The Tissue Level of

Organization
 Biological Tissues collections of specialized cells &
cell products performing a specific function

Four principal types of biological tissues:

1. Epithelial: covers exposed surfaces; lines internal passageways &
chambers; forms glands

2. Connective: fills internal spaces, provides structural support for

other tissues, transports material, stores energy reserves

3. Muscle: specialized for contraction and produces movement

4. Neural: carries information rapidly from one part of the body to

another by electrical-type nerve impulses
Epithelial Tissue
Includes:

• Epithelia layers of cells that cover internal and external

surfaces

• Glands structures that produce fluid secretions (attached

to or derived from epithelia)
 Epithelium: characteristics
▪Cellularity: cells bound together by cell junctions

▪Polarity: upper parts and lower parts of cell has distinct structures
and functions

▪Attachment: by means of a basal lamina (or basement membrane)

▪Avascular: no blood vessels

▪Regeneration: stem cells constantly replenish old and damaged

cells
Figure 4-1 The Polarity of Epithelial Cells.

Cilia

Microvilli
Apical
surface

Golgi
apparatus

Nucleus

Mitochondria
Basement membrane
Basolateral
surfaces
 Functions – Epithelial Tissue

▪Physical Protection: from abrasion, dehydration, or damage

from chemical or biological substances

▪Absorption: selective absorption and secretion

▪Sensation: large sensory nerve supply

▪Specialized Secretions: glandular epithelium secretes onto

surface or interstitial fluid or the blood circulation
Epithelial Tissue
• Specializations of Epithelial Cells
1. Move fluids over the epithelium (protection)
2. Move fluids through the epithelium
(permeability)
3. Produce secretions (protection and messengers)
• Polarity
1. Apical surfaces
• Microvilli increase absorption or secretion
• Cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluid
2. Basolateral surfaces
Epithelial Tissue
• Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia
1. Intercellular connections
2. Attachment to the basement membrane
3. Epithelial maintenance and repair
Epithelial Tissue
• Intercellular Connections
• Support and communication
• CAMs (cell adhesion molecules)
• Transmembrane proteins
• Intercellular cement
• Proteoglycans
• Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid)

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Epithelial cells are held together
by cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) . These are transmembrane
proteins forming junctions between cells

Types of cell junctions

1. Tight junctions- interlocking membrane proteins; no

passage of H2O & solutes between cells (digestive tract)

2. Gap Junctions-interlocking channel proteins; ions and

small molecules can pass (coordinate beating of cilia)

3. Desmosomes-durable interconnections of mostly epithelial

cells; connection to underlying cytoskeleton (hold the
epithelial cells of the skin together)
The Base of Epithelial tissue

▪Two-part basal lamina (or basement membrane)

attaches epithelial cell to underlying body tissue (usually
connective tissue)

▪Germinative Cells (stem cells): located just above the

basal lamina. These cells divide by mitosis to produce
new cells.
Classification of Epithelia
• Singular = Epithelium; Plural = Epithelia
• Classes of epithelia
1. Based on shape
• Squamous epithelia — thin and flat
• Cuboidal epithelia — square shaped
• Columnar epithelia — tall, slender rectangles
2. Based on layers
• Simple epithelium — single layer of cells
• Stratified epithelium — several layers of cells
Classification of Epithelia
• Squamous Epithelia
• Simple squamous epithelium
• Absorption and diffusion
• Mesothelium
• Lines body cavities
• Endothelium
• Lines heart and blood vessels
Simple Squamous Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Mesothelia lining pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities; endothelia

lining heart and blood vessels; portions of kidney tubules (thin sections of nephron
loops); inner lining of cornea; alveoli of lungs
FUNCTIONS: Reduces friction; controls vessel permeability; performs
absorption and secretion

Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Connective tissue LM × 238

a Lining of peritoneal cavity
Classification of Epithelia
• Squamous Epithelia
• Stratified squamous epithelium
• Protects against attacks
• Keratin protein adds strength and water resistance
Stratified Squamous Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Surface of skin; lining of mouth, throat, esophagus, rectum,

anus, and vagina
FUNCTIONS: Provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens,
and chemical attack

Squamous
superficial cells

Stem cells
Basement
membrane
Connective
tissue
b Surface of tongue LM × 310
Classification of Epithelia
• Cuboidal Epithelia
• Simple cuboidal epithelium
• Secretion and absorption
• Stratified cuboidal epithelia
• Sweat ducts and mammary ducts
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Glands; ducts;

portions of kidney tubules; thyroid
gland
Connective
FUNCTIONS: Limited protection,
secretion, absorption tissue
Nucleus

Cuboidal
cells
Basement
membrane
a Kidney tubule LM × 650
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Lining of some ducts

(rare)

FUNCTIONS: Protection, secretion, Lumen

absorption of duct
Stratified
cuboidal
cells
Basement
membrane
Nucleus

Connective
tissue
b Sweat gland duct LM × 500
Classification of Epithelia
• Transitional Epithelium
• Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling and returns to its previous
shape without damage
• Appearance changes as stretching occurs
• Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g., urinary bladder)
Transitional Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Urinary
bladder; renal pelvis;
ureters
FUNCTIONS: Permits
expansion and recoil
Epithelium
after stretching
(relaxed)

Basement membrane
Connective tissue and
Empty bladder smooth muscle layers LM × 400

Epithelium
(stretched)
Basement membrane
Connective tissue and
smooth muscle layers LM × 400
Full bladder
c Urinary bladder
Classification of Epithelia
• Columnar Epithelia
• Simple columnar epithelium
• Absorption and secretion
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
• Cilia movement
• Stratified columnar epithelium
• Protection
Simple Columnar Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Lining of
stomach, intestine, gallbladder, Microvilli
uterine tubes, and collecting
ducts of kidneys Cytoplasm
FUNCTIONS: Protection,
secretion, absorption
Nucleus

Basement
membrane
Loose
connective tissue LM × 350
a Intestinal lining
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Lining of
Cilia
nasal cavity, trachea, and
bronchi; portions of male
reproductive tract Cytoplasm

FUNCTIONS: Protection,
secretion, move mucus Nuclei
with cilia

Basement
membrane

Loose connective
tissue
b Trachea LM × 350
Stratified Columnar Epithelium

LOCATIONS: Small areas of

the pharynx, epiglottis, anus,
Loose
mammary glands, salivary
gland ducts, and urethra connective tissue
Deeper cells
FUNCTION: Protection
Superficial
columnar cells
Lumen Lumen

Cytoplasm

Nuclei

Basement
membrane
c Salivary gland duct LM × 175
 Glands of the body are made up of epithelial tissue (glandular epithelium)

Two major types of glands GLANDS

1. Endocrine Glands:
release secretions (hormones)
the bloodstream
2. Exocrine Glands:
release secretions into special
ducts & open to epithelial surface

EXOCRINE GLANDS
 Three Modes of Secretion

▪Merocrine secretion: secretion is released from vesicles by

exocytosis; e.g. mucus secreted in digestive and respiratory tracts;
the watery sweat secreted by the skin’s sweat glands

▪Apocrine secretion: the top portion of the cell accumulates

vesicles and then breaks down; e.g. milk production in mammary
glands

▪Holocrine secretion: the entire cell is packed with secretory

vesicles and then the cell bursts; e.g. this is how sebaceous glands
produce the oily coating of hair follicles
Merocrine
secretion

Apocrine
Secretion

Holocrine
secretion
Multicellular Exocrine Glands
(simple cuboidal epithelium)
Connective Tissue
• Functions of Connective Tissue
• Establishing a structural framework for the body
• Transporting fluids and dissolved materials
• Protecting delicate organs
• Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other types of tissue
• Storing energy reserves, especially in the form of triglycerides
• Defending the body from invading microorganisms
Connective Tissue
• Characteristics of Connective Tissue
1. Specialized cells
2. Solid extracellular protein fibers
3. Fluid extracellular ground substance
• The Extracellular Components of Connective Tissue (Fibers and
Ground Substance)
• Make up the matrix
• Majority of tissue volume
• Determines specialized function
 Connective Tissue Components
Connective tissue contains
1. ground substance: clear viscous and colorless (a syrupy substance)

2. protein fibers: collagen fibers; reticular fibers; elastic fibers

3. cells of various types:

▪ fibroblasts are most common
▪ may contain macrophages: fight infection
▪ adipocytes: store triglycerides (fat)
▪ mesenchymal cells: stem cells that can turn into adipocytes, bone cells,
or cartilage cells
▪ melanocytes: pigment producing cells
▪ mast cells etc. cause inflammation and regeneration of damaged connective tissue
Connective Tissue
• Classification of Connective Tissues
1. Connective tissue proper
• Connect and protect
2. Fluid connective tissues
• Transport
3. Supporting connective tissues
• Structural strength
Connective Tissue
• Categories of Connective Tissue Proper
• Loose connective tissue
• More ground substance, fewer fibers
• For example, fat (adipose tissue)
• Dense connective tissue
• More fibers, less ground substance
• For example, tendons
Loose Connective: Areolar
Tissue
Dense Irregular Connective
Tissue
Fluid Connective Tissue
Blood fluid in cardiovascular system
Lymph fluid in lymphatic system

▪collections of cells in fluid matrix

▪no fibers are present

Blood fluid
▪ Red blood cells (erythrocytes; RBC) Formed
▪ White blood cells (leukocytes; WBC) elements
▪ Platelets

▪ Plasma – watery medium

Formed Elements in Blood –
these are the cells or parts of cells (platelets)

transport O2 blood
and CO2 fight infection clotting
Fluid Connective Tissue cont…
Lymph
Is the extracellular fluid found in the lymphatic vessels

Components: mostly lymphocytes, macrophages and microphages

Exracellular fluid is returned to cardiovascular system - a process of

homeostasis

Maintains levels of nutrients, removes wastes, and toxins; maintains

blood volume, alerts immune system to infections in body
Supporting Connective Tissues
cartilage & bone

▪Cartilage
▪ Extracellular matrix is a firm gel (ground substance) with embedded
protein fibers

▪ Chondrocytes are cartilage cells found in lacunae (little spaces

that hold the cells)

▪ Cartilage is avascular (no blood vessels) cells obtain nutrients and

get rid of waste by diffusion from surrounding tissues

▪ Fibrous layer surrounding cartilage is called perichondrium

4-5 Supporting Connective Tissues
• Hyaline Cartilage
• Stiff, flexible support
• Reduces friction between bones
• Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea
• Elastic Cartilage
• Supportive but bends easily
• Found in external ear and epiglottis
• Fibrocartilage (Fibrous Cartilage)
• Limits movement
• Prevents bone-to-bone contact
• Pads knee joints
• Found between pubic bones and intervertebral discs
Hyaline Cartilage
 Bone (osseous) Tissue
▪extracellular matrix of bone is made of hard calcium
compounds (ground substance) along with collagen fibers

▪osteocytes, bone cells, are found within lacunae

▪osteocytes get nutrients from blood vessels through

special canals that branch off the lacunae called canaliculi

▪bone is surrounded by periosteum, the fibrous outer layer

of bone
 Bone Tissue

under microscope
 Membranes

▪membranes separate tissues and form barriers

▪Membranes are compound tissues (have both epithelial &
connective tissue together)

▪Four types of membranes

1. mucous membrane
2. serous membrane
3. cutaneous membrane
4. synovial membrane
lines digestive
tract, urinary,
reproductive
tracts; is moist;
secrete mucous

lines body
cavities

Cutaneous
membrane is
skin

lines a
joint cavity &
provides
synovial fluid to
nourish and
lubricate
cartilage
Fascia sheets of connective tissue mostly made of collagen lying beneath
the skin. It stabilizes, encloses, and separates muscles and other internal organs
Muscle Tissue

• Specialized for contraction

• Produces all body movement
• Three types of muscle tissue
1. Skeletal muscle tissue
• Large body muscles responsible for movement
2. Cardiac muscle tissue
• Found only in the heart
3. Smooth muscle tissue
• Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels; urinary
bladder; respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts)
4-8 Muscle Tissue
• Classification of Muscle Cells
• Striated (muscle cells with a banded appearance)
• Nonstriated (not banded; smooth)
• Muscle cells can have a single nucleus
• Muscle cells can be multinucleate
• Muscle cells can be controlled voluntarily (consciously)
• Muscle cells can be controlled involuntarily (automatically)
Skeletal Muscle Cells
Long and thin
Usually called muscle fibers
Do not divide
Striated, multinucleate

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Cells are long, cylindrical,

striated, and multinucleate.

LOCATIONS: Combined Striations

with connective tissues
and neural tissue in Nuclei
skeletal muscles

FUNCTIONS: Moves or
stabilizes the position of
the skeleton; guards Muscle
entrances and exits to the fiber
digestive, respiratory, and
urinary tracts; generates
heat; protects internal
organs LM × 180
a Skeletal muscle
4-8 Muscle Tissue
• Cardiac Muscle Cells
• Called cardiocytes
• Form branching networks connected at intercalated discs
• Regulated by pacemaker cells
• striated
• Smooth Muscle Cells
• Small and tapered
• Can divide and regenerate
Cardiac Muscle Cells
Called cardiocytes
Form branching networks connected at intercalated discs
Regulated by pacemaker cells
striated
Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Cells are short, branched, Nuclei

and striated, usually with a
single nucleus; cells are
Cardiac
interconnected by
muscle
intercalated discs.
cells
LOCATION: Heart

FUNCTIONS: Circulates Intercalated

blood; maintains discs
blood pressure

Striations

LM × 450
b Cardiac muscle
Smooth Muscle Cells
Small and tapered
Can divide and regenerate

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Cells are short, spindle-

shaped, and nonstriated,
with a single, central
nucleus.
LOCATIONS: Found in Nuclei
the walls of blood vessels
and in digestive, respiratory,
urinary, and reproductive organs
FUNCTIONS: Moves food,
urine, and reproductive Smooth
tract secretions; controls muscle
diameter of respiratory cells
passageways; regulates
diameter of blood vessels
LM × 235
c Smooth muscle
 Neural Tissue

▪ neural tissue is specialized to conduct electrical impulses known as

nerve impulses

▪ transmits information from one area to other areas of the body

relatively quickly

▪ the cell in nerve tissue that transmits impulses is the neuron

▪ cells that help protect, nourish and support neurons are called
neuroglia

▪ most neural tissue is found in the brain and spinal cord (control centers)
Nervous Tissue
• Nervous Tissue
• Specialized for conducting electrical impulses
• Rapidly senses internal or external environment
• Processes information and controls responses
• Nervous tissue is concentrated in the central nervous system
• Brain
• Spinal cord
 NEURONS NEUROGLIA (supporting cells)

Nuclei of neuroglia
• Maintain physical structure
of tissues
Cell body • Repair tissue framework
after injury
• Perform phagocytosis
• Provide nutrients to neurons
• Regulate the composition of the
Axon interstitial fluid surrounding neurons

Dendrites Nucleolus
Nucleus
of neuron
LM × 600

Dendrites
(contacted by
other neurons) Contact with
Axon (conducts other cells
Microfibrils and information to
microtubules other cells)
Cell body
(contains
nucleus
and major
organelles)
Nucleus
Nucleolus

Mitochondrion
A representative neuron
(sizes and shapes vary widely)
 Nuclei of neuroglia

Cell body

Axon

Cell Parts of a Neuron Dendrites Nucleolus

Cell body Nucleus
of neuron
Contains the nucleus and nucleolus
Dendrites LM × 600
Short branches extending from the cell body
Receive incoming signals
Axon (nerve fiber)
Long, thin extension of the cell body
Carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination
Repair of damaged tissues
▪ main tissue involved in repair is connective tissue
▪ main cells involved are mast cells
▪ two phases 1. inflammation 2. regeneration

1.

2.
Tissue Injuries and Repair
• Inflammation = Inflammatory Response
• The tissue’s first response to injury
• Signs and symptoms of the inflammatory response include:
• Swelling
• Redness
• Heat
• Pain
Tissue Injuries and Repair
• The Process of Inflammation
• Dilation of blood vessels
• Increases blood circulation in the area
• Causes warmth and redness
• Brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area
• Removes wastes

• The Process of Inflammation

• Plasma diffuses into the area
• Causes swelling and pain
• Phagocytic white blood cells
• Clean up the area
Tissue Injuries and Repair
• Regeneration
• When the injury or infection is cleaned up
• Healing (regeneration) begins
• The Process of Regeneration
• Fibrocytes move into necrotic area
• Lay down collagen fibers
• To bind the area together (scar tissue)
Tissue Injuries and Repair
• The Process of Regeneration
• New cells migrate into area
• Not all tissues can regenerate
• Epithelia and connective tissues regenerate well
• Cardiac cells and neurons do not regenerate (or regenerate poorly)
Histological Changes in Epithelial Tissue
due to Cigarette Smoke