A Laboratory Manual for

Mechanics of Solids
(3130608)

B.E. Semester 3 (Civil)

Directorate of Technical Education, Gandhinagar,

Gujarat
 Name of the Institute

Certificate

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ___________________________________

________ Enrollment No. _______________ of B.E. Semester _____ Civil
Engineering of this Institute (GTU Code: _____ ) has satisfactorily completed
the Practical / Tutorial work for the subject Mechanics of Solids (3130608)
for the academic year 2024-25.

Place: __________
Date: __________

Name and Sign of Faculty member

Head of the Department

1
 Preface

Main motto of any laboratory/practical/field work is for enhancing required skills as well as
creating ability amongst students to solve real time problem by developing relevant competencies
in psychomotor domain. By keeping in view, GTU has designed competency focused outcome-
based curriculum for engineering degree programs where sufficient weightage is given to
practical work. It shows importance of enhancement of skills amongst the students and it pays
attention to utilize every second of time allotted for practical amongst students, instructors and
faculty members to achieve relevant outcomes by performing the experiments rather than having
merely study type experiments. It is must for effective implementation of competency focused
outcome-based curriculum that every practical is keenly designed to serve as a tool to develop
and enhance relevant competency required by the various industry among every student. These
psychomotor skills are very difficult to develop through traditional chalk and board content
delivery method in the classroom. Accordingly, this lab manual is designed to focus on the
industry defined relevant outcomes, rather than old practice of conducting practical to prove
concept and theory.

By using this lab manual students can go through the relevant theory and procedure in advance
before the actual performance which creates an interest and students can have basic idea prior to
performance. This in turn enhances pre-determined outcomes amongst students. Each experiment
in this manual begins with competency, industry relevant skills, course outcomes as well as
practical outcomes (objectives). The students will also achieve safety and necessary precautions
to be taken while performing practical.

This manual also provides guidelines to faculty members to facilitate student centric lab activities
through each experiment by arranging and managing necessary resources in order that the
students follow the procedures with required safety and necessary precautions to achieve the
outcomes. It also gives an idea that how students will be assessed by providing rubrics.

Engineering Thermodynamics is the fundamental course which deals with various forms of
energy and their conversion from one to the another. It provides a platform for students to
demonstrate first and second laws of thermodynamics, entropy principle and concept of exergy.
Students also learn various gas and vapor power cycles and refrigeration cycle. Fundamentals of
combustion are also learnt.

Utmost care has been taken while preparing this lab manual however always there is chances of
improvement. Therefore, we welcome constructive suggestions for improvement and removal of
errors if any.

2
 Practical – Course Outcome matrix

Course Outcomes (COs):

CO1: Apply fundamental principles of mechanics, equilibrium and statics to practical problems
of engineering.
CO2: Determine centroid and moment of inertia of a different geometrical shape and its use in
engineering problem.
CO3: Determine different types of stresses and strains developed in the member subjected to
axial, bending, shear, torsion & thermal loads.
CO4: Determine principal stresses and strains for two dimensional system using analytical and
graphical methods.
CO5: Differentiate behaviour and properties of different engineering materials.
CO6: Apply the basics of simple machines and their working mechanism.
Sr.
Objective(s) of Experiment CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5 CO6
No.
Equilibrium of coplanar
1. √
concurrent forces
Equilibrium of coplanar non-
2. √
concurrent forces
Equilibrium of coplanar parallel
3. forces: Determination of reactions √
of simply supported beam
Verification of principle of
4. √
moment: Bell crank lever
Determination of member force in
5. √
a triangular truss
Determination of parameters of
machines
(a) Wheel and differential axles
6. √
(b) Single purchase crab
(c) Double purchase crab
(d) System of pulleys
Determination of hardness of
7. √
metals: Brinell hardness test
Determination of impact of metals:
8. √
Izod
Determination of compression test
on
9. (a) Metals – mild steel and cast √
iron
(b) Timber – along and parallel to
the grains
10. Determination of tensile strength √
of metals
Determination of shear strength of
11. √
metals

3
Industry Relevant Skills

The following industry relevant competency are expected to be developed in the student by
undertaking the practical work of this laboratory.
1. Equilibrium and requirements
2. Properties of engineering materials
3. Principle of simple machines

Guidelines for Faculty members

1. Teacher should provide the guideline with demonstration of practical to the students
with all features.
2. Teacher shall explain basic concepts/theory related to the experiment to the students before
starting of each practical
3. Involve all the students in performance of each experiment.
4. Teacher is expected to share the skills and competencies to be developed in the
students and ensure that the respective skills and competencies are developed in the
students after the completion of the experimentation.
5. Teachers should give opportunity to students for hands-on experience after the
demonstration.
6. Teacher may provide additional knowledge and skills to the students even though not
covered in the manual but are expected from the students by concerned industry.
7. Give practical assignment and assess the performance of students based on task
assigned to check whether it is as per the instructions or not.
8. Teacher is expected to refer complete curriculum of the course and follow the
guidelines for implementation.

Instructions for Students

1. Students are expected to carefully listen to all the theory classes delivered by the faculty
members and understand the COs, content of the course, teaching and examination scheme,
skill set to be developed etc.
2. Students shall organize the work in the group and make record of all observations.
3. Students shall develop maintenance skill as expected by industries.
4. Student shall attempt to develop related hand-on skills and build confidence.
5. Student shall develop the habits of evolving more ideas, innovations, skills etc. apart from
those included in scope of manual.
6. Student shall refer technical magazines and data books.
7. Student should develop a habit of submitting the experimentation work as per the schedule
and s/he should be well prepared for the same.

Common Safety Instructions

1. Students are expected to follow safety precautions as advised.

4
 Index
(Progressive Assessment Sheet)
Date of Date of Assessme Sign. of
Page Remar
Sr. No. Objective(s) of Experiment perform submiss nt Teacher
No. ks
ance ion Marks with date
Mechanics of rigid body

1 Equilibrium of coplanar concurrent forces

2 Equilibrium of coplanar non-concurrent

forces
3 Equilibrium of coplanar parallel forces:
Determination of reactions of simply
supported beam
4 Verification of principle of moment: Bell
crank lever
5 Determination of member force in a
triangular truss
6 Determination of parameters of machines
(a) Wheel and differential axles
(b) Single purchase crab
(c) Double purchase crab
(d) System of pulleys
Mechanics of deformable body
7 Determination of hardness of metals: Brinell
hardness test
8 Determination of impact of metals: Izod

9 Determination of compression test on

(a) Metals – mild steel and cast iron
(b) Timber – along and parallel to the grains
10 Determination of tensile strength of metals

11
Determination of shear strength of metals

Total

5
 Experiment No.: 1

Equilibrium of Coplanar Concurrent Forces

Relevant CO: CO 1

Objectives:

To find analytically and graphically the resultant force of a coplanar concurrent force system and
verify experimentally through the system in equilibrium.

Equipment/Instruments:

Force Table, Metal ring, strings, weights.

Theory:

The body (under the influence of a system of coplanar concurrent forces) is said to be in equilibrium
when the resultant force of the system of forces is zero. For such system of forces; the sum of all
the forces must equal to zero. Thus,

∑ 𝐹=0 (1)

Where, ∑ 𝐹 is algebraic sum of forces of the system. Equation (1) yields the (analytical)
equilibrium conditions with respect to mutually perpendicular reference directions for the coplanar
concurrent force system.

(2)
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

(3)
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

Where, ∑ 𝐹𝑥 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 are algebraic sum of the components in mutually perpendicular

directions 𝑥 and 𝑦 respectively, of the forces of the system.

When represented graphically, the coplanar concurrent forces in equilibrium must form a
closed polygon when the force vectors are added in an order, geometrically. This is the equilibrium
(graphical) condition for the coplanar concurrent force system.

Any one force of the coplanar concurrent force system in equilibrium can be chosen as an
equilibrant force of the system of forces excluding that which is chosen as an equilibrant force. The
force having magnitude equal to that of the equilibrant force and direction opposite to that of the
equilibrant force and passing through the point of concurrency would be the resultant of the system
of forces excluding the equilibrant force.

The resultant force chosen as above is verified analytically by resolving the forces
orthogonally and adding algebraically and graphically by the polygon law of forces which states “If
1
number of forces acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented in magnitude and direction by
the sides of a polygon taken in order, the resultant of all the forces (in magnitude and direction) is
represented by the closing side of the polygon taken in opposite order” (figure 1).

Procedure:

1. Arrange the force table (Figure 2) with top surface levelled.

2. Put the metal ring tied with number of strings (say 5) having sufficient length on the top surface
of the force table such that the central pivot mounted at centre of the force table remain within
the metal ring.

Figure 1. Coplanar concurrent force system

Figure 2: Force table

3. After passing over the pulleys, suspend different known weights at another end of strings such
that the pivot remain at centre of the metal ring and the metal ring is in equilibrium. Thus, a

2
 system of coplanar concurrent forces in equilibrium with pivot as point of concurrency is
crated.
4. Note the suspended weights (say W1, W2, …, W5) as the magnitude and the inclination of the
string with reference axis (𝜃1, 𝜃2, 𝜃3, … , 𝜃5) as the direction of the forces in the observation
table.
5. Find the components of each force in orthogonal directions (𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦).
6. Mark one of forces (say W5) as an equilibrant force, the reverse of which would be the resultant
force of system of forces (say W1, W2, …, W4) (excluding the equilibrant force W5).
7. Find the magnitude of the resultant force 𝑅 analytically using

𝑅 = √∑ 𝐹𝑥2 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦2

and the direction of the resultant forces 𝑅 with reference to the 𝑥𝑥 axis using

∑ 𝐹𝑦
𝛼=
∑ 𝐹𝑥

8. To find the magnitude and the direction of the resultant force graphically, add the forces of the
system geometrically as sides of an open polygon taken in an order. Draw the closing line of
polygon in opposite order to get the magnitude and the direction of the resultant force 𝑅.
9. Find the percentage error in magnitude and direction of resultant force 𝑅 obtained analytically
and graphically with respect to experimental values.

Observations:

Observation Table:

Sr.
Direction of force 𝜃𝑖 with reference
No Force Magnitude 𝑊𝑖 of force Remarks.
to 𝑥𝑥 axis
.
1 W1
2 W2 Force W5 is
3 W3 chosen as an
equilibrant
4 W4 force.
5 W5

3
Calculation:

1) Analytical Evaluation:

Component of forces in
Sr. Magnitude 𝑊𝑖 of Direction of force
Force
No. force 𝜃𝑖 (with 𝑥𝑥 ) 𝑥𝑥 direction 𝑤𝑖 𝑦𝑦 direction
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖 𝑤𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖

1. W1

2. W2

3. W3

4. W4

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = ∑ 𝐹𝑦 =

Magnitude of resultant force,

R = √∑ 𝐹𝑥2 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦2

Direction of resultant force with reference to 𝑥𝑥 axis

∑ 𝐹𝑦
𝛼=
∑ 𝐹𝑥

4
2) Graphical Evaluation:

3) Percentage error in magnitude R and direction 𝛼 of resultant force:

Analytical Graphical
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 in R = % % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 in 𝛼 = % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑅 = % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝛼 =
|𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑝.− 𝑅𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡. | |𝛼𝑒𝑥𝑝.− 𝛼𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡. | |𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑝.− 𝑅𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ. | |𝛼𝑒𝑥𝑝.− 𝛼𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ. |
𝑅𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡.
x100 𝛼𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡.
x 100 𝑅𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ.
x 100 𝛼𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ.
X 100

Result:
The magnitude and direction of resultant force is obtained as below.

Experimental Analytical Graphical

Magnitude of 𝑅

Direction of 𝑅 with
reference to 𝑥𝑥 axis, 𝛼

Conclusion:

5
 Experiment No.:2

Equilibrium of coplanar non concurrent forces:

Relevant CO: CO 1

Objective:

To find analytically and graphically resultant force of a coplanar non concurrent (nonparallel) force system
and verify experimentally through the system in equilibrium.

Equipment / instruments:

Wooden board with 4 pulleys mounted on it, rectangular metal plate of suitable size, strings, weights.

Theory:

The body (under the influence of a system of coplanar non concurrent forces) is said to be in equilibrium
when the resultant force of the system of forces is zero and the sum of moments of all the forces about any
point in the plane is zero. For such a system of forces, the sum of all the forces and the sum of moments of
all the forces about any point (say point O) must be equal to zero, Thus,

∑F=0

∑Mo = 0 ……………………………………………………………..1.

Where, ∑F is algebraic sum of the forces of system and ∑Mo is algebraic sum of
moments of all the forces about point O.

Equation 1 yields the (analytical) equilibrium conditions with respect to mutually perpendicular reference
directions,

∑ Fx = 0

∑ Fy = 0 and ………………………………………………………2.

∑ Mo = 0

for the coplanar non concurrent (nonparallel) force system.

Where, ∑Fx and ∑Fy are algebraic sums of components in mutually

perpendicular directions X and Y respectively of the forces of the system and
∑Mo is the algebraic sum of moments of all the forces of the system about point O lying in the plane of
forces.

When represented graphically, the coplanar non concurrent forces in equilibrium must form a closed polygon
when the force vectors are added in an order geometrically and the resultant of two arbitrary groups of all
the forces must be equal, opposite and co-linear.

Anyone force of the coplanar non concurrent force system in equilibrium can be chosen as an equilibrant
force of the system of forces excluding that which is chosen as an equilibrant force. The reverse of which
6
would be the resultant force of the system of forces (excluding the equilibrant force).

The resultant force chosen as above is verified analytically by resolving and adding algebraically the forces
orthogonally and the position of resultant force is obtained through Varignon’s theorem of moments which
states the moment of the resultant force of a system of forces with respect to any point in the plane of forces
is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces of the system with respect to the same point. The
resultant force can be
obtained graphically through
Polygon law of forces and
the position of the resultant
force is obtained by the
funicular diagram.

Figure 1. Coplanar concurrent force system

Figure 2. Resultant force of coplanar nonconcurrent force system

7
Procedure:

1. Arrange the wooden board, metal plate and weights to have a system in equilibrium (figure 1).

2. Measure the dimensions and weight of metal rectangular plate.

3. Tie the strings at corners of the metal rectangular plate. Pass them on pulley and suspend known weights
at another end of strings such that the metal rectangular plate remains in equilibrium and remains in
central region of the board and one of its edges remains horizontal.

4. Place a paper between plate and board and mark the plate and direction of strings on the paper with
pencil.

5. Show all the weights as forces W1, W2, W3 and W4 and mark their directions as Ɵ1, Ɵ2, Ɵ3 and Ɵ4
with reference to XX direction and note down in observation table. Also note the weight W5 as weight
of rectangular metal plate passing through midpoint of diagonals of the rectangular plate and directed
vertically downwards as shown in figure 1.

6. Find the components of each force in orthogonal directions (XX and YY) and find moment of
all components of forces about suitable point. (Say point D at lower left corner of plate).

7. Mark one of the forces (say weight of plate) of the force system as an equilibrant force. The
reverse of which would be the resultant force of the system of forces excluding the equilibrant
force.

8. Determine the magnitude and direction with reference to XX direction of resultant force analytically
using

R = √∑𝐹𝑥2 + ∑𝐹𝑦2

∑𝐹𝑦
α = tan-1
∑𝐹𝑥

and position of the resultant force by equating algebraic sum of moments of components of forces about
point D and the moment of resultant force about the same point D.

9. To find the resultant force graphically, draw the space diagram and vector diagram to get the magnitude
and direction of the resultant force using polygon law of forces (figure 2). Choose a suitable point
O(Pole) in vector diagram and join the point a through e to O as shown in figure 2. Draw funicular
diagram starting from the point on the line of action of force (W1) and draw lines parallel to oa, ob, oc,
od and oe as in vector diagram in spaces A, B, C, D and E in the space diagram. Extend the first and
last lines to meet in point which is the point through which the resultant should pass.

Observation:

1. Length of rectangular plate L =______________________.

2. Width of rectangular plate W =______________________.
3. Weight of rectangular plate W5=______________________.

8
Observation Table:

Sr. Force Wi Magnitude of Wi Direction Ɵi with reference to Remarks

No. XX direction

Calculation:

1. Analytical Evaluation

Sr. Force Magnitude Direction Component of forces Moment of

No. of force of force components
Ɵi about point
A
In XX Distance In YY Distance
direction of direction of Fxi * Fyi *
Fxi component Fyi component hi di
Fxi from Fyi from
point D point D
hi di

1 W1

2 W2

3 W3

4 W4

∑Fxi= ∑Fyi ∑MA =

=

Magnitude of resultant force, R = √∑𝐹𝑥2 + ∑𝐹𝑦2

∑𝐹𝑦
Direction of resultant force with reference to XX direction, α = tan-1∑𝐹𝑥

9
Position of resultant force with reference to point A,

∑ MA = R X d

∑ 𝑀𝐴
d=
𝑅

= ____________________cm (perpendicular to line of action of R)

2. Graphical evaluation:

10
Result:

The magnitude and direction of resultant force is obtained as below.

Experimentally Analytically Graphically

Magnitude of R

Direction of R
with reference to
XX direction

(The resultant force as chosen here is weight of the rectangular plate and is passing through the midpoint of
diagonal of rectangular plate).

Conclusion:

11
 Experiment No.:3

Equilibrium of coplanar parallel forces:

Determination of reaction of simply supported beam.

Relevant CO: CO 1

Objective:

To determine the reaction of simply supported beam using equilibrium conditions for coplanar parallel
forces.

Equipment /instruments:

Simply supported beam model, standard weights.

Theory:

Beam is a structural member which supports transverse gravity loads on it (Figure 1). Loads are oriented in
vertically downward directions. The reactions are offered at ends of beam in opposite directions. The system
remains in equilibrium under the influence of coplanar parallel forces.

The unknown support reactions are obtained using following equilibrium conditions for the coplanar parallel
force system.

∑Fy =0

∑ M =0

(The equilibrium condition ∑Fx = 0, though it is valid but meaningless due to

no forces are oriented in X direction).

The reactions are obtained through graphical method also (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Graphical method of finding Reactions

12
 Procedure:

1. Place the beam in position and note the reaction values at ends under the influence of self-weight of
beam.
2. Suspend the known weights at several points on beam. Note the magnitude and location of load with
respect to left support (A) of beam.
3. Note down the support reactions at ends of beam.
4. Find the support reactions under influence of external loads by deducting the reactions due to self-
weight.
5. Obtain the support reactions analytically and graphically.

Observation:

1. Length(span) of beam, l =___________.

Observation Table:

Sr. Applied loads Reactions

No. Magnitude of loads Distance of loads from left Experimental
support
W1 W2 W3 x1 X2 X3 RL RR

Calculation:

Analytical Evaluation:

Apply equilibrium conditions:

∑Fx =0

∑ Wi - RL – RR =0

RL+RR = ∑ Wi

∑ MA = 0

13
∑ Wi xi - ∑ Rj xj =0

∑ 𝑊𝑖 𝑥𝑖
RR = 𝑙

RL = ∑ Wi - RR

= ___________.

Graphical evaluation:

Result:

Experimental Reactions Analytical Graphical

RL RR RL RR RL RR

Conclusion:

14
 Experiment No.: 4

Verification of principle of moment: Bell crank lever

Relevant CO: CO 1

Objective:

To verify the principle of moment using the Bell crank lever.

Equipment /instruments:

Bell Crank lever apparatus, standard weights, scale.

Theory:

The principle of moment states: The algebraic sum of the moments of a system of coplanar forces about any
point in the plane is equal to the moment of the resultant force of the system about the same point.

Figure 1. Bell Crank Lever arrangement

The Bell crank lever (figure 1) has two arms at right angle. The lever has its fulcrum at the apex of the angle.
The principle of moment is verified using the Bell crank lever.

Procedure

1. Place the loads (say W1, W2 and W3) on the horizontal arm of the lever. Note the distance (say x1, x 2
and x3) of the loads from the hinge.
2. The arms of lever tilts under the influence of the load. Adjust the tension (say T) in the spring so that
pointer comes in line with vertical arm. The horizontal arm is truly horizontal in this position.
3. Note the tension in spring and the distance (say y) between spring balance attached to the vertical arm
and the hinge.
4. All the loads and tension in spring are supported on hinge, the resultant of all must pass through the
hinge. Take moment of all loads and tension about hinge. Add these moments algebraically.

15
5. The moment of resultant force about hinge must be zero due to resultant force is passing through the
hinge.
6. Compare the algebraic sum of moments of loads and tension in the spring with moment of resultant
force.
7. Repeat the test by altering magnitude of loads and their distances on horizontal arm.

Observation:

Observation Table:

Sr. Weights Distance from hinge Tension Distance ∑(Wi * T*y

No. in of T xi)
spring from
hinge

W1 W2 W3 x1 x2 x3 T y

Calculation:

Algebraic sum of moments of loads and tension in spring about hinge.

∑MA =∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑊𝑖 𝑥𝑖 -Ty

𝑀𝐴 =𝑊1 𝑥1 + 𝑊2 𝑥2+𝑊3 𝑥3 - Ty

16
Result:

Conclusion:

17
 Experiment No.: 5

Determination of member force in triangular truss.

Relevant CO: CO 1

Objective:

To determine member force in members of triangular Truss.

Equipment/ instruments:

A Triangular truss model, standard weights

Theory:

Figure 1 shows a triangular truss,

Figure 1.
Triangular truss

The members are connected with pin joints and loads are applied at joints only. The truss remains in
equilibrium under the influence of loads. Since, all the joints are pin connections, the joints and members
are not carrying moments. Therefor only axial force develops in members of truss while they transfer the
loads to supports.

The member forces are found using equilibrium conditions for statically determinate truss using method of
joint or method of section.

In experimental set up the member forces are directly read from the spring balance attached to each member.

Procedure:

1. Arrange the truss on the table and read the spring balance reading in each member.
2. Apply the load W at joint B and wait till the truss is in equilibrium. Measure the distance of load W; x
from support A.
3. Record the spring balance reading and get the member forces in each member of the truss.
4. Measure the length of all the members of truss in equilibrium and draw the geometry of truss.

18
 5. Analyze the truss analytically.

Observations:

Span of truss (L) =____________.

Load (W) at joint B = ___________.

Distance x of load W from A=___________.

(When truss is in equilibrium)

Length of member AB =____________.

Length of member BC =____________.

Length of member AC =____________.

Observation table:

Sr. Load at joint B Length of member Experimental forces in members

No.

AB BC AC PAB PBC PAC

Calculation:

𝑊𝑋𝑥
Support reactions: RC = 𝐿

RA = W - RC

Apply equilibrium conditions,

∑ Fx = 0 and ∑ Fy = 0 at any two joints.

PAB = _____________.

PBC = _____________.

PAC = _____________.

Result:

Conclusion:

19
 Experiment No.: 6

Determination of parameters of machines

Relevant CO: CO 6

Objective:

To find law of machine.

Theory:

Simple machines: Simple machine is a device to lift heavy load (W) by applying effort (P) of lower
magnitude and/or in convenient direction (figure 1).

Figure – 1 Simple Machine

The “mechanical advantage” (MA) of the machine is obtained by the ratio of the load lifted to the effort
needed to lift the load. Thus,

𝑊
MA = 𝑃
………………………………………..1.

The “velocity ratio” (VR) of the machine is the ratio of displacement of effort (y) to the displacement of load
(x),

𝑦
VR= ………………………………………………...2.
𝑥

In an ideal machine the work done by the effort is equal to the work done in lifting the load and therefore,

WXx=PXy

𝑊 𝑦
⸫ 𝑃
=𝑥

⸫ MA = VR ……………………………………………3.

20
The practical machines are not the ideal machines. Extra effort is required to overcome the friction present
in the machine. The efficiency of the machine is given by the ratio of work done by the machine in lifting
the load to the work supplied by the effort. Thus, the efficiency,

𝑊𝑋𝑥
𝜂 = 𝑃𝑋𝑦
or

𝑊
𝑀𝐴
⸫ 𝜂 = 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑉 𝑅 …………………………………………..4.
𝑥

The friction present in the machine can be shown as

𝑊
1) The effort lost in friction = P - 𝑉𝑅
or
2) The friction Load =P*VR - W.

Law of machines:

For a machine if the graph of applied effort (P) against the load lifted (W) is plotted, it gives a straight-line
relationship as shown below in figure 2.

The equation of line; P= mw + c is known as law of machine and the constants m and c are known as the
constants of machine.

From the relation,

𝑀𝐴
𝜂 =
𝑉𝑅
𝑊
=𝑃 𝑉𝑅

𝑊
= 𝑉𝑅(𝑚𝑊+𝑐)

1
= 𝑐 …………………………………………..5.
𝑉𝑅(𝑚+ )
𝑊

For a machine, the efficiency 𝜂 depends on the load (W) lifted as the terms VR, c and m are the constants in
equation 5. It can be shown that efficiency 𝜂 increases as the load (W) increases (figure 3). The maximum
possible efficiency of the machine is given by,

1
𝜂 max = 𝑚 𝑋 𝑉𝑅, where W is infinity.

Figure 2. Law of machine Figure 3. Efficiency of machine

21
The machine is reversible if the efficiency is more than 50 % and is irreversible when the efficiency is less
than or equal to 50 %.

A) Wheel and differential axle:

In the device, a simple wheel and an axle having two parts of different diameter are keyed to a shaft. Both
revolve equally. The effort P is applied on the wheel. While the load W is attached to a string which is wound
on both parts of axle (figure 4) such that the string winds on larger diameter part of axle while unwinds from
smaller diameter part of axle. And the Lord (W) is lifted. The velocity ratio for the machine is given by,

2𝐷
VR = 𝑑1−𝑑2

Where, D is diameter of effort wheel.

d1,d2 are diameter of both parts and axle.

Figure – 4 Wheel and differential axles

Procedure:

1. Measure the diameter of wheel and axle.

2. Suspend a load W to be lifted and apply the effort P just sufficient to lift the load. Note down the values
of load and effort in observation table.
3. Increase the magnitude of load and repeat the Step 2. Get at least 5 set of readings for W and P.
4. Calculate the MA, VR, efficiency 𝜂.
5. Plot the graphs P vs W and 𝜂 vs W.
6. Find the constants of machine and the law of machine.

Observation:

1. Diameter of effort wheel D =

2. Diameter of axle (large) d1 =
3. Diameter of axle (small) d2 =

22
Observation table:

Sr. 𝑤 𝑀𝐴
Load W Effort p MA= 𝑃 VR 𝜂(%) = 𝑉𝑅
X100
No.

Calculation:

2𝐷
1. VR =𝑑1−𝑑2

Result:

The constants m =

C=

The law of machine P= mw + c

Conclusion:

The law of machine is P =_____W+______

23
Graph:

24
 B) Single purchase crab

Theory:

single purchase crab (figure 5) is a lifting machine.

Figure 5. Single Purchase Crab

The effort wheel of radius R is attached to pinion while the load drum of radius r is attached to the gear
wheel. The pinion and the gear wheel are engaged through teeth on pinion and gear wheel. The numbers of
teeth on pinion are T1 and that on gear wheel are T2. In one revolution of effort wheel the pinion revolves
by one revolution and passes T1 teeth of gear wheel. Thus during one revolution of effort wheel gear wheel
𝑇1
revolves by 𝑇2 revolution. The string on load drum winds to lift the load as effort wheel rotates.

The velocity ratio of machine is given by,

2𝜋𝑅
VR = 𝑇1
( )2𝜋𝑟
𝑇2

𝑇2𝑅
= 𝑇1𝑟

Procedure:

1. Note the number of teeth on pinion (T1) and on gear wheel (T2).
2. Measure the radius of effort wheel (R) and radius of load drum (r).
3. Suspend the load (W)to be lifted.
4. Apply the effort (P) just Sufficient to lift the load (W) and record load (W) and effort (P) in observation
table.
5. Increase the magnitude of load and repeat the Step 4. Get at least 5 set of readings for W and P. Calculate
the MA, VR, efficiency 𝜂.Plot the graphs P vs W and 𝜂 vs W.
6. Find the constants of machine and the law of machine.

25
Observations:

1. Radius of effort wheel R =

2. Radius of load drum r =
3. Number of teeth on pinion T1=
4. Number of teeth on gear wheel T2=

Observation table:

𝑤 𝑀𝐴
Sr. Load W Effort p MA= 𝑃 VR 𝜂(%) = X 100
𝑉𝑅
No.

Calculation:

𝑇2 𝑅
VR =
𝑇1 𝑟

Result:

Conclusion:

26
Graph:

27
 C) Double purchase crab

Theory:

Double purchase crab (figure 6) is a lifting machine.

Figure 6. Double Purchase Crab

In this machine, a pinion (with teeth T3) and gear wheel (with teeth T2) is mounted on an intermediate shaft.
The gear wheel is engaged with pinion (with teeth T1) mounted on axle with effort wheel of radius R. The
pinion on intermediate shaft is engaged with a spur (with teeth T4) fitted on axle of load drum (with radius
r). In one revolution of effort wheel, the gear on intermediate shaft revolves T1/T2 revolutions and load drum
𝑇3 𝑇1
by 𝑇4 𝑋 𝑇2 revolution.

The string on load drum winds to lift the load as effort wheel rotates.

The velocity ratio of machine is given by –

2𝜋𝑅
VR = 𝑇3 𝑇1
2𝜋𝑟 𝑇4𝑋𝑇2

𝑇2 𝑇4 𝑅
=
𝑇1 𝑇3 𝑟

28
Procedure:

1. Measure the radius of effort wheel R and radius of load drum r.

2. Note the number of teeth on pinion, gear wheels and spur T1, T2, T3 and T4.
3. Suspend the load (W)to be lifted.
4. Apply the effort (P) just Sufficient to lift the load (W) and record load (W) and effort (P) in observation
table.
5. Increase the magnitude of load and repeat the Step 4. Get at least 5 set of readings for W and P. Calculate
the MA, VR, efficiency 𝜂.
6. Plot the graphs P vs W and 𝜂 vs W.
7. Find the constants of machine and the law of machine.

Observations:

1. Radius of effort wheel R =

2. Radius of load drum r =
3. Number of teeth on pinion T1=
4. Number of teeth on gear wheel mounted on intermediate axle T2=
5. Number of teeth on pinion mounted on intermediate axle T3=
6. No of teeth on spur T4=

Observation Table:

Sr. Load W Effort P 𝑊 VR 𝑀𝐴

MA=
𝑃
𝜂(%) = 𝑉𝑅 X100
No.

Calculation:

𝑇2 𝑇4 𝑅
VR = 𝑇1 𝑇3 𝑟

Result:

29
Conclusion:

Graph:

30
 D. System of pulleys

Theory:

A Pulley is one of the simplest of the lifting machines. A system of pulleys arranged in certain manner works
as a lifting machine which gives higher mechanical advantage. Depending upon the arrangement of pulleys,
there are three different system of pulleys as below,

1. First order system of pulleys.

2. Second order system of pulleys.
3. Third order system of pulleys.

1. First order system of pulleys: (Figure 7)

Figure 7. First order system of pulleys.

In this system, the numbers of ropes are equal to number of movable pulleys. Each rope is tied to the rigid
ceiling. The first pulley is fixed in position used to change the effort direction. The load is attached to the
last movable pulley. The movable pulleys can move in vertical direction when effort is applied to the fixed
pulley.

The velocity ratio of the first order system of pulleys is,

Velocity ratio; VR=2n

where n is number of movable pulleys

31
 Procedure:

1. Arrange the system of pulleys and find the velocity ratio.

2. Suspend the load (W) to be lifted.
3. Apply the effort (P) just Sufficient to lift the load (W) and record load (W) and effort (P) in
observation table.
4. Increase the magnitude of load and repeat the Step 3. Get at least 5 set of readings for W and P.
Calculate the MA, VR, efficiency 𝜂.
5. Plot the graphs P vs W and 𝜂 vs W.
6. Find the constants of machine and the law of machine.

Observation:

Observation Table:

Sr. Load W Effort p 𝑊 VR 𝑀𝐴

MA= 𝑃 𝜂(%) = 𝑉𝑅
X100
No.

Calculation:

Velocity Ratio VR=______________.

Result:

32
 Conclusion:

Graph: Plot the graph P vs W and 𝜂 vs W

33
 2. Second order system of pulleys: (Figure 8)

Figure 8. Second order system of pulleys

This system has two blocks of pulleys. The upper block is fixed and the effort is applied at the top most
pulley. The lower block is movable, it can move in vertical direction. The load is attached to the lower block.
The velocity ratio of the second order system of pulleys is,

Velocity ratio; VR=Number of parts of the string supporting the lower block.

Procedure:

1. Arrange the system of pulleys and find the velocity ratio.

2. Suspend the load (W) to be lifted.

3. Apply the effort (P) just Sufficient to lift the load (W) and record load (W) and effort (P) in observation
table.

4. Increase the magnitude of load and repeat the Step 3. Get at least 5 set of readings for W and P. Calculate
the MA, VR, efficiency 𝜂.

5. Plot the graphs P vs W and 𝜂 vs W.

6. Find the constants of machine and the law of machine.

34
Observation:

Observation Table:

Sr. No. Load W Effort p 𝑊 VR 𝑀𝐴

MA= 𝑃 𝜂(%) = 𝑉𝑅
X100

Calculation:

Velocity Ratio VR=______________.

Result:

Conclusion:

35
Graph:

36
3. Third Order system of pulleys: (Figure 9)

Figure 9. Third order system of pulleys

In this system number of ropes used is equal to number of pulleys. One end of the rope is attached to a
common reside block which supports the load to be lifted. The another end of rope is fixed to the next pulley.
The effort is applied to the free end of the lower most pulleys.

The velocity ratio of the third order system of pulley is,

Velocity ratio VR = (2n -1)

Where n is number of pulleys in the system

Procedure:

1. Arrange the system of pulleys and find the velocity ratio.

2. Suspend the load (W) to be lifted.

3. Apply the effort (P) just Sufficient to lift the load (W) and record load (W) and effort (P) in
observation table.

4. Increase the magnitude of load and repeat the Step 3. Get at least 5 set of readings for W and P.
Calculate the MA, VR, efficiency 𝜂.

5. Plot the graphs P vs W and 𝜂 vs W.

6. Find the constants of machine and the law of machine.

37
Observation:

Observation Table:

Sr. Load W Effort p 𝑊 VR 𝑀𝐴

MA= 𝑃 𝜂(%) = 𝑉𝑅
X100
No.

Calculation:

Velocity Ratio VR=______________.

Result:

Conclusion:

38
Graph:

39
 Experiment No.: 7

Determination of hardness of metals: Brinnel hardness test

Objective:

To determine the Brinnel hardness of metals.

Equipment/instruments:

Testing machine, Indenter, Indentation diameter measuring system, Test specimen.

Theory:

Hardness is the resistance by the metal against indentation, scratching or abrasion on its surface.
Brinnel hardness of metals (IS 1500 (part 1): 2019) is obtained by making an indentation through a
ball on surface of the metal (Figure 1). A ball indenter of diameter D (in mm) is forced into the
surface of a test piece for specified time. The recommended force -diameter indices for certain
materials and hardness level are given in table1. On removal of force F (in N), the diameter of the
indentation, d (in mm) on surface of the test specimen is measured. The Brinnel hardness is
proportional to the quotient obtained by dividing the test force F (in N) by the curved surface area
(in mm2) of the indentation. The curved surface area is calculated from the mean indentation
diameter and the ball diameter as below. Mean diameter of the indentation,

𝑑1 +𝑑2
d= …………………………………1.
2

where d1 and d2 are diameter of indentation measured perpendicular to each other.

The depth of indentation h,

𝐷 𝑑2
h (in mm) = 2 (1-√1 − 𝐷2 )....................................2.

from which, The Brinnel hardness,

2𝐹
HBW = 0.102 ......................................3.
𝑑2
𝜋 𝐷 2 (1−√1− 2 )
𝐷

(Note: 0.102 is conversion factor from N to kgf)

40
Procedure:

1. Choose the appropriate indenter (Ball) diameter (D) to apply the force on the surface of the test
specimen. The diameter of indenter ball should be chosen as large as possible to cover
maximum area on surface of the test specimen.
2. Set the machine to apply the test force (F) on the surface of the test specimen. The appropriate
Force-diameter indices for certain materials and hardness level are given in (table -1) for
selection of the test force. The test force should be chosen so as to get the diameter of
indentation (d) between 0.24D to 0.6D.

Figure 1 Principle of test

3. Place the test specimen in position to receive the force.

4. Bring the indenter into contact of the surface of the test specimen and apply the test force in 7
seconds (within 7+1 −5 i.e.within 2 to 8 seconds). Maintain the test force for 14 seconds.
+1
(14−4 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 𝑡𝑜 15 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑).
5. The minimum distance from the edge and from the centre of adjacent indentations to the centre
of indentation shall be minimum 2.5 times and 3 times the mean indentation diameter,
respectively.
6. Measure the diameter of the indentation in two mutually perpendicular directions. Get the mean
diameter from the measurements.
7. Calculate the Brinnel hardness value from the mean diameter obtained as above, accurate to
three significant digits. Optionally the tables given by Indian Standards may be used to get the
Brinnel hardness value.

41
 Table 1: Recommended force – diameter indices for different metallic materials

Observations:

Diameter of indenter ball D =______mm.

𝐹
Force diameter index 0.102𝑋 =
𝐷2

Test force F =________N.

Diameter of indentation in perpendicular directions d1=_______mm d2 =_______mm.

𝑑1+𝑑2
Mean diameter of indentation d = = _______mm.
2

Calculation:

Brinell hardness value,

2𝐹
HBW=0.102 X
𝑑2
𝜋𝐷 2 [1−√1− 2 ]
𝐷

42
Result:

Conclusion:

43
 Experiment No.: 8

Izod impact test (IS:1598-1977)

Relevant CO: CO 5

Objective:

To determine the Izod impact value of metals.

Equipment / Instruments:

Izod impact testing machine, standard metal specimens.

Theory:

Impact resistance of metals is measured in terms of its ability to absorb the energy.

The Izod impact test is performed on standard metal test specimen (figure 1).

(All dimensions in mm)

Figure 1. Single notch square test specimen

A swinging hammer strikes at a fixed position to the specimen with a notch, gripped vertically in the machine.
The energy absorbed by the specimen is determined.

The hammer strikes the specimen with striking energy of 165.6±3.4J

Procedure:

1. Place the specimen in position with the notch facing the hammer ensure that,
i. The longitudinal axis of the test piece lies in the plane of swing of center of gravity of hammer.
ii. The notch is positioned such that the plane of symmetry of the notch coincides with the top face of
the grips.
iii. The notch is at right angles to the plane of swing of center of gravity of the hammer.
iv. The test piece is gripped tightly in the anvil grips.
2. Set the pointer on dial to indicate the total energy of the hammer.
3. Release the hammer to strike the specimen.

44
 4. Read the pointer after hammer strikes the specimen. The pointer will indicate the energy left after
breaking the specimen.
5. Observe the type of failure of the test specimen
6. Find the energy lost while hammer swings without specimen.
7. Find the Izod impact value (in joules) by subtracting the energy lost without specimen as in 6 above
from the energy absorbed which is the difference of total energy of hammer and the energy left (at step
4) after striking the specimen.

Observation:

Observation Table:

Sr. Metal of test Energy of the Energy of the Energy lost Izod impact
No. specimen hammer before hammer after while hammer value (Jule)
striking the striking the swings without
specimen specimen specimen.
1 2 3 4 5 6 = 3-4-5

Result:

Conclusion:

45
 Experiment No. 9

Determination of compressive strength

Relevant CO: CO 5

A. Compression test on metals: mild steel and cast iron. (IS:13780: 2020)

Objective:

To determine the compressive strength of mild steel and cast-iron metals.

Equipment / Instruments:

Compression testing machine, vernier calliper, test specimens.

Theory:

Steel is widely used for engineering applications. Different metals behave differently when subjected to
compressive load. The material fails by buckling, bulging or by shear under compressive load. The specimen
has tendency to buckle if the length or height of the specimen is more beyond the threshold compared to cross
sectional dimensions. A ductile material which has length or height comparable with cross sectional dimensions
bulges laterally and continue to support load of larger value. However, the failure is decided due to limit on
deformation. Mild steel is an example of ductile material, Brittle material like cast iron does not deform
appreciably but fail due to shear along inclined plane.

Procedure:

1. Measure the dimensions of specimen.

2. Place the specimen between heads of machine.
3. Apply the compressive load gradually till failure.
4. Record the ultimate load.
5. Observe the type of failure and deformation pattern of the failed specimen.

Observations:

1. Length or height of specimen:

2. Cross sectional dimension of specimen:

Observation Table:

Sr. Type of Cross sectional Ultimate load Ultimate Type of

No. specimen area stress failure

46
Calculation:

Cross sectional area =__________________________ .

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Ultimate stress = .
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

=________________.

Result:

The ultimate stress of mild steel is _____________ and of cast iron is ________________ .

Conclusion:

47
 B. Compression test on timber parallel and perpendicular to grains

Objectives:

To determine compressive strength of timber for load applied

(i) parallel to grain and

(ii) perpendicular to grain

Equipment / instruments:

Compression testing machine, vernier calliper, standard test specimens.

(i) Determination of compressive strength parallel to grain (IS:1708(part 8)-1986)

Theory:

Wood is a natural material. It has different engineering properties when loaded parallel to grains and
perpendicular to grains. The failure pattern is also different when subjected to loads. Figure1 shows different
failure pattern of timber when subject to compressive load parallel to grain.

Figure 1.
Failure of
timber under
compression
parallel to
grain

Standard
specimen:

The test
specimen size
would be
50mmX50mm cross section with 200mm length or 20 mmX20mm cross section with 80 mm length.

The test specimen would be free from defects and would not have a slope of grains more than 1 in 20 parallel to
its longitudinal edges. The end planes of specimen would be perfectly at right angles to the length of
specimen.

Procedure:

1. Place the specimen in compression testing machine to receive the compressive load parallel to grain.
2. Place the specimen such that the centre of movable head is vertically above the centre of the cross section
of the specimen.

48
3. Initially apply 250kg load to set the specimen of 50mm x50mmx200 mm size
4. The Load shall be applied continuously during the test such that the movable head of machine travels at a
constant rate of 0.6 mm per minute.
5. The maximum load carried by the specimen is recorded.
6. Observe the type of failure.

Observation:

1. Cross sectional dimension of specimen = __________ x_________ .

2. Length of specimen = _______________.
3. Maximum compressive load=__________________.
4. Type of failure observed:

Calculation:

1. Cross sectional area =_____________________.

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
2. Ultimate compressive strength =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

=_____________________ .

Result:

The ultimate compressive strength of timber when load is applied parallel to grain is _________________.

Conclusion:

49
(ii) Determination of compressive strength perpendicular to grain (IS:1708(part 9)-1986)

Standard specimen:

The test specimen size would be 50mm x 50mm cross section with 150mm length or 20mmx20mm cross section
with 100mm length. The specimen would be free from defects and faces would approach closely to the true radial
and tangential direction.

Procedure:

1. Place the specimen in compression testing machine to receive the compressive load perpendicular to grain.
2. Place a 50mm wide and 15mm thick metal bearing plate centrally on the specimen. Initially apply load up
to 50 kg for 50mmx50mmx150mm size or up to 10kg for 20mmx20mmx100mm specimen to set the
specimen.
3. Apply the load continuously throughout the test such that the movable head of machine travels at a constant
rate of 0.6mm per minute.
4. The maximum load carried by the specimen is recorded.

Observations:

1. Cross sectional dimensions of the specimen =__________ x_________ .

2. Length of specimen =_____________.
3. Maximum compressive load =____________.

Calculation:

1. Area of the cross section normal to the direction of load A =____________.

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
2. Crushing strength =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

= _________________ .

Result:

The crushing strength of timber when load applied perpendicular to grain is _________________.

Conclusion:

50
 Experiment No.: 10

Determination of tensile strength of metals

Relevant CO: CO 5

Objective:

To determine the tensile strength of mild steel material.

Equipment / instruments:

Universal testing machine, vernier caliper, punch, hammer, test specimen.

Theory:

The materials are tested for its mechanical properties so as to understand its mechanical behavior under loads
and have confidence for its use in structures.

In a tension test, a standard test specimen is loaded under tension till fracture and the mechanical properties
of metal are evaluated through the observations recorded while the test is performed. The tensile test on
metal is standardized for getting comparable results (IS 1608: 2022 (part I)). A standard test specimen is
fitted between the grips of universal testing machine and is loaded as per standard specification. The applied
load and corresponding deformation over specific gauge length is recorded to evaluate the properties like
modulus of elasticity, percentage elongation, percentage reduction in area, yield stress, ultimate stress and
breaking stress.

The metals which undergo large permanent strains before failure are classified as ductile material while the
materials which fail in tension at relatively low strains are classified as brittle materials. Mild steel, Copper,
Aluminium are ductile materials while concrete, cast iron, glass, ceramic are brittle materials.

Test specimen:

Figure 1 shows the standard cylindrical test specimen of mild steel material.

Figure 1. Cylindrical test specimen

The specimen is gripped at both the ends which are having larger cross-sectional area so as to avoid failure
within/near grips. The specific gauge lengths are marked in central length of the test specimen. The gauge
length for circular bar is specified as 5.65√𝐴0 where A0 is the cross-sectional area of the bar.

51
Stress strain behavior of mild steel materials:

A typical stress strain diagram (not to scale) for the mild steel in tension is shown in figure2.

Figure 2. Stress – strain relationship of (ductile material) mild steel

Initially, when the steel bar is loaded, the stress -strain relationship is proportional up to point A in the figure.
The stress at A is known as proportional limit. The slope of the line is called modulus of elasticity. Beyond
the proportional limit at A, the slope of the line reduces and becomes horizontal at B and continue till Point
C. Within BC region, material undergo large deformation with no noticeable increase in tensile force. This
is known as yielding of material and the stress at point B is known as yield stress and the point is known as
yield point.

In the region BC, the material deforms without increase in load and thus the material becomes perfectly
plastic.

On onset of load beyond Point C, the material “strain hardens” during which crystalline structure of material
changes and it imparts higher resistance to the deformation. The load reaches the maximum value and
corresponding stress at point D is known as ultimate stress.

Beyond ultimate stress, the load for deforming the bar reduces till the section of bar fails at point E. The
stress corresponding to point E is known as breaking stress.

When the material is subjected to the tensile load and it is elongated, the lateral contraction occurs which
reduces the cross-sectional area. The reduction in cross sectional area has impact on the stress strain curve
especially, beyond Point C. At the ultimate stress, the reduction in area of bar can be visualized and “necking”
of the bar occurs. The true stress strain curve CE’ in figure based on actual cross-sectional area is obtained
and it is realized that the stress is increased beyond ultimate stress even if the load capacity is reduced beyond
ultimate stress.

52
To characterize the ductility of material the elongation and reduction in cross sectional area at fracture is
obtained.

𝐿𝑓 −𝐿0
Percentage elongation= 𝐿0
X100…………………1

and

𝐴0 −𝐴𝑓
Percentage reduction in area= 𝐴0
X100…………..2

Where,
L0 - Original gauge length
Lf - Final gauge length (at fracture)
A0 - Original cross-sectional area
Af - Final cross-sectional area (at fracture)

The yield stress and ultimate stress of materials are known as yield strength and ultimate strength of materials
which are referred to the capacity of material in design. The stress- strain behavior of different materials is
different. The brittle material does not undergo large deformations. Some of the materials does not have
specific yield point but undergo large deformation beyond proportional limit. “Proof stress” is defined in
absence of well-defined yield stress.

Procedure:

1. Measure the cross-sectional dimension (original diameter) of the specimen bar.

2. Mark the gauge length points on the specimen.
3. Install the specimen in grips of universal testing machine. Fix the extensometer to measure the
elongation of test specimen between marking of the gauge length.
4. Apply the load gradually and record the load versus deformation at interval.
5. Remove the extensometer when specimen yields to protect from sudden shock at fracture.
6. Apply the load till failure. Record the ultimate load, breaking load and corresponding deformations.
7. Measure the final gauge length and reduced final cross-sectional dimensions (diameter) of test
specimen.
8. Observe the type of failure of test specimen.
9. Find the stresses and strains from recorded values.
10. Plot the graph of stress versus strain (load versus deformation) and find the modulus of elasticity.
11. Determine the different stresses, percentage elongation and percentage reduction in cross section area
of the test specimen.

Observation:

Dimension of test specimen:

1. Original diameter d0 = __________________.

2. Original Cross section area A0 = ___________.
3. Original gauge length L0 = ___________.
4. Final diameter df = ___________.
5. Final cross section area Af = ___________.
6. Final gauge length Lf = ___________.

53
Observation table:

Sr. No. Load Deflection Remarks

Calculation:

𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

1. Yield stress =𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
2. Ultimate stress = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
3. Nominal breaking stress = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
4. Actual breaking stress =𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐿𝑓 −𝐿0
5. % elongation= 𝐿0
X100=________________

𝐴0 −𝐴𝑓
6. Percentage reduction in area= 𝐴0
X100=______________

𝛥𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
7. Modulus of elasticity E = 𝛥𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Result:

Conclusion:

54
Graph:

55
 Experiment No.: 11

Determination of shear strength of metals (IS:5242 :1979)

Relevant CO: CO 5

Objective:

To determine the shear strength of metal.

Equipment / instruments:

Universal testing machine, standard specimen, vernier calliper.

Theory:

Metals are subjected to shear force when used in engineering application. The metal may be subjected to
shear accompanied with bending or pure shear. The member may be under single shear or double shear as a
single plane or two planes resist the shear force.

A standard metal specimen that fit in the shear attachment provided with universal testing machine is placed
in position. The load is applied through the machine till the specimen fails in shear.

The shear strength of metal is obtained using,

𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒

Shear strength = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

Procedure:

1. Measure the diameter of the specimen and find cross sectional area on which the shear force is applied.
2. Place the specimen in position and apply the load through machine till specimen fails.
3. Record the load applied at failure.

Observations:

1. Diameter of specimen (d) =__________.

2. load at failure of specimen (P) =_________.

Calculation:
𝜋
Cross sectional area A = d2
4

=_________.

𝑃
Shear strength = 𝐴

= ______.

56
Result:

Conclusion:

57