CHAPTER 2

ANGLE MODULATION

2.0 PREREQUISTING ABOUT ANGLE MODULATION:

Angle modulation is a class of analog modulation. These techniques are based on altering
the angle (or phase) of a sinusoidal carrier wave to transmit data, as opposed to varying
the amplitude, such as in AM transmission.
Angle Modulation is modulation in which the angle of a sine-wave carrier is varied by a
modulating wave. Frequency Modulation (FM) and Phase Modulation (PM) are two types of
angle modulation. In frequency modulation the modulating signal causes the carrier frequency to
vary. These variations are controlled by both the frequency and the amplitude of the modulating
wave. In phase modulation the phase of the carrier is controlled by the modulating waveform.
The two main types of angle modulation are:
x Frequency modulation (FM), with its digital correspondence frequency-shift keying (FSK).
x Phase modulation (PM), with its digital correspondence phase-shift keying (PSK).
CONTENT:
x FREQUENCY & PHASE MODULATION
x NARROW BAND FM
x WIDE BAND FM
x GENERATION OF WIDE BAND FM
x TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH
x FM TRANSMITTER
2.1 FREQUENCY & PHASE MODULATION:
Besides using the amplitude of carrier to carrier information, one can also use the angle of a
carrier to carrier information. This approach is called angle modulation, and includes frequency
modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM). The amplitude of the carrier is maintained constant.
The major advantage of this approach is that it allows the trade-off between bandwidth and noise
performance.
An angle modulated signal can be written as
•ሺ–ሻ ൌ  ‘•Ʌሺ–ሻ
where Ʌሺ–ሻ is usually of the form Ʌሺ–ሻ ൌ ʹɎˆ – ൅ ‫׎‬ሺ–ሻ and fc is the carrier frequency. The signal
‫׎‬ሺ–ሻ is derived from the message signal m(t) . If ‫׎‬ሺ–ሻ ൌ ’ሺ–ሻ for some constant ’ ,the
resulting modulation is called phase modulation. The parameter ’ is called the phase
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sensitivity.In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (FM) is the
encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave.
(Compare with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the
frequency remains constant.) Frequency modulation is known as phase modulation when the
carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM signal.

If the information to be transmitted (i.e., the baseband signal) is and the sinusoidal carrier

is , where fc is the carrier's base frequency, and Ac is the carrier's

amplitude, the modulator combines the carrier with the baseband data signal to get the transmitted
signal:

In this equation, is the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator and is the frequency
deviation, which represents the maximum shift away from fc in one direction, assuming xm(t) is
limited to the range ±1.
While most of the energy of the signal is contained within fc ± fȟ, it can be shown by Fourier
analysis that a wider range of frequencies is required to precisely represent an FM signal.
The frequency spectrum of an actual FM signal has components extending infinitely, although
their amplitude decreases and higher-order components are often neglected in practical design
problems.
Sinusoidal baseband signal:
Mathematically, a baseband modulated signal may be approximated by a sinusoidal continuous
wave signal with a frequency fm.
The integral of such a signal is:

In this case, the expression for y(t) above simplifies to:

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where the amplitude of the modulating sinusoid is represented by the peak deviation
The harmonic distribution of a sine wave carrier modulated by such a sinusoidal signal can be
represented with Bessel functions; this provides the basis for a mathematical understanding of
frequency modulation in the frequency domain.
9 Modulation index:
As in other modulation systems, the value of the modulation index indicates by how much the
modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level. It relates to variations in the carrier
frequency:

where is the highest frequency component present in the modulating signal xm(t), and is
the peak frequency-deviation—i.e. the maximum deviation of the instantaneous frequency from
the carrier frequency. For a sine wave modulation, the modulation index is seen to be the ratio of
the amplitude of the modulating sine wave to the amplitude of the carrier wave (here unity).
If , the modulation is called narrowband FM, and its bandwidth is approximately .
For digital modulation systems, for example Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK), where a
binary signal modulates the carrier, the modulation index is given by:

where is the symbol period, and is used as the highest frequency of the
modulating binary waveform by convention, even though it would be more accurate to say it is the
highest fundamental of the modulating binary waveform. In the case of digital modulation, the
carrier is never transmitted. Rather, one of two frequencies is transmitted, either
or , depending on the binary state 0 or 1 of the modulation signal.
If , the modulation is called wideband FM and its bandwidth is approximately .
While wideband FM uses more bandwidth, it can improve the signal-to-noise ratiosignificantly;
for example, doubling the value of , while keeping constant, results in an eight-fold
improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio. (Compare this with Chirp spread spectrum, which uses
extremely wide frequency deviations to achieve processing gains comparable to traditional, better-
known spread-spectrum modes).

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With a tone-modulated FM wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and the modulation
index is increased, the (non-negligible) bandwidth of the FM signal increases but the spacing
between spectra remains the same; some spectral components decrease in strength as others
increase. If the frequency deviation is held constant and the modulation frequency increased, the
spacing between spectra increases.
Frequency modulation can be classified as narrowband if the change in the carrier frequency is
about the same as the signal frequency, or as wideband if the change in the carrier frequency is
much higher (modulation index >1) than the signal frequency. [6] For example, narrowband FM is
used for two way radio systems such as Family Radio Service, in which the carrier is allowed to
deviate only 2.5 kHz above and below the center frequency with speech signals of no more than
3.5 kHz bandwidth. Wideband FM is used for FM broadcasting, in which music and speech are
transmitted with up to 75 kHz deviation from the center frequency and carry audio with up to a
20-kHz bandwidth.
Carson's rule:
 ൌ ʹሺοˆ ൅ ˆሻǤ
2.2 PHASE MODULATION:
Phase Modulation (PM) is another form of angle modulation. PM and FM are closely related to
each other. In both the cases, the total phase angle θ of the modulated signal varies. In an FM
wave, the total phase changes due to the change in the frequency of the carrier corresponding to
the changes in the modulating amplitude.
In PM, the total phase of the modulated carrier changes due to the changes in the instantaneous
phase of the carrier keeping the frequency of the carrier signal constant. These two types of
modulation schemes come under the category of angle modulation. However, PM is not as
extensively used as FM.

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At time t1, the amplitude of m(t) increases from zero to E1. Therefore, at t1, the phase modulated
carrier also changes corresponding to E1, as shown in Figure (a). This phase remains to this
attained value until time t2, as between t1 and t2, the amplitude of m(t) remains constant at El. At
t2, the amplitude of m(t) shoots up to E2, and therefore the phase of the carrier again increases
corresponding to the increase in m(t). This new value of the phase attained at time t2remains
constant up to time t3. At time t3, m(t) goes negative and its amplitude becomes E3.
Consequently, the phase of the carrier also changes and it decreases from the previous value
attained at t2. The decrease in phase corresponds to the decrease in amplitude of m(t). The phase
of the carrier remains constant during the time interval between t3 and t4. At t4, m(t) goes positive
to reach the amplitude El resulting in a corresponding increase in the phase of modulated carrier at
time t4. Between t4 and t5, the phase remains constant. At t5 it decreases to the phase of the
unmodulated carrier, as the amplitude of m(t) is zero beyond t5.
9 Equation of a PM Wave:
To derive the equation of a PM wave, it is convenient to consider the modulating signal as a pure
sinusoidal wave. The carrier signal is always a high frequency sinusoidal wave. Consider the
modulating signal, em and the carrier signal ec, as given by, equation 1 and 2, respectively.
em = Em cos ωm t ------------(1)
ec = Ec sin ωc t ---------------(2)

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The initial phases of the modulating signal and the carrier signal are ignored in Equations (1) and
(2) because they do not contribute to the modulation process due to their constant values. After
PM, the phase of the carrier will not remain constant. It will vary according to the modulating
signal em maintaining the amplitude and frequency as constants. Suppose, after PM, the equation
of the carrier is represented as:
e = Ec Sin θ ------------------(3)
Where θ, is the instantaneous phase of the modulated carrier, and sinusoid ally varies in
proportion to the modulating signal. Therefore, after PM, the instantaneous phase of the
modulated carrier can be written as:
θ = ωc t + Kp em -------------------(4)
Where, kp is the constant of proportionality for phase modulation.
Substituting Equation (1) in Equation (4), yon get:
θ = ωc t + Kp Em Cos ωm t ---------------------(5)
In Equation (5), the factor, kpEm is defined as the modulation index, and is given as:
mp = Kp Em ------------------------(6)
where, the subscript p signifies; that mp is the modulation index of the PM wave. Therefore,
equation (5) becomes
θ = ωc t + mp Cos ωm t ---------------------(7)
Substituting Equation (7) and (3), you get:

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FREQUENCY MODULATION:

Frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying

its instantaneous frequency. This is in contrast with amplitude modulation, in which
the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant.
In analog applications, the difference between the instantaneous and the base frequency of
the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal
amplitude. Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a set of
discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying.

Frequency modulation can be regarded as phase modulation where the carrier phase
modulation is the time integral of the FM modulating signal.

FM is widely used for broadcasting of music and speech, and in two-way

radio systems, in magnetic tape recording systems, and certain video transmission systems.
In radio systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in
cancelling naturally-occurring noise. Frequency-shift keying (digital FM) is widely used in
data and fax modems.

THEORY:

Suppose the baseband data signal (the message) to be transmitted is xm(t) and

the sinusoidal carrier is , where fc is the carrier's base frequency

and Ac is the carrier's amplitude. The modulator combines the carrier with the baseband
data signal to get the transmitted signal:
 In this equation, is the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator and is
the frequency deviation, which represents the maximum shift away from fc in one
direction, assuming xm(t) is limited to the range ±1.

Although it may seem that this limits the frequencies in use to fc ± fΔ, this neglects the
distinction between instantaneous frequency and spectral frequency. The frequency
spectrum of an actual FM signal has components extending out to infinite frequency,
although they become negligibly small beyond a point.

SINUSOIDAL BASEBAND SIGNAL:

While it is an over-simplification, a baseband modulated signal may be approximated

by a sinusoidal Continuous Wave signal with a frequency fm. The integral of such a
signal is

Thus, in this specific case, equation (1) above simplifies to:

where the amplitude of the modulating sinusoid, is represented by the peak

deviation (see frequency deviation).

The harmonic distribution of a sine wave carrier modulated by such

a sinusoidal signal can be represented with Bessel functions - this provides a basis for a
mathematical understanding of frequency modulation in the frequency domain.

MODULATION INDEX:

As with other modulation indices, this quantity indicates by how much the
modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level. It relates to the variations in the
frequency of the carrier signal:

where is the highest frequency component present in the modulating

signal xm(t), and is the Peak frequency-deviation, i.e. the maximum deviation of
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the instantaneous frequency from the carrier frequency. If , the modulation is
called narrowband FM, and its bandwidth is approximately . If , the
modulation is called wideband FM and its bandwidth is approximately . While
wideband FM uses more bandwidth, it can improve signal-to-noise ratio significantly.

With a tone-modulated FM wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and

the modulation index is increased, the (non-negligible) bandwidth of the FM signal
increases, but the spacing between spectra stays the same; some spectral components
decrease in strength as others increase. If the frequency deviation is held constant and the
modulation frequency increased, the spacing between spectra increases.

Frequency modulation can be classified as narrow band if the change in the carrier
frequency is about the same as the signal frequency, or as wide-band if the change in the
carrier frequency is much higher (modulation index >1) than the signal frequency. [1] For
example, narrowband FM is used for two way radio systems such as Family Radio
Service where the carrier is allowed to deviate only 2.5 kHz above and below the center
frequency, carrying speech signals of no more than 3.5 kHz bandwidth. Wide-band FM is
used for FM broadcasting where music and speech is transmitted with up to 75 kHz
deviation from the center frequency, carrying audio with up to 20 kHz bandwidth.

CARSON'S RULE:

A rule of thumb, Carson's rule states that nearly all (~98%) of the power of a
frequency-modulated signal lies within a bandwidth of

where , as defined above, is the peak deviation of the instantaneous frequency

from the center carrier frequency .

NOISE QUIETING:

The noise power decreases as the signal power increases, therefore the SNR goes
up significantly.

MODULATION:

FM signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation.

Direct FM modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the
input of a VCO.
 For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase
modulated signal. This is used to modulate a crystal controlled oscillator, and the
result is passed through a frequency multiplier to give an FM signal.
DEMODULATION:

Many FM detector circuits exist. One common method for recovering the
information signal is through a Foster-Seeley discriminator. A phase-lock loop can be used
as an FM demodulator.

Slope detection demodulates an FM signal by using a tuned circuit, which has its
resonant frequency slightly offset from the carrier frequency. As the frequency rises and
falls, the tuned circuit provides a changing amplitude of response, converting FM to AM.
AM receivers may detect some FM transmissions by this means, though it does not provide
an efficient method of detection for FM broadcasts.

APPLICATIONS:

MAGNETIC TAPE STORAGE:

FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by all analog VCR systems,

including VHS, to record both the luminance (black and white) and the chrominance
portions of the video signal. FM is the only feasible method of recording video to and
retrieving video from Magnetic tape without extreme distortion, as video signals have a
very large range of frequency components — from a few hertz to several megahertz, too
wide for equalizers to work with due to electronic noise below −60 dB. FM also keeps the
tape at saturation level, and therefore acts as a form of noise reduction, and a
simple limiter can mask variations in the playback output, and the FM capture effect
removes print-through and pre-echo. A continuous pilot-tone, if added to the signal — as
was done on V2000 and many Hi-band formats — can keep mechanical jitter under control
and assist time base correction.

These FM systems are unusual in that they have a ratio of carrier to maximum
modulation frequency of less than two; contrast this with FM audio broadcasting where the
ratio is around 10,000. Consider for example a 6 MHz carrier modulated at a 3.5 MHz rate;
by Bessel analysis the first sidebands are on 9.5 and 2.5 MHz, while the second sidebands
are on 13 MHz and −1 MHz The result is a sideband of reversed phase on +1 MHz; on
demodulation, this results in an unwanted output at 6−1 = 5 MHz The system must be
designed so that this
is at an acceptable level.
SOUND:

FM is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. This technique, known

as FM synthesis, was popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard
feature for several generations of personal computer sound cards.

RADIO:

The wideband FM (WFM) requires a wider signal bandwidth than amplitude

modulation by an equivalent modulating signal, but this also makes the signal more robust
against noise and interference. Frequency modulation is also more robust against simple
signal amplitude fading phenomena. As a result, FM was chosen as the
modulation standard for high frequency, high fidelity radio transmission: hence the term
"FM radio" (although for many years the BBC called it "VHF radio", because commercial
FM broadcasting uses a well-known part of the VHF band—the FM broadcast band).

FM receivers employ a special detector for FM signals and exhibit

a phenomenon called capture effect, where the tuner is able to clearly receive the stronger
of two stations being broadcast on the same frequency. Problematically
however, frequency drift or lack of selectivity may cause one station or signal to be
suddenly overtaken by another on an adjacent channel. Frequency drift typically
constituted a problem on very old or inexpensive receivers, while inadequate selectivity
may plague any tuner.

An FM signal can also be used to carry a stereo signal: see FM stereo. However,
this is done by using multiplexing and demultiplexing before and after the FM process. The
rest of this article ignores the stereo multiplexing and demultiplexing process used in
"stereo FM", and concentrates on the FM modulation and demodulation process, which is
identical in stereo and mono processes.

A high-efficiency radio-frequency switching amplifier can be used to transmit FM

signals (and other constant-amplitude signals). For a given signal strength (measured at the
receiver antenna), switching amplifiers use less battery power and typically cost less than
a linear amplifier. This gives FM another advantage over other modulation schemes that
require linear amplifiers, such as AM and QAM.

FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-

fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (see FM broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound
is also broadcast using FM. A narrow band form is used for voice communications in
commercial and amateur radio settings. In broadcast services, where audio fidelity is
important, wideband FM is generally used. In two-way radio, narrowband FM (NBFM) is
used to conserve bandwidth for land mobile radio stations, marine mobile, and many other
radio services.

VARACTOR FM MODULATOR:

Varactor FM Modulator

Another fm modulator which is widely used in transistorized circuitry uses a

voltage-variable capacitor (VARACTOR). The varactor is simply a diode, or pn junction,
that is designed to have a certain amount of capacitance between junctions. View (A) of
figure 2 shows the varactor schematic symbol. A diagram of a varactor in a simple
oscillator circuit is shown in view (B).This is not a working circuit, but merely a simplified
illustration. The capacitance of a varactor, as with regular capacitors, is determined by the
area of the capacitor plates and the distance between the plates. The depletion region in the
varactor is the dielectric and is located between the p and n elements, which serve as the
plates. Capacitance is varied in the varactor by varying the reverse bias which controls the
thickness of the depletion region. The varactor is so designed that the change in
capacitance is linear with the change in the applied voltage. This is a special design
characteristic of the varactor diode. The varactor must not be forward biased because it
cannot tolerate much current flow. Proper circuit design prevents the application of
forward bias.
2.3 NARROW BAND FM MODULATION:
The case where |Ʌm(t)| ‫ ا‬1 for all t is called narrow band FM. Using the approximations
cos x ؄ 1 and sin x ؄ x for |x| ‫ ا‬1, the FM signal can be approximated as:
s(t) = Ac cos[ɘct + Ʌm(t)]
= Ac cos ɘct cos Ʌm(t) െ Ac sin ɘctsin Ʌm(t)
؄ Ac cos ɘct െ AcɅm(t) sin ɘct
or in complex notation
•ሺ–ሻ ൌ ሼ‡Œ™ – ሺͳ ൅ ŒɅሺ–ሻሽ
This is similar to the AM signal except that the discrete carrier component Ac co•™ ሺ–ሻ is 90ι out
of phase with the sinusoid Ac sin™ ሺ–ሻ multiplying the phase angle Ʌm(t). The spectrum of
narrow band FM is similar to that of AM.

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 9 The Bandwidth of an FM Signal:
The following formula, known as Carson’s rule is often used as an estimate of the FM signal
bandwidth: BT = 2(οf + fm) Hz
where οf is the peak frequency deviation and fm is the maximum baseband message
frequency component.

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2.4 WIDE-BAND FM:

•ሺ–ሻ ൌ  ‘•ሺʹɎˆ – ൅ ɔሺ–ሻ

Finding its FT is not easy:Ԅ(t) is inside the cosine.
To analyze the spectrum, we use complex envelope.
s(t) can be written as: Consider single tone FM: s(t) =ACcos(2Ɏˆ – ൅ Ⱦ•‹ʹɎˆሺ–ሻ)
Wideband FM is defined as the situation where the modulation index is above 0.5. Under these
circumstances the sidebands beyond the first two terms are not insignificant. Broadcast FM
stations use wideband FM, and using this mode they are able to take advantage of the wide
bandwidth available to transmit high quality audio as well as other services like a stereo channel,
and possibly other services as well on a single carrier.
The bandwidth of the FM transmission is a means of categorising the basic attributes for the
signal, and as a result these terms are often seen in the technical literature associated with

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frequency modulation, and products using FM. This is one area where the figure for modulation
index is used.
9 GENERATION OF WIDEBAND FM SIGNALS:
Indirect Method for Wideband FM Generation:
Consider the following block diagram

Narrowband
m(t)
FM ( . )P gFM (WB) (t)
Modulator

gFM (NB) (t)

Assume a BPF is included in this
block to pass the signal with the
highest carrier freuqnecy and
reject all others

FIG 2.3 Block diagram of FM generation

A narrowband FM signal can be generated easily using the block diagram of the narrowband FM
modulator that was described in a previous lecture. The narrowband FM modulator generates a
narrowband FM signal using simple components such as an integrator (an OpAmp), oscillators,
multipliers, and adders. The generated narrowband FM signal can be converted to a wideband FM
signal by simply passing it through a non–linear device with power P. Both the carrier frequency
and the frequency deviation 'f of the narrowband signal are increased by a factor P. Sometimes,
the desired increase in the carrier frequency and the desired increase in 'f are different. In this
case, we increase 'f to the desired value and use a frequency shifter (multiplication by a sinusoid
followed by a BPF) to change the carrier frequency to the desired value.
9 System 1:
Frequency Shifter

Narrowband BPF
m(t) FM ( . )2200 X CF=135 MHz
gFM2 (WB) (t)
BWm = 5 kHz Modulator BW = 164 kHz 'f2 = 77 kHz
fc2 = 135 MHz
gFM3 (WB) (t) BW2 = 2('f2 + BWm)
gFM (NB) (t)
'f3 = 77 kHz
'f1 = 35 Hz = 164 kHz
fc3 = 660 MHz
fc1 = 300 kHz cos(2S(525M)t)
BW3 = 2('f3 + BWm)
BW = 2*5 = 10 kHz
= 164 kHz

FIG 2.4 Block diagram of FM generation

In this system, we are using a single non–linear device with an order of 2200 or multiple devices
with a combined order of 2200. It is clear that the output of the non–linear device has the correct
'f but an incorrect carrier frequency which is corrected using a the frequency shifter with an
oscillator that has a frequency equal to the difference between the frequency of its input signal and

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the desired carrier frequency. We could also have used an oscillator with a frequency that is the
sum of the frequencies of the input signal and the desired carrier frequency. This system is
characterized by having a frequency shifter with an oscillator frequency that is relatively large.
9 System 2:
Frequency Shifter

Narrowband BPF
m(t) FM ( . )44 X CF= 2.7 MHz ( . )50 gFM2 (WB) (t)
BWm = 5 kHz Modulator BW = 13.08 kHz 'f2 = 77 kHz
fc2 = 135 MHz
gFM3 (WB) (t) BW2 = 2('f2 + BWm)
gFM (NB) (t)
'f3 = 1540 Hz
'f1 = 35 Hz = 164 kHz
fc3 = 13.2 MHz
fc1 = 300 kHz cos(2S(10.5M)t)
BW3 = 2('f3 + BWm)
BW = 2*5 = 10 kHz gFM4 (WB) (t)
= 13080 Hz
'f4 = 1540 Hz
fc4 = 135/50 = 2.7 MHz
BW4 = 2('f4 + BWm) =
13080 Hz

FIG 2.5 Block diagram of FM generation

In this system, we are using two non–linear devices (or two sets of non–linear devices) with
orders 44 and 50 (44*50 = 2200). There are other possibilities for the factorizing 2200 such as
2*1100,4*550,8*275,10*220.. Depending on the available components, one of these
factorizations may be better than the others. In fact, in this case, we could have used the same
factorization but put 50 first followed by 44. We want the output signal of the overall system to be
as shown in the block diagram above, so we have to insure that the input to the non–linear device
with order 50 has the correct carrier frequency such that its output has a carrier frequency of 135
MHz. This is done by dividing the desired output carrier frequency by the non–linearity order of
50, which gives 2.7 Mhz. This allows us to figure out the frequency of the require oscillator which
will be in this case either 13.2–2.7 = 10.5 MHz or 13.2+2.7 = 15.9 MHz. We are generally free
to choose which ever we like unless the available components dictate the use of one of them and
not the other. Comparing this system with System 1 shows that the frequency of the oscillator that
is required here is significantly lower (10.5 MHz compared to 525 MHz), which is generally an
advantage.

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2.5 TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH:

FIG 2.6 Spectrum of FM Bandwidth

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 9 Using Reactance modulator direct method

FIG 2.9 Reactance Modulator

The FM transmitter has three basic sections.
1. The exciter section contains the carrier oscillator, reactance modulator and the buffer
amplifier.
2. The frequency multiplier section, which features several frequency multipliers.
3. The poweroutput ection, which includes a low-
level power amplifier, the final power amplifier, and the impedance matching network to
properly load the power section with the antenna impedance.
The essential function of each circuit in the FM transmitter may be described as follows.

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 9 The Exciter
1. The function of the carrier oscillator is to generate a stable sine wave signal at the
rest frequency, when no modulation is applied. It must be able to linearly change
frequency when fully modulated, with no measurable change in amplitude.
2. The buffer amplifier acts as a constant high-impedance load on the oscillator to
help stabilize the oscillator frequency. The buffer amplifier may have a small gain.
3. The modulator acts to change the carrier oscillator frequency by application of the
message signal. The positive peak of the message signal generally lowers the
oscillator's frequency to a point below the rest frequency, and the negative message
peak raises the oscillator frequency to a value above the rest frequency. The greater
the peak-to-peak message signal, the larger the oscillator deviation.
9 Frequency multipliers are tuned-input, tuned-output RF amplifiers in which the output
resonant circuit is tuned to a multiple of the input frequency. Common frequency
multipliers are 2x, 3x and 4x multiplication. A 5x Frequency multiplier is sometimes
seen, but its extreme low efficiency forbids widespread usage. Note that multiplication is
by whole numbers only. There can not a 1.5x multiplier, for instance.
9 The final power section develops the carrier power, to be transmitted and often has a
low-power amplifier driven the final power amplifier. The impedance matching network
is the same as for the AM transmitter and matches the antenna impedance to the correct
load on the final over amplifier.
9 Frequency Multiplier
A special form of class C amplifier is the frequency. multiplier. Any class C amplifier is capable
of performing frequency multiplidàtion if the tuned circuit in the collector resonates at some
integer multiple of the input frequency.
For example a frequency doubler can be constructed by simply connecting a parallel tuned circuit
in the collector of a class C amplifier that resonates at twice the input frequency. When the
collector current pulse occurs, it excites or rings the tuned circuit at twice the input frequency. A
current pulse flows for every other cycle of the input.
A Tripler circuit is constructed in the same way except that the tuned circuit resonates at 3 times
the input - frequency. In this way, the tuned circuit receives one input pulse for every three cycles
of oscillation it produces Multipliers can be constructed to increase the input

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frequency by any integer factor up to approximately 10. As' the multiplication factor gets higher,
the power output of the multiplier decreases. For most practical applications, the best result is
obtained with multipliers of 2 and 3.
Another way to look the operation of class C multipliers is .to .remember that the non-sinusoidal
current pulse is rich in harmonics. Each time the pulse occurs, the second, third, fourth, fifth, and
higher harmonics are generated. The purpose of the tuned circuit in the collector is to act as a filter
to select the desired harmonics.

FIG 2.10 Block Diagram of Frequency Multiplier - 1

FIG 2.10 Block Diagram of Frequency Multiplier - 2

In many applications a multiplication factor greater than that achievable with a single multiplier
stage is required. In such cases two or more multipliers are cascaded to produce an overall
multiplication of 6. In the second example, three multipliers provide an overall multiplication of
30. The total multiplication factor is simply the product of individual stage multiplication factors.
9 Reactance Modulator
The reactance modulator takes its name from the fact that the impedance of the circuit acts as a
reactance (capacitive or inductive) that is connected in parallel with the resonant circuit of the
Oscillator. The varicap can only appear as a capacitance that becomes part of the frequency
determining branch of the oscillator circuit. However, other discrete devices can appear as a
capacitor or as an inductor to the oscillator, depending on how the circuit is arranged. A colpitts
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oscillator uses a capacitive voltage divider as the phase-reversing feedback path and would most
likely tapped coil as the phase-reversing element in the feedback loop and most commonly uses a
modulator that appears inductive.

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2.6 FM TRANSMITTER
9 Indirect method (phase shift) of modulation
The part of the Armstrong FM transmitter (Armstrong phase modulator) which is expressed in
dotted lines describes the principle of operation of an Armstrong phase modulator. It should be
noted, first that the output signal from the carrier oscillator is supplied to circuits that perform the
task of modulating the carrier signal. The oscillator does not change frequency, as is the case of
direct FM. These points out the major advantage of phase modulation (PM), or indirect FM, over
direct FM. That is the phase modulator is crystal controlled for frequency.

FIG 2.7 Armstrong Modulator

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The crystal-controlled carrier oscillator signal is directed to two circuits in parallel. This signal
(usually a sine wave) is established as the reference past carrier signal and is assigned a value
0°.The balanced modulator is an amplitude modulator used to form an envelope of double side-
bands and to suppress the carrier signal (DSSC). This requires two input signals, the carrier signal
and the modulating message signal. The output of the modulator is connected to the adder circuit;
here the 90° phase-delayed carriers signal will be added back to replace the suppressed carrier.
The act of delaying the carrier phase by 90° does not change the carrier frequency or its wave-
shape. This signal identified as the 90° carrier signal.

FIG 2.8 Phasor diagram of Armstrong Modulator

The carrier frequency change at the adder output is a function of the output phase shift and is
found by. fc = ¨LJfs (in hertz)
When LJ is the phase change in radians and fs is the lowest audio modulating frequency. In most
FM radio bands, the lowest audio frequency is 50Hz. Therefore, the carrier frequency change at
the adder output is 0.6125 x 50Hz = ± 30Hz since 10% AM represents the upper limit of carrier
voltage change, then ± 30Hz is the maximum deviation from the modulator for PM.
The 90° phase shift network does not change the signal frequency because the components and
resulting phase change are constant with time. However, the phase of the adder output voltage is
in a continual state of change brought about by the cyclical variations of the message signal, and
during the time of a phase change, there will also be a frequency change.

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In figure. (c). during time (a), the signal has a frequency f1, and is at the zero reference phase.
During time (c), the signal has a frequency f1 but has changed phase to LJ. During time (b) when
the phase is in the process of changing, from 0 to LJ. the frequency is less than f1.

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 9 FM Demodulation by a Frequency Discriminator:
A frequency discriminator is a device that converts a received FM signal into a voltage that
is proportional to the instantaneous frequency of its input without using a local oscillator and,
consequently, in a non coherent manner.
• When the instantaneous frequency changes slowly relative to the time-constants of the filter, a
quasi-static analysis can be used.
• In quasi-static operation the filter output has the same instantaneous frequency as the input but
with an envelope that varies according to the amplitude response of the filter at the
instantaneous frequency.
• The amplitude variations are then detected with an envelope detector like the ones used for
AM demodulation.
9 An FM Discriminator Using the Pre-Envelope:
When Ʌm(t) is small and band-limited so that cos Ʌm(t) and sinɅm(t) are essentially band-limited
signals with cut off frequencies less than fc, the pre-envelope of the FM signal is
s+(t) = s(t) + jˆs(t) = Ac‡Œ ሺɘct+Ʌm(t))
The angle of the pre-envelope is ɔ'(t) = arctan[ˆs(t)/s(t)] = ɘct + Ʌm(t)
The derivative of the phase is =ɘct+ kɅm(t)
†
– • ሺ–ሻ
†ɔሺ–ሻ •ሺ–ሻ† • †–
=†– • ሺ–ሻ െ •ʹሺ–ሻ൅•̰ʹሺ–ሻ= ɘct + ɘm (t)
†–

which is exactly the instantaneous frequency. This can be approximated in discrete-time by

using FIR filters to form the derivatives and Hilbert transform. Notice that the denominator is
the squared envelope of the FM signal.
This formula can also be derived by observing,
† †
•ሺ–ሻ ൌ   ‘•ሾɘ – ൅ Ʌሺ–ሻሿ ൌ  െሾɘ – ൅ ɘሺ–ሻሿ•‹༌
ሾɘ – ൅ Ʌሺ–ሻሿ
†– †–

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 † †
•̰ሺ–ሻ ൌ  •‹ሾɘ – ൅ Ʌሺ–ሻሿ ൌ ሾɘ – ൅ ɘሺ–ሻሿ ‘•༌
ሾɘ – ൅ Ʌሺ–ሻሿ
†– †–
So,
•ሺ–ሻ† •̰ሺ–ሻ†
െ ൌ ʹ ሾɘ – ൅ ɘሺ–ሻሿ ‫ʹ•‘ כ‬ሾ™ – ൅ Ʌሺ–ሻ ൅ •‹ʹሾ™ – ൅ Ʌሺ–ሻ
†–•̰ሺ–ሻ †–•ሺ–ሻ
The bandwidth of an FM discriminator must be at least as great as that of the received FM
signal which is usually much greater than that of the baseband message. This limits the degree of
noise reduction that can be achieved by preceding the discriminator by a bandpass receive filter.

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 .
1.7 SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER:
A superheterodyne receiver(often shortened to superhet) uses frequency mixing to convert a
received signal to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF) which can be more conveniently processed
than the original radio carrier frequency.
9 Basic Superheterodyne Block Diagram and Functionality:
The basic block diagram of a basic superhet receiver is shown below. This details the most basic
form of the receiver and serves to illustrate the basic blocks and their function.

FIG 1.10 Block Diagram of a Basic Superheterodyne Radio Receiver

The way in which the receiver works can be seen by following the signal as is passes through the
receiver.
x Front end amplifier and tuning block: Signals enter the front end circuitry from the
antenna. This circuit block performs two main functions:
o Tuning: Broadband tuning is applied to the RF stage. The purpose of this is to
reject the signals on the image frequency and accept those on the wanted
frequency. It must also be able to track the local oscillator so that as the receiver is
tuned, so the RF tuning remains on the required frequency. Typically the selectivity
provided at this stage is not high. Its main purpose is to reject signals on the image
frequency which is at a frequency equal to twice that of the IF away from the
wanted frequency. As the tuning within this block provides all the rejection for the
image response, it must be at a sufficiently sharp to reduce the image to an
acceptable level. However the RF tuning may also help in preventing strong off-
channel signals from entering the receiver and overloading elements of the
receiver, in particular the mixer or possibly even the RF amplifier.
o Amplification: In terms of amplification, the level is carefully chosen so that it
does not overload the mixer when strong signals are present, but enables the signals
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 to be amplified sufficiently to ensure a good signal to noise ratio is achieved. The
amplifier must also be a low noise design. Any noise introduced in this block will
be amplified later in the receiver.
x Mixer / frequency translator block: The tuned and amplified signal then enters one port
of the mixer. The local oscillator signal enters the other port. The performance of the
mixer is crucial to many elements of the overall receiver performance. It should eb as
linear as possible. If not, then spurious signals will be generated and these may appear as
'phantom' received signals.
x Local oscillator: The local oscillator may consist of a variable frequency oscillator that
can be tuned by altering the setting on a variable capacitor. Alternatively it may be a
frequency synthesizer that will enable greater levels of stability and setting accuracy.
x Intermediate frequency amplifier, IF block : Once the signals leave the mixer they
enter the IF stages. These stages contain most of the amplification in the receiver as well
as the filtering that enables signals on one frequency to be separated from those on the
next. Filters may consist simply of LC tuned transformers providing inter-stage coupling,
or they may be much higher performance ceramic or even crystal filters, dependent upon
what is required.
x Detector / demodulator stage: Once the signals have passed through the IF stages of the
superheterodyne receiver, they need to be demodulated. Different demodulators are
required for different types of transmission, and as a result some receivers may have a
variety of demodulators that can be switched in to accommodate the different types of
transmission that are to be encountered. Different demodulators used may include:
o AM diode detector: This is the most basic form of detector and this circuit block
would simple consist of a diode and possibly a small capacitor to remove any
remaining RF. The detector is cheap and its performance is adequate, requiring a
sufficient voltage to overcome the diode forward drop. It is also not particularly
linear, and finally it is subject to the effects of selective fading that can be apparent,
especially on the HF bands.
o Synchronous AM detector: This form of AM detector block is used in where
improved performance is needed. It mixes the incoming AM signal with another on
the same frequency as the carrier. This second signal can be developed by passing
the whole signal through a squaring amplifier. The advantages of the synchronous

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 AM detector are that it provides a far more linear demodulation performance and it
is far less subject to the problems of selective fading.
o SSB product detector: The SSB product detector block consists of a mixer and a
local oscillator, often termed a beat frequency oscillator, BFO or carrier insertion
oscillator, CIO. This form of detector is used for Morse code transmissions where
the BFO is used to create an audible tone in line with the on-off keying of the
transmitted carrier. Without this the carrier without modulation is difficult to
detect. For SSB, the CIO re-inserts the carrier to make the modulation
comprehensible.
o Basic FM detector: As an FM signal carries no amplitude variations a
demodulator block that senses frequency variations is required. It should also be
insensitive to amplitude variations as these could add extra noise. Simple FM
detectors such as the Foster Seeley or ratio detectors can be made from discrete
components although they do require the use of transformers.
o PLL FM detector: A phase locked loop can be used to make a very good FM
demodulator. The incoming FM signal can be fed into the reference input, and the
VCO drive voltage used to provide the detected audio output.
o Quadrature FM detector: This form of FM detector block is widely used within
ICs. IT is simple to implement and provides a good linear output.
x Audio amplifier: The output from the demodulator is the recovered audio. This is passed
into the audio stages where they are amplified and presented to the headphones or
loudspeaker.
1.8 COMPARISION OF VARIOUS AM:
PARAMETER VSB - SC SSB - SC DSB-SC
Definition A vestigial sideband (in Single-sideband In radio communications,
radio communication) is a modulation (SSB) is a asidebandis
sideband that has been refinement of a band of frequencies hig
only partly cut off or amplitude modulation her than or lower
suppressed. that more efficiently thanthe carrier frequency,
uses electrical power containing power as a
and bandwidth. result of
the modulation process.

Application Tv broadcastings & Tv broadcastings & Tv broadcastings &

Radio broadcastings ShortwaveRadio Radio broadcastings
broadcastings Garage door opens
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 keyless remotes
Uses Transmits TV signals Short wave radio Two way radio
communications communications.

1.9 APPLICATION & ITS USES:

x Radio broadcastings
x Tv broadcastings
x Garage door opens keyless remotes
x Transmits TV signals
x Short wave radio communications
x Two way radio communication.

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