amino acid 3

SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
OFAMINO ACIDSOB
•Muyyaser Mohammed 202311008

•Mahdi Alkhalaf 202221017
•Jafar Alkathem 202211062
•Naser Aziz 202311003
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Objectives
1-Metabolic pathway
2-Neurotransmitters
3-Nucleotides and gene expression
4-Hormones and signal transduction
5-Single transduction
6-Allergic reactions
7-Buffering action
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OVERVIEW IN METABOLIC PATHWAY
Definition: Metabolic pathway is a linked series of
chemical reactions occurring within a cell.
Types of Metabolic pathway
Catabolic reactions
Break down large molecules
Provide energy for ATP
Anabolic reaction
Use small molecules to build large ones
Require energy
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IMPORTANCE OF METABOLIC PATHWAYS
1- Generate Energy 5- Adept
Produce ATP from nutrients. Help cells respond to
2- Build Molecules environmental changes.
Synthesize proteins and liquids. 6- Prevent Disease
3- Maintain Balance Ensure proper
Regulate internal processes metabolism to avoid
4- Remove Waste disorders
Break down harmful substances
4
Neurotransmitters
Definition: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers
that your body can’t function without.
Function: carry chemical signals (messages) from one

neuron (nerve cell) to the next target cell.
Short video
https://youtu.be/9EFUdXEa4WM?si=cswBKoGjMLay8cFa
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Nucleotides and gene expression
What is a Nucleotide?
Nucleotides are organic molecules that serve as
the building blocks of nucleic acids: DNA and
RNA.
Each nucleotide consists of three components:
A Phosphate Group
Attaches to the sugar and links nucleotides together.
Sugar Molecule:
Provides the backbone of the nucleic acid
strand. 6
Nitrogenous Base:
Varies among nucleotides and determines the genetic code.
Types of Nucleotides:
DNA Nucleotides
Adenine (A)
Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)
Thymine (T)
RNA Nucleotides
Adenine (A)
Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)
Uracil"(U) (replaces thymine in RNA
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DNA Structure:
DNA is a double helix composed of two strands of
nucleotides. Base Pairing: Adenine pairs with Thymine, and
Cytosine pairs with Guanine, forming the rungs of the DNA.
RNA Structure:
RNA is typically single-stranded and includes the sugar
ribose and the base uracil instead of thymine.
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9
Hormones and Gene Expression
• Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate
physiological processes.
• They can affect gene expression by binding to

specific receptors on target cells.
• They are released into the bloodstream and travel to

target organs or tissues to regulate various bodily
functions.
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Types of Hormones:
Steroid Hormones:
(e.g., estrogen, testosterone) enter cells and bind to
intracellular receptors, acting as transcription factors.
Peptide Hormones:
(e.g., insulin, growth hormone) bind to cell surface
receptors, initiating signaling cascades that can alter
gene expression.
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Signal Transduction
Signal transduction (also known as cell signaling) is the
transmission of molecular signals from a cell's exterior to its
interior.
Signals received by cells must be transmitted effectively into
the cell to ensure an appropriate response.
Hormones act as signals, and receptors act as signal
detectors.
"Second messenger" or effector molecules are part of the
cascade of events that translates agonist binding into a
cellular response
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13
Allergic reactions
Allergies are your body's
reaction to a foreign protein.
Usually, these proteins
(allergens) are harmless.
However, if you have an allergy
to a particular protein, your
body's defense system
(immune system) overreacts to
its presence in your body
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Buffering action
Buffering action in amino acids refers to their ability to
resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base
are added. This property is primarily due to the amino acid’s
amphoteric nature, meaning they can act both as acids
(proton donors) and bases (proton acceptors).
Amino acids help maintain pH balance because they can
both absorb and release protons (H⁺).
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In acidic conditions (low pH): They
absorb protons.
In basic conditions (high pH): They

release protons.
This helps prevent large changes

in pH when small amounts of acid
or base are added, making them
good buffers. 16
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Summary
•Amino acids build proteins,
give us energy, help the
brain, support immunity, and
control body functions.
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References
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8610-allergies
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-metabolic-
pathway-definition-example.html
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_
Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/06%3A_Metabolism/6.03%3
A__Energy_and_Metabolism_-_Metabolic_Pathways
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22513-
neurotransmitters
https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/chemical-
signallingpptx/252903453
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Any questions
20
Thank you for listening
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SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

•Muyyaser Mohammed 202311008

Function: carry chemical signals (messages) from one

• They can affect gene expression by binding to

• They are released into the bloodstream and travel to

In basic conditions (high pH): They

This helps prevent large changes

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