FM Fundamentals and FM Circuits

ANGLE
MODULATION
FUNDAMENTALS
and CIRCUITS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
✓ Compare and contrast frequency modulation and phase
modulation.
✓ Calculate the modulation index given the maximum
deviation and the maximum modulating frequency and
use the modulation index and Bessel coefficients to
determine the number of significant sidebands in an FM
signal.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
✓ Explain the effect of noise on a frequency modulated
wave
✓ Explain how pre-emphasis is used to solve the problem of
the interference of high-frequency components by noise.
✓ Describe the various methods of generation of FM
Types of Modulations
Frequency Modulation Fundamentals
Frequency modulation is a system in which the amplitude

of the modulated carrier is kept constant, while its
frequency and rate of change are varied by the modulating
signal.
Frequency deviation is the amount by which the carrier

frequency is varied from its unmodulated value and it is
made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating voltage.
ln FM, all components of the modulating signal having the

same amplitude will deviate the carrier frequency by the
same amount, no matter what their frequencies.
Similarly, all components of the modulating signal of the

same frequency, will deviate the carrier at the same rate, no
matter what their individual amplitudes. The amplitude of
the frequency modulated wave remains constant at all
times.
As the modulating signal

amplitude increases, the carrier
frequency increases.
With no modulation the carrier is

at its normal center or resting
frequency.
Mathematical Representation of FM
The instantaneous frequency of the frequency modulated
wave is given by
𝒇 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒎 𝒕
where:
fc - is unmodulated (or average) carrier frequency,
k - is proportionality constant expressed in Hz/volt and
Vmsin⍵mt - is instantaneous modulating voltage.
The maximum deviation for this signal will occur when the
sine tern, has its maximum value, ±1. Under these
conditions, the instantaneous frequency will be
𝒇 = 𝒇𝒄 ± 𝒌𝑽𝒎
so that the maximum deviation; will be given by

𝜹𝒇 = 𝒌𝑽𝒎
The instantaneous amplitude of the FM signal will be given
by a formula of the form
𝜹𝒇
𝒗𝑭𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 𝒕)
𝒇𝒎
Modulation index of FM is defined as

𝜹𝒇 (𝒎𝒂𝒙)
𝒎𝒇 =
𝒇𝒎
Sample Problem
ln an FM system, when the audio frequency (AF) is 500 Hz,

and the AF voltage is 2.4 V, the deviation is 4.8 kHz. If the
AF voltage is now increased to·7.2 V, what is the new
deviation? If the AF voltage is further raised
to 10 V while the AF is dropped to 200 Hz, what is the
deviation? Find the modulation index in each case.
Phase Modulation Fundamentals
Phase modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the

modulated carrier is kept constant, while its phase and rate
of phase change are varied by the modulating signal.
Phase deviation is the amount by which the carrier phase

is varied from its unmodulated value and is made
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating voltage. The rate at which this phase variation
changes is equal to the modulating frequency.
In PM, the amount of carrier

deviation is proportional to the rate
of change of the modulating signal.
With a sine wave modulating
signal, the PM carrier appears to be
frequency-modulated by the cosine
of the modulating signal.
Remember that the cosine occurs
90° earlier (leads) than the sine.
Mathematical Representation of PM
The instantaneous phase of the phase modulated wave is
given by
∅ = ∅𝒄 + 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 𝒕
where:
⏀c - is unmodulated (or average) carrier phase,
kp - is proportionality constant expressed in rad/volt and
Vmcos⍵mt – is the phase shifted version of instantaneous modulating
voltage.
The maximum deviation for this signal will occur when the
cosine term, has its maximum value, ±1. Under these
conditions, the instantaneous phase will be
∅ = ∅𝒄 ± 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎
so that the maximum deviation; will be given by

𝜹𝒑 = 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎
Mathematical Representation of PM
The instantaneous amplitude of the PM signal will be given
by a formula of the form
𝒗𝑷𝑴 = 𝑽𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒄 𝒕 + ∅𝒄 + 𝒌𝒑 𝑽𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒎 𝒕)
Modulation index of PM is defined as

𝒎𝒑 = 𝜹𝒑
Sample Problem
ln an PM system, when the audio frequency (AF) is 500 Hz,

and the AF voltage is 2.4 V, the deviation is 4.8 kHz. If the
AF voltage is now increased to·7.2 V, what is the new
deviation? If the AF voltage is further raised
to 10 V while the AF is dropped to 200 Hz, what is the
deviation? Find the modulation index in each case.
Converting PM into FM
• In order to make PM compatible with FM, the deviation
produced by frequency variations in the modulating
signal must be compensated for.
• This compensation can be accomplished by passing the
intelligence signal through a low-pass RC network.
Converting PM into FM
• This RC low-pass filter is called a frequency-correcting
network, predistorter, or 1/f filter and causes the higher
modulating frequencies to be attenuated.
• The FM produced by a phase modulator is called
indirect FM.
Modulation Index and
Sidebands
Modulation Index and Sidebands
• Any modulation process produces sidebands.

• The side frequencies are the sum and difference of the
carrier and the modulating frequency.
• In FM and PM, as in AM, sum and difference sideband
frequencies are produced. In addition, a large number of
pairs of upper and lower sidebands are generated. As a
result, the spectrum of an FM or a PM signal is usually
wider than that of an equivalent AM signal.
• Theoretically, the FM process produces an infinite

number of upper and lower sidebands and, therefore, a
theoretically infinitely large bandwidth.
• However, in practice, only those sidebands with the
largest amplitudes are significant in carrying the
information. Typically any sideband whose amplitude is
less than 1 percent of the unmodulated carrier is
considered insignificant.
Modulation Index
• The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency is known as the modulation index (mf).
• In most communication systems using FM, maximum
limits are put on both the frequency deviation and the
modulating frequency.
Modulation Index
• When the maximum allowable frequency deviation and
the maximum modulating frequency are used in
computing the modulation index, mf is known as the
deviation ratio.
• In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted

frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum
permitted modulating frequency is 15 kHz.
• The modulation index for standard FM broadcasting is
therefore 5.
Modulation Index
• For broadcast television (NTSC format), the maximum
frequency deviation of the aural carrier, is ±25 kHz with a
maximum audio input frequency, of 15 kHz.
• Therefore, for broadcast TV (NTSC format), the deviation
ratio (DR) is 1.67
• FM systems that have a deviation ratio greater than or

equal to 1 (DR >1) are considered to be wideband
systems, whereas FM systems that have a deviation ratio
• less than 1 (DR < 1) are considered to be narrowband
FM systems.
Bessel Functions
• The equation that expresses the phase angle in terms of
the sine wave modulating signal is solved with a complex
mathematical process known as Bessel functions.
• Bessel coefficients are widely available and it is not
necessary to memorize or calculate them.
• This is a special case of FM in

which the modulation process
produces only a single pair of
significant sidebands like those
produced by AM.
• With a modulation index of 0.25,
the FM signal occupies no more
spectrum space than an AM signal.
This type of FM is called
narrowband FM, or NBFM.
• Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM system in which the

modulation index is less than π/2 = 1.57, or mf < π /2.
• NBFM is widely used in communication. It conserves
spectrum space at the expense of the signal-to-noise
ratio.
Heat Check!
1. What is the deviation ratio of TV sound if the maximum

deviation is 25 kHz and the maximum modulating
frequency is 15 kHz? ANS. 1.667
2. What is the maximum modulating frequency that can be
used to achieve a modulation index of 2.2 with a deviation
of 7.48 kHz? ANS. 3.4 kHz
Heat Check!
FM is a modulation process in which the change in the

frequency of the carrier signal and its rate of change are
made proportional to instantaneous variations in
a. message amplitude only

b. message frequency only
c. both message amplitude and frequency
d. message amplitude, frequency and phase
Heat Check!
Frequency deviation in FM refers to the extent by which

carrier frequency is varied from its unmodulated value in
proportion to
a. message amplitude
b. message frequency
c. both message amplitude and frequency
d. message amplitude, frequency and phase
Heat Check!
The difference between phase and frequency modulation
a. is purely theoretical because they are the same in practice

b. is too great to make the two system compatible
c. lies in the poorer audio response of phase modulation
d. lies in the different definitions of the modulation index
Heat Check!
Indicate which one of the following is not an advantage of

FM over AM:
a. Better noise immunity is provided

b. Lower bandwidth is required
c. The transmitted power is more useful
d. Less modulating power is required
FM Signal Bandwidth
The total bandwidth of an FM signal can be determined by

knowing the modulation index and using Bessel function.
The bandwidth can then be determined with the simple
formula
𝑩𝑾 = 𝟐𝒇𝒎 𝑵
where:
N is the number of significant sidebands in the signal
FM Signal Bandwidth
Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is

to use Carson’s rule. This rule recognizes only the power in
the most significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than
2 percent of the carrier (0.02 or higher in Bessel function)
𝑩𝑾 = 𝟐[𝜹𝒇(𝒎𝒂𝒙) + 𝒇𝒎(𝒎𝒂𝒙) ]
FM Signal Bandwidth
Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is

to use Carson’s rule. This rule recognizes only the power in
the most significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than
2 percent of the carrier (0.02 or higher in Bessel function)
𝑩𝑾 = 𝟐[𝜹𝒇(𝒎𝒂𝒙) + 𝒇𝒎(𝒎𝒂𝒙) ]
Sample Problem
1. What is the maximum bandwidth of an FM signal with a

deviation of 30 kHz and a maximum modulating signal
of 5 kHz as determined by (a) using Bessel function and
(b) Carson’s rule?
2. What is the bandwidth required for an FM signal in

which the modulating frequency is 2 kHz and the
maximum deviation is 10 kHz?
Noise Suppression
Effects of FM
Noise Suppression Effects of FM
• Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors,

automotive ignition systems, and power line switching
that produces transient signals.
• Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with high
frequencies. Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and
interfere with it.
• Some noise completely obliterates signal information.
• FM signals have a constant modulated carrier amplitude.

• FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately
restrict the amplitude of the received signal.
• Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are
effectively clipped by limiter circuits.
• This amplitude clipping does not affect the information
content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely
within the frequency variations of the carrier.
• Because of the clipping action of the limiter circuits,

noise is almost completely eliminated. Even if the peaks
of the FM signal itself are clipped or flattened and the
resulting signal is distorted, no information is lost.
• In fact, one of the primary benefits of FM over AM is its
superior noise immunity. The process of demodulating
or recovering an FM signal actually suppresses noise and
improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
Noise and Phase Shift

• The noise amplitude
added to an FM signal
introduces a small
frequency variation, or
phase shift, which
changes or distorts
the signal.

• The maximum phase shift occurs when the noise and
signal phasors are at a right angle to each other.
• This angle can be computed with the arcsine or inverse
sine according to the formula
𝑵
∅ = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝑪

• It is possible to determine just how much of a frequency
shift a particular phase shift produces by using the
formula
𝜹𝑵 = ∅𝒇𝒎
where:
𝜹𝑵 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
∅ − 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝒇𝒎 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙

• Remember that the noise interference is of very short
duration; thus, the phase shift is momentary, and
intelligibility is rarely severely impaired.
• With heavy noise, human speech might be temporarily
garbled, but so much that it could not be understood.
Sample Problem
1. Assume that the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is 3:1 and

the modulating signal frequency is 800 Hz. The phase
shift is then equal to? The frequency deviation produced
by this brief phase shift can be calculated as?
2. Assume that the maximum allowed deviation is 5 kHz in
the example number 1. The ratio of the shift produced
by the noise to the maximum allowed deviation is
• Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly

with the high-frequency components of the modulating
signal.
• Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and contains a
lot of harmonics and other high-frequency components.
• To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique known
as pre-emphasis is used.
Pre-emphasis
• Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of only high-
frequency components.
• At the transmitter, the modulating signal is passed
through a simple network that amplifies the high
frequency components more than the low-frequency
components.
• A simple high-pass filter can serve as a transmitter’s pre-
emphasis circuit.
Pre-emphasis
Deemphasis
• A simple low-pass filter can operate as a deemphasis
circuit in a receiver.
• A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency response to
its normal flat level.
• The combined effect of pre-emphasis and deemphasis is
to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for the high-
frequency components during transmission so that they
will be stronger and not masked by noise.
De-emphasis
Comparison of FM and
AM
FM vs. AM
FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.

✓ FM has superior immunity to noise, made possible by
clipper limiter circuits in the receiver.
✓ In FM, interfering signals on the same frequency are
effectively rejected. This is known as the capture effect.
• Capture effect takes place when two or more FM signals occur
simultaneously on the same frequency. If one signal is more than
twice the amplitude of the other, the stronger signal captures the
channel, totally eliminating the weaker signal.
FM vs. AM

✓ FM signals have a constant amplitude and there is no need
to use linear amplifiers to increase power levels. This
increases transmitter efficiency.
✓ It is possible to reduce noise still further by increasing the
deviation. This is a feature which AM does not have; since it
is not possible to exceed I00 percent modulation without
causing severe distortion.
FM vs. AM

✓ At the FM broadcast frequencies, the space wave is used for
propagation, so that the radius of operation is limited to s
lightly more than line of sight. It is thus possible to operate
several independent transmitters on the same frequency
with considerably less interference than would be possible
with AM.
FM vs. AM
Disadvantage of FM
❖ FM uses considerably more frequency spectrum space. Since
FM occupies so much bandwidth, it is typically used only in
those portions of the spectrum where adequate bandwidth is
available, i.e., at very high frequencies.
❖ FM has used more complex circuitry for modulation and
demodulation.
Heat Check!
1. A cell phone transmitter has a maximum frequency

deviation of 12 kHz. Calculate the modulation index if it
operates at maximum deviation with a voice frequency of
(a) 300 Hz and (b) 2500 Hz. Solve for the bandwidth of the
signal.
ANS. (a) 24.6 kHz, (b) 29 kHz
Heat Check!
1. An FM signal has a frequency deviation of 5 kHz and a

modulating frequency of 1 kHz. The signal-to-noise ratio at
the input to the receiver detector is 20 dB. Calculate the
approximate signal-to-noise ratio at the detector output.?
ANS. 49.91 or 33.96 dB

Heat Check!
Preemphasis deals with
a. emphasizing low frequency components

b. emphasizing high frequency components
c. emphasizing a band of mid frequency components
d. eliminating low frequency component
Heat Check!
The usefulness of preemphasis and deemphasis is to

improve the performance of modulation system in the
presence of noise by
a. emphasizing high frequency amplitude values of
modulating signal
b. emphasizing low frequency amplitude values of
modulating signal
c. emphasizing carrier frequency amplitude values
d. emphasizing carrier frequency itself
Heat Check!
The superior performance of FM compared to AM in the

presence of noise is due to
a. constant amplitude in the modulated signal

b. modulation index of FM can be larger than unity
c. Frequency dependent effect of noise in case of FM
d. all of the above
FM Circuits
FM Circuits
The prime requirement of a frequency modulation system is

a variable output frequency, with the variation proportional
to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage.
The subsidiary requirements are that the unmodulated

frequency should be constant, and the deviation
independent of the modulating frequency. If the system
does not produce these characteristics, corrections can be
introduced during the modulation process
FM Circuits
• There are many circuits used to produce FM and PM

signals. There are two types of frequency modulator
circuits: direct (frequency modulation) circuits and
indirect (phase modulation) circuits.
FM Circuits
FREQUENCY MODULATORS
• A frequency modulator is a circuit that varies carrier
frequency in accordance with the modulating signal.
• The carrier is generated by LC or crystal oscillator

circuits.
FM Circuits
• In LC oscillators, the carrier frequency can be changed by
varying either the inductance or capacitance.
• The idea is to find a circuit or component that converts a

modulating voltage to a corresponding change in
capacitance or inductance.
FM Circuits
• In crystal oscillators, the frequency is fixed by the
crystal. However, keep in mind that the equivalent circuit
of a crystal is an LCR circuit with both series and parallel
resonant points.
• Again, the objective is to find a circuit or component
whose capacitance will change in response to the
modulating signal. The component most frequently used
for this purpose is a varactor.
FM Circuits
Varactor Operation
• Varactor, also known as a
voltage variable capacitor,
variable capacitance diode, or
varicap, this device is basically a
semiconductor junction diode
operated in a reverse-bias mode.
FM Circuits
Varactor Operation
• A reverse-biased diode acts like a small capacitor.
• The P- and N-type materials act as the two plates of the
capacitor.
• The depletion region acts as the dielectric material.
• The width of the depletion layer determines the width of
the dielectric and, therefore the amount of capacitance.
FM Circuits
FM Circuits
Varactor Modulators
• In the figure, the capacitance of varactor diode D1 and L1
form the parallel tuned circuit of the oscillator.
• The value of C1 is made very large so its reactance is very
low.
• C1 connects the tuned circuit to the oscillator and blocks
the dc bias on the base of Q1 from being shorted to
ground through L1.
FM Circuits
Varactor Modulators
• The values of L1 and D1 fix the center carrier frequency.
• The modulating signal derived from the microphone is
amplified and applied to the modulator.
• The modulating signal varies the effective voltage
applied to D1 and its capacitance varies.
Sample Problem
1. The value of capacitance of a varactor at the center of its

linear range is 40 pF. This varactor will be in parallel with a
fixed 20-pF capacitor. What value of inductance should be
used to resonate this combination to 5.5 MHz in an
oscillator?
ANS. 13.97 µH
FM Circuits
Varactor Modulators
• Most LC oscillators are not stable enough to provide a
carrier signal.
• The frequency of LC oscillators will vary with temperature
changes, variations in circuit voltage, and other factors.
• As a result, crystal oscillators are normally used to set
carrier frequency.
FM Circuits
Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator

• Crystal oscillators provide highly accurate carrier
frequencies and their stability is superior to LC oscillators.
• The frequency of a crystal oscillator can be varied by
changing the value of capacitance in series or parallel
with the crystal.
FM Circuits
Frequency-Modulating a Crystal
Oscillator
• By making the series capacitance
a varactor diode, frequency
modulation can be achieved.
• The modulating signal is applied
to the varactor diode which
changes the oscillator frequency.
FM Circuits
Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator

• Varactors are made with a wide range of capacitance
values, most units having a nominal capacitance in the 1-
to 200-pF range.
• A frequency multiplier circuit is one whose output
frequency is some integer multiple of the input
frequency.
• Frequency multipliers can also be cascaded.
FM Circuits
Voltage-Controlled Oscillators
• Oscillators whose frequencies are controlled by an
external input voltage are generally referred to as
voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs).
• Voltage-controlled crystal oscillators are generally
referred to as VXOs.
• VCOs are primarily used in FM.
• VCOs are also used in voltage-to-frequency conversion
applications.
FM Circuits
CMOS VCO for 2.4-GHz 10-GHz SiGe VCO
FM Circuits
FM Circuits
Voltage-Controlled Oscillators
• The Schmitt trigger circuit is a level detector that
controls the current source by switching between
charging and discharging when the capacitor charges or
discharges to a specific voltage level.
FM Circuits
Reactance Modulator
• A reactance modulator is a circuit that uses a transistor
amplifier that acts like either a variable capacitor or an
inductor.
• When the circuit is connected across the tuned circuit of
an oscillator, the oscillator frequency can be varied by
applying the modulating signal to the amplifier.
FM Circuits
Reactance Modulator
• Reactance modulators can produce frequency deviation
over a wide range.
• Reactance modulators are highly linear, so distortion is
minimal.
FM Circuits
FM Circuits
PHASE MODULATORS
• Most modern FM transmitters use some form of phase
modulation (PM) to produce indirect FM.
• In PM, the carrier oscillator can be optimized for
frequency accuracy and stability.
• Crystal oscillators or crystal-controlled frequency
synthesizers can be used to set the carrier frequency
accurately and maintain stability.
FM Circuits
PHASE MODULATORS
• The output of the carrier oscillator is fed to a phase
modulator where the phase shift is made to vary in
accordance with the modulating signal.
• Some phase modulators are based upon the phase shift
produced by an RC or LC tuned circuit.
FM Circuits
PHASE MODULATORS
• The total allowable phase shift must be restricted to
maximize linearity, and multipliers must be used to
achieve the desired deviation.
• Depending on the values of R and C, the output of the
phase shifter can be set to any phase angle between 0
and 90°.
FM Circuits
PHASE MODULATORS
• For example, when Xc equals R,
the phase shift is 45°. The phase
shift is computed by using the
formula
−𝟏
𝑿𝒄
∅ = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ( )
𝑹
FM Circuits
PHASE MODULATORS
• Here the output is taken from
across the capacitor, so it lags
the input voltage by some angle
between 0 and 90°. The phase
shift is computed by using the
formula
−𝟏
𝑹
∅ = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ( )
𝑿𝒄
FM Circuits
Varactor Phase Modulators

• A simple phase-shift circuit can be used as a phase
modulator if the resistance or capacitance can be
made to vary with the modulating signal.
• A varactor can be used to vary capacitance and
achieve phase shift modulation.
FM Circuits
Sample Problem
1. A transmitter must operate at a frequency of 168.96 MHz

with a deviation of 65 kHz. It uses three frequency
multipliers –– a doubler, a tripler, and a quadrupler. Phase
modulation is used. Calculate (a) the frequency of the
carrier crystal oscillator and (b) the phase shift required to
produce the necessary deviation at a 2.8-kHz modulation
frequency.
ANS. (a) 7.04 MHz, (b) 8.526º
FM Circuits
Transistor Phase Modulator

• A transistor can be used as a variable resistor to
create a phase modulator.
• A standard common emitter class A amplifier biased
into the linear region is used in PM.
• The transistor from collector to ground acts like a
resistor.
• The transistor’s resistance forms part of the phase
shifting circuit.
FM Circuits
FM Circuits
Tuned-Circuit Phase Modulators

• Most phase modulators are capable of producing a small
amount of phase shift. The limited phase shift, therefore,
produces a limited frequency shift.
• Phase and frequency shift can be increased by using a
parallel tuned circuit.
• At resonance, a parallel resonant circuit acts like a large
resistor. Off resonance, the circuit acts inductively or
capacitively and produces a phase shift.
FM Circuits
Phase modulators are easy to implement, but they

have two main disadvantages.
1. The amount of phase shift they produce and the
resulting frequency deviation are relatively low.
2. All the phase-shift circuits produce amplitude
variations as well as phase changes.
“The only way to grow is to challenge
yourself.
The only way to challenge yourself is to

do something you’ve never done
before.”

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ANGLE

Frequency modulation is a system in which the amplitude

Frequency deviation is the amount by which the carrier

ln FM, all components of the modulating signal having the

Similarly, all components of the modulating signal of the

As the modulating signal

With no modulation the carrier is

so that the maximum deviation; will be given by

Modulation index of FM is defined as

ln an FM system, when the audio frequency (AF) is 500 Hz,

Phase modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the

Phase deviation is the amount by which the carrier phase

In PM, the amount of carrier

so that the maximum deviation; will be given by

Modulation index of PM is defined as

ln an PM system, when the audio frequency (AF) is 500 Hz,

• Any modulation process produces sidebands.

• Theoretically, the FM process produces an infinite

• In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted

• FM systems that have a deviation ratio greater than or

• This is a special case of FM in

• Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM system in which the

1. What is the deviation ratio of TV sound if the maximum

FM is a modulation process in which the change in the

a. message amplitude only

Frequency deviation in FM refers to the extent by which

The difference between phase and frequency modulation

a. is purely theoretical because they are the same in practice

Indicate which one of the following is not an advantage of

a. Better noise immunity is provided

The total bandwidth of an FM signal can be determined by

Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is

Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is

1. What is the maximum bandwidth of an FM signal with a

2. What is the bandwidth required for an FM signal in

• Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors,

• FM signals have a constant modulated carrier amplitude.

• Because of the clipping action of the limiter circuits,

Noise and Phase Shift

Noise and Phase Shift

Noise and Phase Shift

Noise and Phase Shift

1. Assume that the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is 3:1 and

• Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly

FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.

FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.

FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.

1. A cell phone transmitter has a maximum frequency

1. An FM signal has a frequency deviation of 5 kHz and a

ANS. 49.91 or 33.96 dB

Preemphasis deals with

a. emphasizing low frequency components

The usefulness of preemphasis and deemphasis is to

The superior performance of FM compared to AM in the

a. constant amplitude in the modulated signal

The prime requirement of a frequency modulation system is

The subsidiary requirements are that the unmodulated

• There are many circuits used to produce FM and PM

• The carrier is generated by LC or crystal oscillator