Branch of biology dealing with study of endocrine system and its physiology is Endocrinology Thomas

Addison - father of Endocrinology. Gland with duct is called exocrine gland which secretes enzyme etc.
Endocrine glands pour their secretion directly into blood. These glands lack ducts, ductless glands. Co-
ordination in body of almost all higher vertebrates is controlled by two systems Nervous system and
endocrine system.Nervous system and endocrine system are called Integrative system of body.Nervous
system carries informations in form of impulses to different parts of body. High speed services are
offered by this system.Where as, work of co-ordination by endocrine system is done slowly by secretion of
some chemical .Substances secreted by these glands are known as hormones. " to excite ".
Differences between Nervous and Endocrine Coordination
Nervous Co-ordination Endocrine Co-ordination
1.Information passes as electrical impulses 1.Information passes as chemical substance
along nerve fibres. through blood and lymph.
2.There is rapid transmission of information. 2.There is slow transmission of information.
3.Response is immediate. 3.Response is usually slow.
4.Response is very exact. 4.Response is usually widespread.
5.Response is short lived. 5.Response is long-lasting.
Hormone : Starling " Primary messengers" " chemical messengers".First discovered is secretin.
Source & Chemical Nature :– Hormones are secreted by one part of body and poured directly into
blood stream, and they reach at their target place with help of blood. A small amount of hormone affects
physiology of cells of organs according to atmospheric conditions.
Chemical Nature of Hormone :–1.Amino acid derivatives :-Epinephrine and norepinephrine from
adrenal medulla and thyroxine from thyroid gland are derived from amino acid.
2.Short peptides :- Oxytocin and vasopressin from posterior lobe of pituitary are peptides of .
Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) from intermediate lobe of pituitary gland .
3.Long peptides : Insulin from pancreas, adrenocortico tropin (ACTH) from anterior lobe of pituitary
gland, calcitonin from thyroid gland, parathormone from parathyroid gland .
4.Protein :Gonadotropic, thyrotropic and somatotropic hormones from anterior lobe of pituitary
5.Steroids (Fat soluble) :Cortisol& aldosterone from adrenal cortex, testosterone from interstitial cells of
testes, estrogen & progesterone from Graaffian follicles of ovary and placenta
6.Fatty acid derivative :- Prostaglandin
Physical & Chemical Specialities of Hormones :Molecules of hormones are small and soluble in water and
secretion of hormone is in small quantity because these are most reactive substances .Hormones can not be
stored in body.Thyroxine is exception .Hormones are non- antigenic & non species specific substances, do not
participate in metabolic activities of target cells but they affect and control activity of these target cells. Due
to hormones, rate of metabolic activities is effected but permeability of cell membrane is changed so nature
of reactions is also changed. Hormones Enzymes
1.They are produced at one site and are 1.They may act at site where they are
passed by blood to another site for action. produced or carried to another site for action.
2.They have low molecular weight 2.They have very high molecular weight.
3.Hormones may be steroids, proteins, 3.Enzymes are proteins.
peptides or amino acid derivatives.
4.They are used up in their action. 4.They are not used up in their action.
5.They are effective in low concentration. 5. They also act in low concentration.
Their excess or deficiency cause disorders Rate of enzyme catalyzed reactions increase with
6.They may act slowly or quickly. an increase in their concentration
6.They act slowly.
7.They may accelerate or retard reactions. 7.They speed up the reactions.
8.Reactions are not reversible. 8.Enzyme controlled reactions are reversible.
 Hormones Vitamins
1.Hormones may be steroids, proteins, 1.They are never proteins but simple organic peptides or
amino acid derivatives. such as amines, esters, alcohol, aldehyde or acids.
2.They are effective in low concentration. 2.They are needed in small quantity. Excess
Their excess or deficiency may cause vitamins are excreted. Their deficiency causes
hormonal disorders. malfunctioning called deficiency diseases or
3.They are secreted by animal in its body 3.They are rarely synthesized in the own body.
They are mostly taken with food.
4.Hormones influence the genes to produce 4.They act as co-enzymes and help enzymes to specific
enzymes required during metabolism. perform their function.
5.They do not influence the working of those 5.They are not produced by body organs organs which
have secreted them. (except vitamin D)
MECHANISM OF HORMONE –– Two types -Once hormone enter into blood stream it can reach to
any cell in body. Hormone effects only certain kind of cells called as target organ.Hormones are two
types :(i)Water soluble hormone(ii)Lipid soluble hormone .Water soluble hormones interact with surface
receptor, normally glycoprotein and initiate chain events within it where as lipid soluble hormone (Steroid
) readily pass through plasma membrane to cytoplasm of target cell. Molecular mechanism of hormone :
(1) At Gene level(2) At Plasmalemma level
1.At Gene level :(a)Steroid hormones :-They enter into target cell ,combine with receptor protein, This
new protein is an enzyme, affects vital activity of target cell.
(b)Thyroxine hormone :- Thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine increase transcription by certain gene in
nucleus. To accomplish this, These hormones first bind directly with receptor protein located on
chromosome in nucleus. Advantage of intranuclear receptor- thyroxin hormone can continue their
expression control function for weeks :
1. Mode of Protein Hormone Action through Extracellular Receptors: 2.Plasmalemma level :-
(i) Formation of Hormone Receptor Complex : Every hormone has its own receptor. Number of
receptors for each hormone varies. Insulin receptors for most cells is less than 100 but for some
liver cells their number may be more than 1,00,000. Protein hormones bind to specific receptor
molecules located on plasma membrane to form hormone receptor complex. Membrane-
bound receptors do not enter target cell, but generate second messengers (e.g., cAMP)
(cGMP), inositol triphosphate (IP3) and Ca++ for amplification of signal. Ex. insulin. For
transport of insulin hormone, receptor is found in cell membrane, made up of 4 sub-units. 2 sub-
unit are a-protein, towards outside of membrane which binds insulin . 2 sub-units (b-Protein)
protrude into cytoplasm of cell,having tyrosine kinase activity. Binding of insulin to outer 2a
sub units of receptor triggers tyrosine kinase activity of intra cellular portion of b-sub units. This
causes structural change in b-sub unit to become an activated tyrosine kinase which produces
autophosphorylation of cytoplasmic receptor and phosphorylation of cytoplasmic protein. (b)
Formation of Secondary Messengers or C-AMP— Mediators: Transducer protein is found on
inner surface of receptor protein is called as G-Protein. When adrenaline is attached to surface
receptor protein on plasmalemma ,it forms complex hormone receptor complex (HRC). This G-
Protein consist of a, ,b,g – subunit and GTP .After formation HRC, GTP change into GDP,
phosphate group is released which activates G-Protein.After activation of G-Protein their sub
units are divided into two group i-a -subunit and ii - b, g - subunit (b, g - subunit both does not
separate) Activated a - subunit of G-Protein activate adenylate cyclase.Activated adenylate
cyclase change ATP into-C-AMP on cell membrane. C-AMP goes into cytoplasm where it
activates inactive protein kinase-A to active protein kinase-A then to inactive phosphorylase
kinase to active phosphorylase kinase and finally inactive Glycogen phosphorylase into active
glycogen phosphorylase which changes glycogen into Glucose-1-Phosphate. Each molecule of
protein kinase-A activates about 100 molecule of enzyme phosphorylase kinase
Single molecule of adrenaline releases as many as 100 million molecules of glucose within only
1 minutes (Amplification).Second messenger CAMP can induce widely differing responses in
different cells, depending on what proteins are modified.

As a result single molecule of adernaline hormone may lead to release of 100 million glucose
molecules within 1 to 2 minutes. This increases blood glucose level. Activated gene transcribes
mRNA which directs synthesis of proteins and usually enzymes in cytoplasm. Enzymes promote
metabolic reactions in cell. Actions of lipid soluble hormones are slower and last longer than
action of water- soluble hormones.
(iv) Antagonistic Effect: Effect of hormones which act against each other are called antagonistic
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems achieve antagonize effect on heart beat. Ex.
insulin and glucagon. Insulin lowers blood sugar level and glucagon raises blood sugar level.
(v) Synergistic Effect: When two or more hormones complement each other’s actions and they
are needed for full expression called synergistic effects. Ex, Production and ejection of milk by
mammary glands require synergistic effects of oestrogens, prolactin, progesterone, oxytocin .
Hormones as Regulators (Feed Back Control): Homeostasis- Keeping inter­nal environment of
body constant.When secretion of hormones is under control of other hormones it is called
feedback control. Regulation of secretion of thyroxine from thyroid gland . It is of two types:
(i) Positive Feed Back Control: If level of thyroxine is less than normal limits in blood, thyroxine
level stimulates hypothalamus to secrete more of TRH which results in increased secretion of
TSH which in turn stimulates increased secretion of thyroxine. (ii) Negative Feed Back Control:
Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus stimulates anterior lobe of pituitary
gland to secrete thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).TSH stimulates thyroid gland to secrete
thyroxine. High amount of thyroxine in blood exerts an inhibitory effect on hypothala­mus in a
Role of Hormones in Homeo­stasis: Hypothalamic nuclei— masses of grey matter containing
neurons, located in white matter in floor of third ventricle of brain. Neurosecretory cells of
hypothalamic nuclei secrete neu­rohormones (releasing factors) into blood. Neurohormones are
carried to ante­rior lobe of the pituitary gland ( hypophysis) by a pair of hypophysial portal veins.
In pituitary gland neurohormones stimulate it to release various hormones. “releasing factors”
Hypothalamus: Ectodermal in origin Location :It lies below or inferior to thalamus, provides
connection between nervous and endocrine systems through hypophysis(anterior lobe of
pituitary) by hypophysial portal veins, connected to posterior lobe of pituitary by axons of
neurosecretory cells. Its hormones influences pituitary gland.‘supreme commander’ of
endocrine glands.Hormones : Neurosecretory cells secrete 9 neurohormone (releasing factors) .
(i) Adrenocorticotropic (Corticotropin) Releasing hormone (ARH) It stimulates anterior lobe of
pituitary to secrete adrenocortico­tropic hormone (ACTH). (ii) Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone
(TRH): It stimulates anterior lobe of pituitary to secrete thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) . (iii)
Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH): It stimulates anterior lobe of pituitary to
release growth hormone (GH) or somatotrophin. (iv) Growth Hormone-Inhibitory Hormone
(GHIH):So­matostatin (SS).It inhibits secretion of growth hormone from anterior lobe of pituitary
(v) Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH):Stimulates anterior lobe to secrete
gonadotropic hormones: (follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)). vi)
Prolactin Releasing hormone (PRH): It stimulates anterior lobe to secrete prolactin. (vii)
Prolactin Inhibitory Hormone (PIH): It Inhibits secretion of prolactin from anterior lobe of
pituitary . (viii) MSH Releasing Hormone (MSHRH): It stimulates inter­mediate lobe of pituitary
to secrete its melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH). (ix) MSH Inhibitory Hormone (MSHIt
inhibits secretion of melanocyte stimulating hormone from intermediate lobe of pituitary gland.
Target Cells: Cells of pituitary gland.
Pituitary gland is Ectodermal, situated in sella–turcica of sphenoid bone, attached to
hypothalamus through stalk- infundibulum. Divided into three lobes –Anterior pituitary –pars
anterior(hypophysis) ,Intermediate lobe or pars intermedia, Posterior pituitary-neurohypophysis
or pars nervosa. It is connected by hypophysial portal system and axons of hypothalamic neuron.
Tropic hormones- Hormones that activate other endocrine glands to release their hormones or
act on target organs.Thyroid stimulating Hormone (TSH) All these hormones are proteinaceous
1.Growth Hormone or Somatotropic or somatotropin Hormone [G.H. or S.T.H] :– By
Somatotroph cells Effect on Growth :–On bone : It increases longitudinal length of bone. On
soft tissue :(i)GH promotes mitosis & increases number of cells in many organs e.g. liver. (ii)GH
stimulates growth of muscle and cartilage due to increase synthesis of collagen, muscle grow in
bulk.Effect on metabolism –Fat : Increases lipolysis, free fatty acid level of plasma rises. Fat is
used for energy in preference to carbohydrate and protein, protein deposition is increased.
Carbohydrate :Hyperglycemia develops due to decreased uptake of glucose in cells.
Protein : GH increases amino acid uptake by cells of liver & muscles & helps in protein
synthesis In presence of thyroxine and insulin, growth hormones become more active and help
in body growth. In this way this hormone is important for growth of body.
(a)Hyposecretion of STH :– Due to deficiency of STH in childhood or adolescence, dwarfism is
observed. Dwarfism due to defect of pituitary is called Ateliosis. Clowns of circus are such
dwarfs, called midgets, physically & mentally normal while sexual maturation is delayed.
(b)Hypersecretion of STH :Hypersecretion in childhood and adolescence, higher quantity of
amino acids is supplied to body cells.(i)Epiphyseal cartilage present on edges of bones does not
convert into bone for long time.Bones of legs & hands become very long and height of person
increases . Body becomes imbalanced called Gigantism.(ii)Acromegaly :– Hypersecretion of
STH in adulthood, jaw bones of affected person become long, cheek bones buldge out, broad
2.Thyrotrophic[T.T.H OR T.S.H.]or Thyroid stimulating hormone Secreted by basophil cells
(Thyrotroph cell), glycoprotein in nature, stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine &
causes growth of thyroid gland, TSH is stimulated by TRF & inhibited by somatostatin of
hypothalamus.
3.Adreno Cortico trophic Hormone or Coticotropine [ACTH]-Secreted by basophil
(corticotroph cells).In ACTH of man, valine& tyrosine amino acids are more in quantity.It
accelerates cortex part of adrenal gland to secretes hormones.
4.Follicle Stimlating Hormone [FSH] :–Secreted by basophils(Gonadotroph cell), glycoprotein
in nature, secreted in male and female .In males, it stimulates spermatogenesis and functioning
of seminiferous tubules. In females,stimulates oogenesis and development of Graafian follicles in
ovary.Estrogen hormone that is secreted by Graafian follicles is also affected by FSH.
5.Luteinizing Hormone [LH OR ICSH] OR Interstitial Cell Stimulating `Hormone :–
Secreted by basophil (Gonadotroph) cells,glycoprotein in nature. It stimulates ovulation in
female as a result of this corpus luteum is formed.Progesterone secreted by corpus luteum is also
stimulated by L.H .In men LH is called ICSH. It affects Leydig's cells or Interstitial cells of
testes and stimulates secretion of male hormone Testosterone.FSH and LH both are
gonadotrophic hormone GTH.
FSH and LH act in combined form so these are called synergesic hormone.Gonadotrophic
hormones (FSH & LH) secretion start secreting during puberty. Their secretion is regulated by
hypothalamus. It is supposed that there a biological clock present to control all this.
6.Luteotrophic or Prolactin or Lactogenic or mammotrophin Hormone (PRL) :Secreted by
acidophil (Lactotroph) cells.Function (1)Lactation (Galactopoiesis) :- Prolactin is responsible
for lactation after delivery in women. Regulation of Prolactin by Hypothalamus :-
Hypothalamus stimulate production of all pituitary hormone, but inhibits prolactin production,
hypothalamus prolactin inhibitory hormone (Dopamine) is greater than releasing hormone .
During pregnancy :-Prolactin hormone steadily increase until term but due to high level of
oestrogen and progesterone (secreted by placenta) lactation is inhibited .After expulsion of
placenta at parturition, there is an abrupt decline in estrogen and progesterone which initiate
lactation.Nursing stimulates prolactin secretion which inhibits action of GnRH on pituitary and
antagonize action of gonadotrophin on ovaries. Ovulation is inhibited and ovaries gets
inactive.Nursing is important and effective method of birth control.
7.Middle Lobe of PituiItary Part of adenohypophysis, close to neurohypophysis is thin called
pars intermedia or middle lobe of pituitary .In man it is thin membrane and inactive.
Melanocyte Stimlating hormone [MSH] :(By Corticotroph cell), called Intermedin is secreted
by anterior lobe, because middle lobe is ill developed, stimulates melanocyte to synthesize
melanin, related with change in colour of skin in Amphibian and Reptiles. This phenomenon of
is known as metachrosis.It darkens skin by distributing melanin pigment evenly under skin.Just
opposite to it, melatonin secreted by pineal body, collects melanin pigments at one place thus
fairing complexion of skin. MSH is found in all vertebrates, but it is functional in poikilothermic
animals e.g. fishes, amphibians, reptiles etc.Importance of MSH in man has not been evaluated
POSTERIOR LOBE OR NEUROHYPOPHYSIS :– It is 1/4 part of total gland,just like
th

nervous tissue, because in it terminal ends of axons of neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus are
swollen. These swollen ends are called Herring bodies. There are some large, branched fatty
neuroglial supporting cells in between axons, called Pituicytes. Hormones are released in these
bodies.
1.Posterior pituitary hormones are not synthesised in gland but synthesized in supraoptic
nuclei and paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus, transported to posterior pituitary through
axons of hypothlamo hypo-physeal tract and stored(A)Vasopressin or Anti Diuretic Hormone
[ADH] :Functions :– It increases reabsorption of water in collecting duct and distal convoluted
part of uriniferous tubules. Due to this, amount of urine is reduced.It increases blood pressure by
 Due to hyposecretion of ADH amount of urine increases, called Diuresis. Patient feels thirsty
Dehydration starts in body-disease is called Diabetes insipidus (polyuria).Due to hyposecretion
of ADH, deficiency of water starts in Extra cellular fluid .Blood pressure reduces, urine becomes
dilute and blood becomes concentrated . Hypersecretion of ADH causes dilution of blood and
increases concentration of urine and blood pressure increases. Intake of coffee, tea and excess
alcohol decrease secretion of ADH.Secretion of ADH is maximum in desert fauna (animals of
xerophytic ) Camel . KangarooRat shows hypersecretion of ADH never drinks water in its life.
(B)Oxytocin or Pitocin- Parturition hormone. It stimulates rapid contractions of non- striated
muscles of uterine wall at last moment of gestation (pregnancy). Due to uterine constrictions,
labour pains start just before child birth.This hormone is secreted by pituitary glands of mother
at time of parturition.This also initiates contractions in uterine wall muscles during copulation/
as result of that semen of man is sweeped out in fallopian tubes of woman. It helps in milk
ejection called milk let down hormone,related with emotion.Even thought, cry or sound of baby
can bring about release of this hormone in lactating mother.This hormone helps during egg laying
in birds.Injection of oxytocin are initiates cows and buffaloes for instant milk release.
Pineal Gland It is located on dorsal side of forebrain. It secretes hormone called melatonin.
which plays role in regulation of 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm of our body. it helps in maintaining
normal rhythms of sleep-wake cycle, body temperature.It also influences metabolism,
pigmentation, menstrual cycle as well as our defense capability.
Thyroid Gland-Origin : Endodermal . Location and Structure : It is largest endocrine gland
located anterior to thyroid cartilage of larynx in neck, supplied with blood vessels. It is bilobed
( two lobes) are connected by a narrow isthmus. Internally it has thyroid follicles com­posed of
filled with colloid. Loose connective tissue forms stroma of gland. Stroma contains small
clusters of Para follicular cells or ‘C’ cells. It is only gland that stores hormones .
Hormones : It secretes three hormones. Thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine or T4), and tri­iodo thyro
nine or T3 by follicular cells. Thyrocalcitonin by С-cells of thyroid gland. This is stimulated by
thyroid stimulating hormone (also called thyrotropin) secreted by anterior lobe of pituitary
gland. (i) T3 is secreted in smaller amounts but it is more active and several times more potent
than T4. T4 is converted to T3 in liver, kidneys and other tissues. T4 and T3 are synthesised by
attaching iodine to tyrosine amino acid. Functions (a) They regulate metabolic rate of body and
thus maintain basal metabolic rate (BMR).(b)They stimulate protein synthesis and, therefore,
promote growth of body tissues. (c) They regulate development of mental faculties. (d) As they
increase heat production, thus they maintain body temperature.(e) They help in metamorphosis
of tadpole into adult frog. If thyroid gland of tadpole (larva) is removed, the larva fails to change
into an adult. (f) They increase action of neurotransmitters like adrenaline and noradrenaline.
(ii) Thyrocalcitonin (TCT): It is secreted when calcium level is high in blood, lowers calcium level
by suppressing release of calcium ions from bones. It has action opposite to that of parathyroid.

Thyroid Disorders:(A) Hyperthyroidism. Exophthalmic goitre or Graves’ disease: It is a thyroid

enlargement (goitre) due to excessive amount of thyroid hormone, by exophthalmia (protrusion
of eye balls), loss of weight, rise in body temp., rapid heartbeat, nervousness and restlessness.
(B) Hypothyroidism : (a) Cretinism: Caused by deficiency of thyroid hormone in infants. He has
slow body growth and mental development & reduced metabolic rate ,slow heart beat, lower
blood pressure, decrease in temp., stunted growth, pot-belly, pigeon chest and protruding
tongue and retarded sexual development, treated by early administration of thyroid hormones
(b) Myxoedema or Gull’s disease: It is caused by deficiency of thyroid hormone in adults,
characterized by puffy appearance due to accumulation of fat in subcutaneous tissue because
of low metabolic rate. Patient lacks alertness, intelligence and suffers from slow heart beat, low
body temp. and regarded sexual development, treated by administration of thyroid hormones.
 (d) Hashimoto’s disease: All aspects of thyroid are im­paired. It is an autoimmune disease in
which thyroid gland is destroyed by autoimmunity
Parathyroid Glands: Origin Endodermal. Location and Structure : It consist of four separate
glands located on posterior surface of thyroid gland. Cells of glands are in compact mass and
of two types: small chief cells or principal cells are more and large oxyphil cells enclosed by
connective tissue capsule. Oxyphil cells- absent in young and appear little before age of puberty.
Hormones : Chief cells secrete a hormone called parathy­roid hormone (PTH) or parathormone
regulates calcium and phosphate between blood and other tissues, inhibits collagen synthesis
by osteoblasts and bone resorption by osteoclasts. It mobilises release of calcium into blood
from bones. PTH increases calcium absorption from intestines. It increases calcium resorption
from nephrons of kidneys. PTH regulates metabolism of calcium and phosphate under feed
back control of blood calcium level. . Thus PTH has an effect that opposes effect of calcitonin.
Functions of oxyphil cells are unknown.
Parathyroid Disorders: (i) Hypoparathyroidism (deficiency of PTH): It causes lowering of blood
cal­cium level. This increases excitability of nerves and muscles, causing cramps and
convulsions Sustained con­tractions of muscles of face, hands are produced called parathyroid
tetany
(ii)Hyperparathyroidism :Excess PTH draws more calcium from bones,causes demineralisation,
resulting in softening and bending of bones.This leads to osteitis fibrosa cystica or osteoporosis,
they are easily fractured. It is common in women who have reached menopause (ces­sation of
menstruation). An excess of parathormone also causes calcium to be deposited in kidneys.
kidney stones sometimes suggests presence of a parathyroid tumour
Adrenal Glands.-Location and Structure: These are paired structures located on top of kidneys.
Each gland has two parts exter­nal adrenal cortex and internal ad­renal medulla.Cortex is su­roun
ded by fibrous capsule. Both adrenal cortex and medulla have dif­ferent origin, structure and
 (i) Zona glomerulosa : This is outer zone that lies just below capsule. It constitutes about 15%
of gland. Its cells are closely packed in spheri­cal clusters which secrete mineralocorticoids
which affect mineral homeostasis. (ii) Zona fasciculata : This is middle zone which is widest of
three zones. It constitutes about 50% of gland. It consists of cells arranged in long, straight col­
umns secrete mainly glucocorticoids, affect glucose homeostasis. (iii) Zona reticularis :This is
inner zone that constitutes about 7% of gland. Cells are arranged in branching cords which
secrete gonado-corticoids . Cells of zona fasciculata and zona reticulata contain ascorbic acid
(vitamin C). Hormones: All hormones of adrenal cortex are synthesized from cholesterol.
i)Mineralocorticoids: These are responsible for regulation of mineral metabolism. Aldosterone
(salt-retaining hormone) is principal mineralocorticoid (90 to 95%) in humans. Its main function
is to regulate sodium content of body. It is secreted when sodium level is low. It acts on
kidneys to cause more sodium to be returned to blood and more potassium to be excreted.
As sodium concentration in blood increases, water follows it by osmosis, blood volume also
increases. Thus effect of aldosterone isto increase both sodium and water in blood.
Target cells: Mineralocorticoids act on cells of kidneys.
(ii) Glucocorticoids: It include three main hormones: cortisol , corticosterone and Cortisone.
Cortisol is most abundant (about 95%). It stimulates liver to synthesize carbohydrates from
non-carbohydrates such as amino acids and glycerol. This increases level of glucose in blood. It
also stimulates degradation of proteins within cells and amino acids in blood, increases level of
amino acids in blood. Third effect of cortisol is to stimulate break-down of fats in adipose tissue
and release fatty acids into blood. Thus cortisol has anti insulin effect. It also helps in reducing
pain(analgesic)& is anti-inflammatory. It retards phagocytic activities of WBCs and suppresses
‘inflammation reaction’. It reduces number of mast cells, reducing secretion of histamine. It is
immunosuppressive suppresses synthesis of antibodies by inhibiting production of lymphocytes
 
                                          
This hormone increases RBC count, but decrease WBC . It also elevates blood pressure. When
we are under stress our body secretes cortisol that is why this hormone is called “stress
hormone”. Target Cells: Cells of liver.(iii) Gonad corticoids (Sex-corticoids): They are also called
sex hormones of adrenal glands. Large quantities of male than female sex-corticoids (sex
hormones) are produced. These male sex hormones are called androgens which are important
in development of a male foetus. Androgens stimulate de­velopment of male secondary sexual
characters like distribution of body hair. Female sex hormones secreted by adrenal cortex are
oestrogens which maintain the development of female secondary sexual characters.
Target cells: Cells of gonads (testes and ovaries). Adrenal cortex is essential for life. Its removal
or destruction is fatal unless hormones produced by it are supplemented artificially.
Disorders of Adrenal cortex: (i) Addison’s disease: This disease is caused by the deficiency of
mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. It is caused by destruction of adrenal cortex in disease
such as tuberculosis. Its symptoms include low blood sugar, low plasma Na+, high K+ plasma,
increased urinary Na+, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and a bronze-like pigmentation of skin.
Severe dehydration is common in person suffering from this disease. (ii) Cushing’s Syndrome :
It is caused by excess of cortisol which may be due to tumour of adrenal cortex, characterised
by high blood sugar, appearance of sugar in the urine, rise in plasma Na+, fall in plasma K+, rise
in blood volume, high blood pressure, obesity and wasting of muscles of thighs and pectoral
and pelvic girdles. (iii) Aldosteronism (Conn’s Syndrome): Excessive production of aldosterone
from an adrenal cortical tumour causes this disease. Its symptoms include a high plasma Na+,
low plasma K+, rise in blood volume, high blood pressure and polyurea.
(iv) Adrenal Virilism : Appearance of male characters in female is called virilism. Excessive
production of male sex-corticoids (androgens) produces male secondary sexual characters like
beard, moustache, hoarse voice in woman.
(v) Gynaecomastia: It is the development of enlarged mammary glands in the males. It is due
to excessive secretion of female sex hormones (oestrogens) in males. Decreased testosterone
may also lead to gynaecomastia.
(B) Adrenal Medulla: Origin: The adrenal medulla develops from neuroectoderm of embryo.
Structure: It consists of rounded groups of relatively large and granular cells. These cells are
modified postganglionic cells of sympathetic nervous system which have lost normal processes
and have acquired a glandular function. These cells are called chromaffin cells or
phaeochromocytes. Obviously, the adrenal medulla is simply an extension of sympathetic
nervous system, therefore, these are discussed together as sympatheticoadrenal system.
Hormones: It secretes : norepinephrine (norad­renaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline).
Norepinephrine and epinephrine are derived from tyrosine amino acid.
(i) Norepinephrine ( Noradrenaline): It regulates blood pressure under normal condition. It
causes constriction of all blood vessels of body. It causes increased activity of heart, inhibition
of gastrointestinal tract, dilation of pupils of eyes .
(ii) Epinephrine ( Adrenaline): It is secreted at time of emergency( emergency hormone). It
causes same effects as norepi­nephrine with following differences: Ist epinephrine has greater
effect on cardiac activity than norepinephrine. 2nd epinephrine causes only weak con­striction
of blood vessels of muscles in comparison with much stronger constriction that results from
norepinephrine.3rd difference - tissue metabolism. Epinephrine has several times great effect.
Target Cells: Both adrenaline and noradrenaline acts on cells of skeletal, cardiac and smooth
muscles and blood vessels and fat cells. ‘glands of emergency’.
Sympathetico adrenal System: Stimulation of sympathetic nerves to adrenal me­dulla causes
release of large quantities of epinephrine and norepinephrine into blood circulation and then
to all tissues of body. Both hormones and sympathetic nervous system act on same organs
and produce similar effects on them ( accelerates heart beat, raises blood pressure, peristalsis)
Sympathetic nervous system and adrenal medulla function as an integrated system, it is called
sympathetico adrenal system. Adrenaline hormone is responsible for “fight or flight response
Pancreas : Origin Endodermal. Location and Structure :It lies inferior to stomach in a bend of
duodenum. It is both an exocrine and an endocrine gland. Tissue of pancreas has in addition to
acinar cells, groups of cells called islets of Langerhans, having Four kinds of cells (i) Alpha cells
(about 15%) produce glucagon( А-cells) (ii) Beta cells (about 65%) produce insulin ( В-cells)(iii)
Delta cells or D-cells (about 5%) produce somatostatin (SS) (iv) Pancreatic Polypeptide or PP
cells or F-cells (15%), produce pancre­atic polypeptide (PP). Beta cells are usually found towards
middle of islet, alpha cells towards periphery of islet and Delta (D) and F-cells are scattered.
Hormones : (i) Glucagon: It stimulates liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose. anti-
insulin” Target Cells: Cells of liver and adipose tissue.(ii) Insulin: (a) Insulin converts glucose into
glycogen in liver and muscles.(b) It promotes protein synthesis in tissue from amino acids. (c)
Reduces catabolism of proteins( anabolic hormone). (d) It increases synthesis of fat in adipose
tissue from fatty acids. (e) Reduces breakdown and oxidation of fat
(iii) Somatostatin (SS): Same as growth inhibiting hormone from hypothalamus , It is produced
by pancreas, hypothalamus and some cells of digestive tract . It suppress release of other
hormones from pancreas and digestive tract.
(iv) Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP): It inhibits release of digestive secretion of pancreas..
Target Cells: Both somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide act on cells of pancreas. Disorders
of Pancreas: (i) Diabetes mellitus (Hyperglycemia): Now exist in two forms — insulin-dependent
and non-insulin-dependent. insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) is caused by a failure
of Beta-cells to produce adequate amount of insulin while non-insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus (NIDDM) appears to involve failure of insulin to facilitate the movement of glucose into
cells. In both disorders blood glucose concentration is elevated above normal and is excreted
in urine, followed by water , excessive urination and dehydration of body tissues.
This causes excessive thirst(polydipsia).Cells are unable to utilize glucose & other carbohydrates
for energy production and utilize proteins & person becomes weak. Degradation of fats
increases, producing ketone bodies (ketosis)which are acidic and poisonous. Blood cholesterol
level rises. Healing power is impaired. Administration of insulin lowers blood-glucose level.
Non-insulin-dependent diabetes to be inherited as an autosomal recessive characteristic.
(ii) Hypoglycemia: It occurs when blood glucose level falls below normal caused by an excess of
insulin or deficiency of glucagon, individuals having no Alpha cells are deficient in glucagon,
whereas others produce excess quantities of insulin(hyperinsulinism)because of tumour of beta
cells. Symptoms include weakness, profuse sweating, irritability, confusion and convulsive.
Thymus It is a lobular structure located between lungs behind sternum on ventral side of aorta.
Thymus plays a major role in the development of immune system. This gland secretes peptide
hormones called thymosins.which play a major role in differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which
provide cell-mediated immunity. It also promote production of antibodies to provide immunity.
It is degenerated in old resulting in a decreased production of thymosins. As a result, immune
responses of old persons become weak.
Testis performs dual functions as primary sex organ as well as endocrine gland. It is composed
of seminiferous tubules and stromal or interstitial tissue. Leydig cells or interstitial cells, which
are present in intertubular spaces produce a group of hormones called androgens mainly
testosterone. Androgens regulate development, maturation and functions of male accessory
sex organs like epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra etc. It
stimulate muscular growth, growth of facial and axillary hair, aggressiveness, low pitch of voice
etc. Androgens play a major stimulatory role in process of spermatogenesis (formation of
spermatozoa) act on & central neural system and influence male sexual behaviour . These
hormones produce anabolic effects on protein and carbohydrate metabolism.
Ovary Females have pair of ovaries located in abdomen .It is primary female sex organ which
produces one ovum during each menstrual cycle. In addition, ovary also produces two groups of
steroid hormones called estrogen and progesterone. It is composed of ovarian follicles and
stromal tissues. Estrogen is synthesised and secreted mainly by growing ovarian follicles. After
ovulation, ruptured follicle is converted to called corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone.
Estrogens produce wide ranging actions such as stimulation of growth and activities of female
secondary sex organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, appearance of female
secondary sex characters ( high pitch of voice, etc.), mammary gland development. Estrogens
also regulate female sexual behaviour. Progesterone supports pregnancy. Progesterone also acts
on mammary glands and stimulates formation of alveoli which store milk and milk secretion.
3 HORMONES OF HEART, KIDNEY AND GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT hormones are also secreted
by some tissues which are not endocrine glands. For example, atrial wall of heart secretes a
very important peptide hormone called atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), which decreases blood
pressure by dilation of the blood vessels. Juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a peptide
hormone called erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis (formation of RBC). Endocrine
cells present in different parts of the gastro-intestinal tract secrete four major peptide
hormones, namely gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK) and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP).
Gastrin acts on gastric glands and stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen.
Secretin acts on the exocrine pancreas and stimulates secretion of water and bicarbonate ions.
CCK acts on both pancreas and gall bladder and stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes
and bile juice, respectively. GIP inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
Regulation of Gastric Motility- gastrin is produced by cells lining gastric glands of stomach .It is
carried by blood stream to smooth muscle of the stomach resulting in increased motility.
Gastrin secretion is inhibited by increasing stomach acidity.
Secretions into Small Intestine Hormone secretin is released into the blood stream when fatty
acids and hydrogen ions, H+ enter small intestine. Cholecystokinin release is stimulated by
presence of peptides, fatty acids & monoglycerides in the small intestine. It relaxes sphincter
muscle thus opening ducts leading from gallbladder and pancreas. It stimulates exocrine
regions of pancreas to produce pancreatic juice It inhibits gastric motility indirectly by
inhibiting cells that produce gastrin thus reducing motility. .'CCK also stimulates smooth
muscle of gallbladder to contract thus releasing bile into small intestine.
1)Insulin :–Molecular structure of insulin was given by Sanger( Noble Prize ) It is first protein
that is artificially synthesized in lab and is crystallized.Human insulin was synthesized by "Tsan“
One molecule of Insulin is made up of 51 - amino acids that has 2 chains.(i)a - chain - It is made
up of 21 aminoacids(ii)b - chain - It is made up of 30 amino acids. Both branches or chains are
bind together with cross bonds of disulphide bonds.Functions of Insulin hormone :–On
membrane permeability : Except brain cells, R.B.Cs. retina, insulin stimulates permeability
and consumption of glucose in all somatic cellsActions on Metabolism :– Carbohydrate :
(1)Insulin inhibits gluconeogenesis. (2)Promotes glycogenesis. Two sites of glycogenesis, liver
and muscles.(3)Enhances peripheral utilization (oxidation) of glucose, causing blood sugar
level to fall.(4)Inhibits glycogenolysis.Fat : (i)Insulin promotes lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis.
(ii) inhibits formation of ketone bodies.Protein : It promotes protein synthesis by promoting
uptake of amino acid by liver and muscle Nucleic acid : Insulin promotes synthesis of DNA and
RNA.Normal concentration of sugar in blood is 90 - 110 mg. per 100 ml. of blood.It affect BMR
in cells.Hyposecretion of Insulin :Due to hyposecretion of insulin, body cells can not use sugar
stored in blood. So amount of sugar is increases in blood and disease is called "Diabetes
mellitus" or sugar disease. In this, concentration of glucose in blood is increased from normal
concentration . Glucose is excreted through urine, if glucose is in excess in blood, known as
 C ir c a d ia n
r h y th m

C o n t r o l o f A C T H s e c r e t io n
Humans don¹t produce melatonin right from birth; it is transferred in utero to babies through
placenta.  For their first few days of life, babies still have to receive it from breast milk.  Our
levels of melatonin peak during childhood, and then decrease at the beginning of puberty, so
that other hormones can take control of our bodies.  As we get older, amount of melatonin we
produce continues to decrease until at age 60, we produce about half as much as we did at age
20.  With rapid decrease from about age 50 on, effects of old age quickly become more visible
and physically evident.  With what scientists have recently discovered, we may very soon be able
to  harness melatonin to slow down aging, fend off disease, and keep us feeling healthy and
energetic; not to mention things melatonin can do for us right now like curing insomnia and
regulating sleeping patterns, eliminating effects of jet-lag, and relieving every day stress.
Hormones-Chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands., released directly into blood
stream, act at a site away from where they are secreted, act on specific target tissue , modify
and regulate activity of target tissue/organ.
Human body has two types of glands based on presence of ducts-Exocrine glands- These are
glands with ducts  Release their secretions through these ducts, like salivary gland and sweat
gland.  Present near site of action.Secretions are normally enzymes.
Endocrine glands- These are glands without ducts ,release their secretions directly into blood
vessels, like thyroid and adrenal. Present far away form site of action .Secretions are hormones.
These release hormones in blood stream, that travels throughout body and reach target cell.
Hypothalmus,Pituitary,Pineal ,Thymus,Thyroid,Parathyroid,Adrenal ,Pancreas,Testes,Ovaries

.
HORMONE RELEASING FACTORS OF HYPOTHALAMUS :– Hormones secreted by
adenohypophysis of pituitary gland are under the control of neuro- secretory cells of
hypothalamus. These neuro- secretory cells produce some substances in very small amount
which are called releasing factors.
(1)Growth hormone releasing factor:- [GHRF]:- It stimulates the secretion of growth
hormone.
(2)Thyrotrophin releasing factor [TRF]:- It stimulates the secretion of TSH.
(3)Follicle stimulating hormone releasing factor [FSHRF] :– It stimulates the secretion of
FSH.
GnRH Luteinising hormone releasing factor [LHRF] :– It stimulates the secretion of LH.
(4)Growth hormone inhibitory factor [GHIF] (Somatostatin) :– It inhibits secretion of GH.
(5)Prolactin release factor [PRF] :– It stimulates the secretion of Prolactin.
(6)Prolactin inhibitory factor [PIF] (Dopamine) :– It inhibits the secretion of Prolactin.
(7)Melanocyte release factor [MRF] :– It stimulates the secretion of MSH.
(8)Melanocyte inhibitory factor [MIF] :– It inhibits the secretion of MSH.
(9)Adrenocorticotrophic releasing hormone (CRH) :– It stimulates secretion of Adrenal cortex
hormone.