the need of an electric current to be present. Per-
manent magnets are magnetic types of steel, and magnetic iron stone is a natural element. Like soft-iron, they belong to the ferro
magnets.
Phase conductor
single phase part of a poly-phase alternating current system.
Photodiode
a diode polarized in blocking direction, whose blocking layer is exposed to light irradiation. The higher the illuminance, the higher re-
verse current (photo current).
Photoresistor
Semiconductor materials whose electrical resistance decreases when exposed to light. They belong to the group of light dependant re-
sistors LDR.
Pole
a) Part of a magnet, where the magnetic filed mainly exits or enters. (Field pole)
b) Terminal to tap off or to feed electric energy.
Pole body
part of the pole which is covered by the exciting winding.
Potentiometer
Voltage divider, adjustable resistor.
Primary winding
of a transformer is the exciting winding of the alternating magnetic flux which induces a voltage at the secondary side.
Engineer’s Manual
Printed circuit
at one side of a circuit board the components are plugged in and soldered. Conducting connections and sometimes resistors are made
up of very fine metallic tracks placed on the other side of the board; they have been installed using similar methods to printing tech-
nology. Advantage over conducting with "hard wiring": clear view for better service, less liability to interference, shock-resistant.
Printed circuit board
Board made of electric insulating material, components of the corresponding electric circuits can be plugged in on one side. On the
other side thin conductor tracks (thin layers) form the conducting connection. The complete set is referred to as “printed circuit”.
Proton
electrically positive charged elementary particle as a part of the atomic nucleus. The Proton is 1837 times as "weighty" as the elec-
tron.
PTC
Abbreviation for "Positive Temperature Coefficient". The PTC material group contains semiconductor resistors, whose resistance in-
creases with growing temperature; the temperature coefficient is positive;
PTC resistor
Semiconductor resistor with PTC property, their resistance increases with growing temperature.

Engineer’s Manual
R
Rating (Abbr. K 20)
capacity, which a battery can deliver within a 20 hour discharge time at the appropriate rated current (at rated temperature, rated
density and rated level of the electrolyte), without falling short of the cut-off voltage.
Rated voltage
specific for the current arrangement (12 V, 24 V etc.); the voltage drop in conductors and in the battery reduces it, therefore at the
starter terminals the available voltage is lower.
Rectifier
converts alternating current into direct current, used e.g. in battery chargers.
Redundancy
surplus of components and packages, e.g. in an electronic computer. This surplus is used as an instant replacement if components or
packages fail. Redundancy reduces liability to failures and down-time of the computer.
Relay
a) common: device that allows connection of one electric circuit to another one.
b) specific: electromagnetic actuated switch with one or more contacts.
Remanence
the magnetization which remains in a ferromagnetic material after the magnetizing force was removed.
Resistance (R), Measurement unit: Ω
according Ohm's law, the ratio of voltage and current strength, thus R = U/I. The resistance of a wire depends on the specific resis-
tance of the material, on its length and cross-sectional area.
Resistance, inner
resistance counteracting the current flow inside of the battery; composed of several single resistances.

Engineer’s Manual
Resistor
multipurpose component in electrics, consisting of various materials. In some cases resistors are expected to be constant and remain
constant even under extreme operation conditions (fixed resistor, normal resistor). In other cases they shall be variable (adjustable re-
sistors, actuated by hand or mechanically). Nowadays, the self actuating resistors are of special importance; these are resistors which
change their resistance under the influence of temperature, voltage, illumination etc. Such resistors (PTC, NTC) all consist of semi-
conductor materials. Usage in the electronic control engineering.

Engineer’s Manual
S
Secondary winding
of a transformer is the induction winding, flown through by the alternating magnetic flux excited on the primary side, inducing a volt-
age there. The voltage is the higher, the more windings the secondary has.
Self-discharge
discharge of a battery without an externally connected consumer, caused by internal processes in the battery.
Self-induction
the magnetic field of a current-carrying conductor or winding changes with the change of the conductor current. This causes the induc-
tion of a voltage in the conductor itself which is proportional to the change of current, and which counteracts the generating current
change.
Semiconductor
most important material group of electronics. The resistance behaviour of semiconductors lies between conductors and non-conductors.
Semiconductor diode
Semiconductor component with two terminals (anode and cathode), which has an asymmetric current-voltage characteristic.
Series connection
at the series connection of e.g. 6 lead cells to a 12 V battery the individual poles of adjacent cells are connected.
Serially connected circuit sections, current consumers and electric components are resistors, through which the same current flows. At
series connection of resistors the resulting resistance is equal to the sum of all single resistances. At series connection of capacitors the
resulting capacity is smaller than the smallest single capacity.
Series motor
Electromotor, whose armature winding and exciting winding are connected in series. Has a very high starting torque, therefore par-
ticularly useful as starter motor.
Silicon (Si)
chemical element with electrovalence 4 and density 2,4 g/cm3. Most important base material for semiconductor components. Its avail-
ability in the form of quartz is nearly inexhaustible.

Engineer’s Manual
Slip ring
Ring of conducting material, in connection with carbon brushes, to enable current transmission from one current circuit to another
with sliding contacts.
Soft-iron
very clean iron, which is to be called "soft" both mechanically and magnetically.
Specific resistance
reluctance of a material to conduct electricity. Is a property of the material, but no property of circuits. The reciprocal value is the con-
ductivity.
Sulphuric acid
diluted with water, used in lead/ acid batteries as electrolyte.
State of charge
indicates how far the battery is charged; in practice this is determined by measuring the acid density (of the lead battery).
Starter battery
primary used to start and ignite combustion engines.
Starter power
power delivered from the starter, depends among others on the starter battery.
Starter test stand
to examine and to verify starters
Start block relay
protects against erroneous starting a running motor and over running (motor rotates faster than the starter) of the starter; this is
needed if the start up of the motor is not perceptible, or with starter sets with remote control unit.
Star point
central point of multiple phase alternating current systems.
Star connection
customary connection in three phase systems, where three windings of an electric machine are connected together at one end.
Switch
device to connect or disconnect current paths.
Engineer’s Manual
Switching transistor
Transistor, most often with high power, with the task to switch a strong current following the signal of a switch control unit. The
switching transistor is an electronic switch and has big advantages over electro-mechanical switches and relays.

Engineer’s Manual
T
Technical current direction
historical commitment of the current direction: from plus to minus. The technical current direction corresponds to the direction of the
whole current and is perceptible from the symbol arrows in the circuit symbols of diode, transistor and thyristor.
Temperature coefficient
of electric resistance. The temperature coefficient denotes the change of resistance when the temperature grows 1 degree. The tem-
perature coefficient of PTC materials is positive, that of the NTC group is negative. Metals have a very small positive temperature co-
efficient. There are special alloys whose temperature coefficient is practically Zero (e.g. constantan).
Terminals
used to connect a demand with the total voltage of a battery, and to feed the charging voltage.
Terminal voltage
Voltage between the two terminals of a battery.
Thermistor
semiconductor resistor, whose resistance depends on temperature. There are two main groups of thermistors: PTC and NTC. Thermis-
tor a short name for "Thermally Sensitive Resistor"
Three phase current
the voltages induced in the three winding parts by the rotating magnetic field are phase shifted by 120°.
Alternating voltages may be connected in star or delta connections.
Threshold voltage
voltage at semiconductor diode in direction of flux, where the current starts suddenly.
Thyristor
controllable semiconductor component in power electronics. Can be used to switch currents up to 1000 A.
The thyristor consists of four (thin) semiconductor zones; three of them have terminals and are called anode, cathode and gate. A thy-
ristor can be switched from a blocking state into a conducting state (or vice versa).
Torque
torque = force x length of lever, where the force is rotational at the lever arm (lever arm = distance from the centre of rotation to the
applied point of the force)
Engineer’s Manual
Transformer
device to convert a low alternating voltage into high alternating voltage or vice versa.
The transformer consists of two adjacent windings which are electrically isolated: primary winding, secondary winding.
To amplify the magnetic flux, transformers usually have an iron or ferrite core.
Transistor
most important semiconductor component in electronics, useable to amplify current, also to switch current on and off. The transistor
consists of three semiconductor zones: emitter, collector and base.
Triac
technical composition of two thyristors, which are parallel connected against each other ("internal anti parallel connection").
The Triac can control alternating current in both directions, whereas the thyristor can only in one direction.

Engineer’s Manual

Engineer’s Manual
V
Varistor
semiconductor resistor with VDR property.
VDR
Abbreviation for "Voltage Dependent Resistor". The material group contains semiconductor resistors, whose resistance decreases with
growing voltage. The VDR component usually works independent from the direction of the current. Recently there are VDR which de-
pend on the direction.
Viscosity
is as measure for the internal friction of a fluid (friction between the molecules) which decreases with growing temperature.
Volt (V)
Measurement unit of electric voltage, electro-motive force and electric potential.
Voltage
difference between electric potentials; there is a voltage between two points if their charges are different. (Unit 1 Volt, Abr.: V)
Voltage drop
decrease of the voltage along a current-carrying conductor or in a current-carrying device caused by its resistance.

Engineer’s Manual
W
Watt, Abr.: W
Measurement unit of electric power
1W = 1VxA
1W = 1/1000 kW
1 kW = 1000 W
1 MW = 1000 kW
Watt-second, Abbr.: Ws
Measurement unit of current work and the electrical energy in general. Commonly used decadic unit: kilowatt-hour (kWh). With this
unit the current work is measured, which can be read from the energy meter, and must be paid.
1 kWh = 600 x 1000 Ws
Other name for Ws: Joule.
Winding
Group of turns, which make up a current circuit or a part of a current circuit inside of a machine, in general surrounded by a common
insulation.

Engineer’s Manual
Z
Z-Diode
Diode, only operating in blocking and breakdown mode. Z-diodes are often used to protect other components from excess voltage (volt-
age limitation).
Zener effect
electric breakdown in the blocking zone of a diode or Z-diode operating in blocking direction, caused by an abrupt growth in intrinsic
conduction as the result of an extremely high electric field strength in then pn-region.

Engineer’s Manual
Notes

Engineer’s Manual
Notes

Engineer's Manual
Electrical equations Technical Training
Wire Resistance Ohm´s Law Resistors in Series
ρ ⋅l
R= U Rges = R1 + R 2 + R3 + Rn
q R=
I
R⋅q Uges = U 1 + U 2 + U 3 + Un
l=
ρ U Iges = I 1 = I 2 = I 3 = In
I=
R⋅q R
ρ= U 1 = I ⋅ R1
l U = I ⋅R
ρ ⋅l U 2 = I ⋅ R2
q=
R U 3 = I ⋅ R3
R Wire resitance in Ω U n = I ⋅ Rn
Ω ⋅ mm²
ρ spec. Resist.
m
l Wire length in m R Resistance in Ω
R Resistance in Ω
q Wire gauge in mm² U Voltage in V
U Voltage in V
Ω ⋅ mm² I Current in A
For Copper ρ = 0,0178 I Current in A
m
\F1 EQUATIONS 04-01.DOC F 1 TECHNICAL TRAINING STS

Engineer's Manual
Electrical equations Technical Training
Resistors in parallel Power usage Power output
1 1 1 1 1 W =U ⋅ I ⋅t W
= + + + P=
Rges R1 R 2 R3 Rn t
Uges = U 1 = U 2 = U 3 = Un P =U ⋅ I
Iges = I1 + I 2 + I 3 + In P=
U²
R
U U
I1 = I2 =
R1 R2 P = I²⋅ R
U U
I3 = In = U Voltage in V
R3 Rn
I Current in A
with two resistors is valid
U Voltage in V
R1 ⋅ R 2 t Time in s
Rges = I Current in A
R1 + R 2 W Power usage in Ws
(Watt/second) t Time in s
R Resistance in Ω
Conversion: W Power usage in Ws
U Voltage in V
1 kWh (1 Kilowatthour) = 3600000 Ws
1 Wh (1 Watthour) = 3600 Ws P Power output in W
I Current in A
\F1 EQUATIONS 04-01.DOC F 2 TECHNICAL TRAINING STS

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Technical Training

\1A DECKBLATT 04-01.DOC TECHNICAL TRAINING STS

\1A DECKBLATT 04-01.DOC TECHNICAL TRAINING STS

Table of Contents Technical Training

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Table of Contents Technical Training

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Table of Contents Technical Training

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Table of Contents Technical Training

\1C TABLE OF CONTENTS 04-01.DOC TECHNICAL TRAINING STS

Table of Contents Technical Training

\1C TABLE OF CONTENTS 04-01.DOC TECHNICAL TRAINING STS

Table of Contents Technical Training

\1C TABLE OF CONTENTS 04-01.DOC TECHNICAL TRAINING STS

Electricity basics Technical training

Atoms and electrons

Atom and charge

a) hydrogen atom b) Aluminium atom

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Charge, current and resistance

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Electricity basics Technical training

Conductors and insulators

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Electricity basics Technical training

The electrical circuit

Example of a simple circuit

Technical direction of current:

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Electricity basics Technical training

time related direct current diagram

time related alternating current diagram

time related undulatory current diagram

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Electricity basics Technical training

Electrical current and its effects

Magnetic effect Electrical current always produces a magnetic field.

The formula symbol for current is I.

The unit of electrical current is Ampere.

The symbol of the unit for current is A.

Multipliers and parts of the unit

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Electric tension (voltage)

The formula symbol for voltage is U.

Multipliers and parts of the unit

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The formula symbol for resistance is R.

The unit for resistance is Ohm.

The unit symbol for resistance is Ω.

Multipliers and parts of the unit

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Electricity basics Technical training

The formula symbol for the specific resistance is ρ (rho).

The unit of the specific resistance is Ω × mm²

Material spec. resistance ρ in Ω × mm²

\B ELECTRICITY BASICS.DOC A 9 TECHNICAL TRAINING STS