l&w&asss^si

Community Water Supply Project

Low-Cost Water

WELL SITING GUIDE

 UNDP/World Bank Community Water Supply Project
* * *

Well S i t i n g for Low-Cost Water S u p p l i e s (Volume 2)

WELL S I T I N G GUIDE

(Final Draft)

VoVs

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd April 19B8

90 Box 2S025, Nairobi RuvUed e d i t i o n t January 19B9
 Preface

T h i s d o c u m e n t s e e k s t o g u i d e p r o j e c t p l a n n e r s and m a n a g e r s of
r u r a l w a t e r - s u p p l y p r o j e c t s on a v a i l a b l e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e H e l l -
s i t i n g t e c h n i q u e s s u i t a b l e for n u m e r o u s t r o p i c a l e n v i r o n -
m e n t s . T h e 'Well S i t i n g G u i d e ' g i v e s an o v e r v i e w of t h e
hydrogeological aspects of g r o u n d w a t e r e x p l o r a t i o n , an
i n s i g h t i n t o t h e v a r i o u s l e v e l s , m e t h o d s and p r o c e d u r e s of
i n v e s t i g a t i o n and c a s e s t u d i e s of g r o u n d w a t e r e x p l o r a t i o n in
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of H a t e r - s u p p l y s c h e m e s in A f r i c a .

T h e G u i d e is b a s e d on d a t a w h i c h c o v e r a w i d e r a n g e of
s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t e n v i r o n m e n t s so as to c r e a t e a more general
o v e r v i e w of w e l l - s i t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t g e o l o g i c a l
envi ronfiierits. S t a t i s t i c a l a v e r a g e s , h o w e v e r , should not be
c o n s t r u e d a s g e o l o g i c a l r u l e s or l a w s . It is q u i t e p o s s i b l e
t h a t in individual projects t h e f i n d i n g s will differ
s u b s t a n t i a l l y f r o m s o m e uf t h e s t a t e m e n t s m a d e h e r e .

T h i s G u i d e is o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of s i t e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s for l o w - c o s t w a t e r s u p p l i e s , i . e . in g e n e r a l
handpuiriped w e l l s . In p r a c t i c a l terras it m e a n s t h a t t h e d e p t h
of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c a n b e l i m i t e d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0
m e t r e s . I n v e s t i g a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s m a y b e m o r e e x t e n s i v e and
c o s t l y w h e n w a t e r is n e e d e d in r e g i o n s w h e r e t h e w a t e r t a b l e
is b e l o w t h e r e a c h of h a n d p u m p s . T h i s n a y o c c u r in m a n y of
the dry pastoral areas which face the need for more
s u b s t a n t i a l w a t e r v o l u m e s for l i v e s t o c k .

A w i d e r a n g e of m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g i e s h a v e m a d e p o s s i b l e t h e
exploration and exploitation of groundwater sources
p r e v i o u s l y u n k n o w n or j u d g e d i n a c c e s s i b l e and u n u s a b l e . In
the last q u a r t e r - c e n t u r y , s y s t e m a t i c g r o u n d w a t e r e x p l o r a t i o n
h a s b e e n t h e p r e s e r v e of a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of s p e c i a l i z e d
consultancy firms, whose ranks are gradually increasing.
T h i s d o c u m e n t w i l l a s s i s t in b r i n g i n g a b o u t a g r e a t e r
application and diffusion of specialized well-siting
t e c h n i q u e s t o w a r d s local g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c i e s and l o c a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n s in t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r .

It is h o p e d t h a t t h i s r e p o r t f a c i l i t a t e s t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g
concerning cost-effective implementation of g r o u n d w a t e r
exploration techniques in C o m m u n i t y W a t e r S u p p l y ( C M S )
p r o j e c t s . T e c h n i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l d e t a i l s have been kept
to a m i n i m u m s i n c e t h e s e a r e d e a l t w i t h e x t e n s i v e l y in a
g r e a t n u m b e r of p r o f e s s i o n a l p u b l i c a t i o n s , t h e m o s t r e l e v a n t
of w h i c h a r e l i s t e d in t h e S e l e c t e d L i t e r a t u r e .

GrpundwuUr Survey (K) Ltd 1 Well S i t i n g Guide

 Contents

Preface

1 Introduction

2 The O c c u r r e n c e of Groundwater 7
2.1 The H y d r o l o g i e s ! Cycle 7
2.2 Aquifers 9
2.3 Water Quality 11
2.4 Well Hydraulics 12

3 Well Siting for Low-Cost Water Supplies 14

3.1 Successful Siting 14
3.2 Well-Siting Techniques 15
Inventory of existing data 16
Remote Sensing Interpretation 17
Hydroqeologi cal Fieldworl: 19
Geophysical Fieldworl; 20
Exploratory Drilling 23
3.3 Feasibility of Well'siting 28

4 Case Studies 32
4.1 Accelerated Drought Relief Prograiume, Zimbabwe 32
4.2 Rural Domestic Water Supply and Sanitation
P r o g r a m m e , Kenya 41
4.3 Rural Water Supply Programme, Nigeria 46
4.4 Rural Water Supplies Development P r o j e c t , Kenya 53

Notes 58

Index 60

Appendices Al
Appendix 1: Aquifer Types and P r o p e r t i e s A2
Appendix 2: Geophysical Well Siting Techniques A8
Appendix 3: Well Construction and Completion A15
Appendix 4: Selected Literature A16

GrcundMater Survey (K) Ltd Hell Siting Guide

 Figures

F i g u r e 1 Flow diagram for a calibrated r e c h a r g e - r u n o f f

s i m u l a t i o n in Z i m b a b w e 8
F i g u r e 2 P o r o s i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y and s p e c i f i c y i e l d a 5 a
•function of g r a i n s i z e 11
F i g u r e 3 The q r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e a r o u n d a p u m p e d well 13
F i g u r e 4 R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n p u m p i n g lift e n d d i s c h a r g e r a t e s 14
F i g u r e 5 Well s i t i n g f l o w c h a r t with hand d r i l l i n g 26
F i g u r e 6 Well s i t i n g f l o w c h a r t with g e o p h y s i c s 27
F i g u r e 7 E f f e c t i v e cost of a s u c c e s s f u l b o r e h o l e u s i n g
different siting techniques 33
F i g u r e 8 A e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n 1: G e n e r a l
d e t a i l s p r e s e n t on t h e air p h o t o 36
Figure 9 Aeriel photograph interpretation Potential
borehole sitee 37
F i g u r e 10 B o r e h o l e s i t i n g w i t h R e s i s t i v i t y S o u n d i n g s 39
F i g u r e 11 B o r e h o l e s i t i n g w i t h E H and R e s i s t i v i t y 40
F i g u r e 12 S c h e m a t i c l a y o u t of t h e g e o p h y s i c a l s u r v e y at
Ortibooe S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l 42
F i g u r e 13 R e s i s t i v i t y a n d E h p r o f i l e s at O m b o g a S c h o o l 43
F i g u r e 14 R e s i s t i v i t y s o u n d i n g s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d b o r e h o l e
l o c a t i o n at O m b o g a S c h o o l 43
F i g u r e 15 H y d r o g e o l o g i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n s i n t e r p r e t e d from
the geophysical data 44
F i g u r e 16 P r e l i m i n a r y S i t e I n v e s t i g a t i o n R e p o r t e n d S i t e
Recommendation Form 47
F i g u r e 17 E x a m p l e of a R e s i s t i v i t y s o u n d i n g 4B
F i g u r e 18 E x a m p l e of E M / R S d a t a for M a s a y a , N i g e r i a 50
F i g u r e 19 S i t e d e s c r i p t i o n b a s e d on g e o p h y s i c a l s u r v e y in
B o r e h o l e C o m p l e t i o n R e p o r t f o r liasaya, N i g e r i a 51
F i g u r e 2 0 Two s a m p l e seismograros 54
F i g u r e 21 S e i s m i c r e c o r d f o r S e g a V i l l a g e w a t e r s u p p l y 55
F i g u r e 2 2 Seisniic r e c o r d at K a l a l a m i P r i m a r y S c h o o l 55
F i g u r e 2 3 S c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of a R e s i s t i v i t y S o u n d i n g A8
F i g u r e 2 4 S c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of S e i s m i c R e f r a c t i o n M e t h o d A9

Tables
Table 1 P o r o s i t i e s Df c o m m o n r o c k t 11
Table 2 S u i t a b i l i t y of c o m m o n g e o p h y s i c a l m e t h o d s in
different hydrogeological environments 23
Table 3 S u c c e s s r a t e s for s i t i n g t e c h n i q u e s 32
Table 4 A p p r o p r i a t e g e o p h y s i c a l s i t i n g t e c h n i q u e s for
different geomorphological Basement environments 36
Table 5 C o m p a r i s o n of r e s u l t s and d r i l l i n g cost of
e x i s t i n g and p r o g r a m m e b o r e h o l e s 45
Table 6 B r e a k d o w n of c o s t s f o r q r o u n d w a t e r s u r v e y s 45
Table 7 D r i l l i n g r e s u l t s of t h e Rural W a t e r S u p p l i e s
Programme, K B P D State 49
Table 8 B o r e h o l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s sited w i t h a n d
without Seismic Refraction 55
Table 9 C o m p a r i s o n of d i f f e r e n t d r i l l i n g t e c h n i q u e s A17

6rouridxater Survey (K) Ltd Well Siting Buttle

 Introduction

It i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t a b o u t 1 8 0 0 m i l l i o n p e o p l e i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s o f
t h e w o r l d d o n o t h a v e a c c e s s t o p o t a b l e w a t e r of a d e q u a t e q u a l i t y and
quantity1*. T h e p r o v i s i o n o f s a f e and r e l i a b l e w a t e r f o r t h e s e p e o p l e
i s t h e g o a l s e t for t h e c u r r e n t U n i t e d N a t i o n s W a t e r and S a n i t a t i o n
Decade. Given t h e m a s s i v e financial r e s o u r c e s which ere needed for
t h i s s c a l e of u n d e r t a k i n g , s i g n i f i c a n t p r o g r e s s in m e e t i n g t h e s t a t e d
g o a l c a n o n l y b e a c h i e v e d b y l o w - c o s t , s u s t a i n a b l e and r e p l i c a b l e w a t e r
development strategies.

G r o u n d w a t e r i s o n e of t h e b e s t s o u r c e s o f d r i n k i n g w a t e r . It i s
g e n e r a l l y free from b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l p o l l u t i o n , it h a s a n a l m o s t
c o n s t a n t q u a l i t y a n d t e m p e r a t u r e a n d it i s a v a i l a b l e in large
quantities2. Given t h e limited financial and human resources a
d e c e n t r a l i z e d and l o w - c o s t approach t o provide drinking water with
handpump-equipped wells is t h e most suitable f o r wide-spread
a p p l i c a t i o n i n r u r a l a r e a s . In r e c e n t y e a r s p u m p i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s h a v e
u n d e r g o n e e x t e n s i v e s c r u t i n y t o f a c i l i t a t e low-cost local m a n u f a c t u r e ,
operation, and maintenance (Arlosoroff et a l . , 1 9 6 7 ) . Similarly,
l o w - c o s t hand d r i l l i n g and d i g g i n g m e t h o d s h a v e been e x p l o r e d , with an
emphasis on sustainable and replicable operating procedures
<Blankwaardt 1984, D H V 1978).

O n e a s p e c t o f l o w - c o s t c o m m u n i t y w a t e r s u p p l i e s ( C W S ) w h i c h h a s s o far
received little attention, but is equally important to making CWS
successful e n d k e e p i n g t h e i r c o s t s d o w n , i s t h a t Df g r o u n d w a t e r
e x p l o r a t i o n o r "well s i t i n g ' . T h e p r o p e r l o c a t i o n o r s i t i n g of a w e l l
c a n s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e t h e s u c c e s s a n d r e d u c e t h e c o s t of a C W S
programme. A systematic hydrogeological i n v e s t i g a t i o n of a p r o p o s e d
p r o j e c t area should help t o avoid u n s u c c e s s f u l w e l l s and m i n i m i z e the
d e p t h of r e q u i r e d d r i l l i n g or d i g g i n g . P a r t i c u l a r l y where the only
option is t o use e x p e n s i v e m a c h i n e d r i l l i n g , such i n v e s t i g a t i o n s can
lead t o s u b s t a n t i a l s a v i n g s in the d r i l l i n g c o s t , w h i c h m o r e than cover
t h e c o s t of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o c e d u r e and t h u s r e d u c e s t h e o v e r a l l
cost per w e l l .

This report proposes a systematic approach to groundwater invest-

i g a t i o n s , s o a s t o p l a c e w e l l s i t i n g f i r m l y w i t h i n t h e r e a c h of l o w -
c o s t C W S a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h i s s t u d y h a s , a s a b a s e , a n i n v e n t o r y of
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 C W S p r o j e c t s , m a i n l y in A f r i c a , a n d f o c u s e s o n t h e u s e
of w e l l - s i t i n g t e c h n i q u e s for l o w - c o s t r u r a l w a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e
i n v e n t o r y , w h i c h w a s c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e R u r a l W a t e r
S u p p l y H a n d p u m p s P r o j e c t o f t h e W o r l d B a n k , c o n s i s t e d of s e n d i n g out
detailed questionnaires to numerous organizations and consultants

* Literature references fDund in brackets in the text are listed in Appendix 4: Selected
Literature. References referred to by nuibers are listed under 'Notes* on page 57.

Groundwater Survey <K) Ltd 4 Hell Sitino Euide

 involved in rural water-supply projects. Their experience in the -field
demonstrated which particular methods to use and which to avoid. These
lessons were •further compared end contrasted with the established
literature and are reported in Volume I o-f this study: Inventory of
Well Siting Methods. The general guidelines presented here are
primarily based on this inventory. Four case studies have been
selected and ere described in Chapter 4.

Only recently has well siting become more important to rural water-
supply projects. In the past the location of well sites did not need
hydrogeological investiations of groundwater occurrence. Rural
corcmunities usually settled near a known supply of surface or shallow
groundwater. Many cultures also used traditional knowledge for the
siting Df oroundwater supplies end for well digging. However, with
increased population pressures, increased settlement in marginal
regions, pollution of existing surface water supplies and the expansion
of economic activity, available water resources in many areas have
become inadequate and n e w , and often much deeper, potable water
supplies have to be tapped.

Tens of thousands of handpuuiped wells have been constructed in recent

years and hundreds of thousands more are planned to meet the large and
growing demand for safe water. The implementation of such water-supply
schemes needs to accomodate existing economic and technical constraints
and opportunities which apply to groundweter development activities.
This also applies to the exploration phase. Deciding on the need for
and method(s) of site investigation requires careful consi deration.
Depending on the local circumstances, detailed groundwater exploration
methods ffiay be superfluous and costly, while in other situations the
use of expensive and sophisticated equipment may lead to considerable
savings for the overall project or programme in terms of time, effort,
and cost per wel1.

Ideally, all groundwater development should be preceded by proper

hydrogeological exploration to locate the optimum amount of ground-
water. In many areas the construction of wells has proceeded without
detailed insight into the hydrogeological conditions which determine
the presence and location Df groundwater and has mainly been based Dn
user convenience (distance to site, ownership of plot, e t c . ) . Under
favourable conditions water has Dften been struck despite the lack of
proper investigation. However, expanding water demand, especially in
marginal areas, necessitates increasingly the application and proper
use of groundwater investigation techniques.

Groundwater exploration is a cumulative process of gathering data Dn

the presence of groundwater. It can be describe-d as various levels of
jnvest i gati on:

Level 1: Inventory Df existing data

Level 2: Remote sensing interpretation
Level 3: Hydrogeological fieldwork
Level 4: Geophysical survey
Level 5; Exploratory drilling

Each level builds on the information obtained at the previous level and
provides additional detail Dn the local hydrogeological situation. The
level of investigation required in a proposed project area depends on
the data which is obtained at the initial levels. Dften the inventory

6round*ater Survey (K) Ltd 5 Hell Siting Guide

 of e x i s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n can g i v e a g o o d i m p r e s s i o n of t h e a m o u n t of
a d d i t i o n a l d e t a i l n e e d e d for s u c c e s s f u l w e l l siting, Evidently, more
d e t a i l e d i n-f o r m a t i o n and i n v e s t i g a t i o n is r e q u i r e d in an a r e a w h e r e
p r e v i o u s b o r e h o l e s u c c e s s r a t e s h a v e b e e n low t h a n w h e r e p l e n t i f u l
g r o u n d w a t e r at s h a l l o w d e p t h a p p e a r s t o b e p r e s e n t .

At t h e s a m e t i m e , to d e t e r m i n e to w h i c h level t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o u l d
be c e r r i e d o u t , s c o s t - b e n e f i t c o m p a r i s o n of e x p l o r a t i o n c o s t and t h e
reduction in d r i l l i n g c o s t s is r e q u i r e d . E a c h s u b s e q u e n t level of
i n v e s t i g a t i o n n a t u r a l l y a d d s to t h e c o s t of t h e e x p l o r a t i o n p h a s e and
t h u s to t h e total c o s t s of t h e w e l l to b e c o n s t r u c t e d . At a c e r t a i n
p o i n t t h e i n c r e a s e in e x p l o r a t i o n c o s t s c a n n o t be j u s t i f i e d by a
marginal i n c r e a s e in d r i l l i n g s u c c e s s . T h e n e e d for s p e n d i n g on
g r o u n d w a t e r e x p l o r a t i o n d e p e n d s , h o w e v e r , not o n l y on a p r o j e c t - w i d e
t e c h n i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l a p p r a i s a l , but s h o u l d a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d in a
w i d e r r e g i o n a l Dr e v e n n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . Socio-economic p l a n n i n g and
p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s may a l s o need to be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd Nell Siting Euide

 2 Tha Occurrence of Broundwatcr

2.1 The HydrolDgical Cycle

The movement o-f water through the v a r i o u s stages Df t h e hydrol ogi cal
cycle le, as r a i n f a l l , e v a p o t r a n s p i r e t i o n , runoff and groundwater flow,
determines t h e presence end availability of o r o u n d w a t e r . Knowledge of
the movement o-f water above ground can often f a c i l i t a t e t h e understand-
ing of groundweter availability end movement in investigation areas.
Climate is a major f a c t o r , but other f a c t o r s also play an important
role in the formation of oroundwater r e s e r v o i r s , e.g. t o p o g r a p h y , soil
c o n d i t i o n s , vegetation and human a c t i v i t i e s . Looking at these elements
in a project area provides a first impression of t h e likelihood of
finding sufficient amounts of g r o u n d w a t e r . Usually only a small
fraction of rainwater ends up es g r o u n d w a t e r . The complexity of t h e
interaction of t h e many e l e m e n t s involved in this relationship is
illustrated by a simplified flow diagram in Figure 1, which was used to
calculate the average annual recharge from rainwater to groundwater
storage for the project described by Case Study i (see Chapter 4 ) .
This gives not only an impression of the p o s s i b l e groundwater
a v a i l a b i l i t y ) but can also be used to e s t i m a t e maximum allowable
abstraction.

The diagram shows that rainwater first h a s to pass through t h e

unsaturated soi 1 -fr<oi sture z o n e , which in many of t h e less humid
tropical e n v i r o n m e n t s is in a constant state of d e f i c i t , because it is
continually being depleted by evaporation from t h e soil surface and
abstraction of water through t h e plant roots for growth and
transpiration p u r p o s e s . When t h e rainfall in an area is less than t h e
soil Btoisture d e f i c i t , r e c h a r g e occurs only through the larger spaces
and cracks in the s o i l , where the molecular forces of the soil
particles are too weak tD hold t h e water.

Runoff is naturally related to r a i n f a l l . A n a l y s i s of the relationship

between the t w o is a useful tool to e s t i m a t e t h e potential groundweter
availability. By measuring t h e amount and intensity of r a i n f a l l , both
temporally and s p a t i a l l y , t h e total amount Df water entering a
catchment can be calculated. When the measured <or e s t i m a t e d ) losses
through runoff and e v e p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n a r e s u b t r a c t e d , an estimate of
the amount of groundwater r e c h a r g e can be m a d e . Measurement of runoff
et several points before t h e catchment outlet allows direct seepage
from the stream channel to groundwater to be e s t i m a t e d , which can
contribute substantially to groundwater r e c h a r g e .

Groundwster Survey (K) Ltd 7 Hell Siting Guide

 ;:•:;.: R A I N F A L L ••;::-:-!-3

POTENTIAL

..;•. DIRECT- ••.•!

• • • HUN OFF • •;

::: " S U R F A C E D E T E N T I O N 1 •••••• ' (none)

ACTUAL

INFILTRATION CAPACITY
200 mm/month

FRACTION OF DIRECT RECHARGE

w
1
(max deficit 200mm)

T
FRACTION OF INTERFUW
50% SI:- -PUN OFFy. .,:.•••!

("YADp
• • : : :
:
: - : : : : : :

STORAGE•' V
i

ABSTRACTtON' AND .
f

Figure 8.1 Flow diogrom for recharge - run off simulation model
RUN ^ 11

Figure 1 Flow diagram -for A c a l i b r a t e d recharge-runo-ff s i m u l a t i o n in

Zimbabwe (after H y d r o t e c h n i c a , 1985)

GrouriSwater Survey (K) Ltd Siting Guide

 Although potential aquifers sre found i r>. many parts of t h e arid and
semi-arid w o r l d , r e c h a r g e may not b e sufficient to keep pace with
growing d e m a n d . For e x a m p l e , in some parts of t h e Sahara and Sahel
large g r c u n d w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a r e available which were formed during
wetter clicatic c o n d i t i o n s . Significant recharge to these a q u i f e r s no
longer t a k e s place in present t i m e s . Should these r e s o u r c e s be
exploited on a large s c a l e , water e x t r a c t i o n would resemble a mining
operation where the r e s o u r c e is not r e n e w a b l e . Box 1 i l l u s t r a t e s how,
in t h e o r y , with limited r e c h a r g e (1'/. of r a i n f a l l ) a relative small area
can p r o v i d e an adequate amount of water for handpump abstracti on.

Box 1 1
Recharge Example

Ass-uniing s hypothetical area with average annual r a i n f a l l

(Pi of 5 0 0 M <0.5«> of which only 1 Dercent recharges '.I)
oroundweter. A well with a handpuep from which SGi 10»3
per day i s abstracted every day of the yesr, reauireE an
area with a iSiaseter (Ri of approximately 500 »eters to
ensure adequate annual recharpe:

fi - annual rechsrqe per i 2 P« 1 = 0.5 x O.Oi

0.005 ft

B - annual abstraction B x 365 = 3650 • '

C - srea required for recharge B/ fi = 3650 / 0.005

730 000 t 2

D - expressed as radius of circle R = S8R (C/PI)

(730000/3.14)"0-8
482 •

In r e a l i t y , h o w e v e r , o t h e r v a r i a b l e s e f f e c t i n g t h e f l o w o f g r o u n d w a t e r
ere m o r e i m p o r t a n t in d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r or not a d e q u a t e g r o u n d w a t e r
f u p p ) i t s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r handpurop a b s t r a c t i o n . These variables
mainly concern the structure of soils and subsurface rocks.

2.2 Aquifers

In a g o o d a q u i f e r t h e w a t e r - b e a r i n g r o c k D r soil m a t r i x h a s o p e n s p a c e s
or p o r e s l a r g e e n o u g h t o t r a n s m i t w a t e r t o w a r d t h e w e l l s at t h e
r e q u i r e d r a t e of a b s t r a c t i o n , t h o u g h n o t all g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s
w h i c h a r e s a t u r a t e d w i t h w a t e r a r e a q u i f e r s . A l a y e r Df c l a y w i t h a
p o r o s i t y of 6 0 p e r c e n t h a s a l a r g e w a t e r - h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y , b u t d u e t o
the strong bonding between the clay and water m o l e c u l e s , water cannot
move freely through the tiny open spaces. The water yielding capacity
of a n a q u i f e r is identified b y t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e rock
m a t r i x : p o r o s i t y , perfceabi1ity , and specific yield.

Grcundwater Survey IK) Ltd Mel 1 Siting Guide

 Porosity The p o r o s i t y of a w a t e r - b e e r i n g f o r m a t i o n i s de-fined a s
the r a t i o b e t w e e n the v o l u m e of open s p a c e a n d t h e total
vciluiiie of t h e rock. It s e r v e s a s an index of h o w much
g r o u n d w a t e r t h e o r e t i c a l l y can b e stored in t h e f o r m a t i o n
under s a t u r a t e d c o n d i t i o n s . For e x a m p l e if 1 ro3 of sand
c o n t a i n s 0.3 m 3 of open s p a c e , its p o r o s i t y is 30/1.
Table 1 g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n Df the p o r o s i t i e s of some
c o m m o n rock t y p e s .

Table 1 Porosities of common rocks (Driscoll, 1986)

Uoconsolidated Sediments *(%) Consolidated Rocks «(%)

Clay 45-55 Sandstone 5-30
Silt 35-50 Limestone/dolomite (original &
Sand 25-40 secondary porosity 1-20
Gravel 25-40 Shale 0-10
Sand & gravel mixes 10-35 Fractured crystalline rock 0-10
Glacial till 10-25 Vesicular basalt 10-50
Dense, solid rock <1

Perneability T h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of s S D i l or r o c k t y p e i s d e t e r m i n e d b y
the interconnectivity of t h e pore space. It i s a
m e a s u r e f o r t h e e a s e at w h i c h t h e w a t e r c a n f l o w t h r o u g h
the r o c k s . S o m e soil a n d r o c k t y p e s m a y h a v e h i g h
p o r o s i t i e s , but when the pores are not interconnected,
they a r e impermeable (e.g. pumice). Similarly, clay,
despite its high porosity, is quite impermeable. T h e
t r a n s m i s s i v i t y of an aquifer i s an almost s y n o n y m o u s
term which denotes the permeability (K) multiplied by
t h e t h i c k n e s s (d) of t h e a q u i f e r (T = K * d ) .

S p e c i f i c Y i e l d T h e e a s e w i t h w h i c h w a t e r i s r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e p o r e s in
an a q u i f e r d e p e n d s o n t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y a n d a l s o o n t h e
adhesion between the water m o l e c u l e s and t h e host rock.
T h i s i s d i f f e r e n t f o r v a r i o u s t y p e s of r o c k m a t e r i a l ;
for e x a m p l e , s a t u r a t e d s e n d a n d g r a v e l will r e l e a s e m o r e
w a t e r t h a n a s i m i l a r v o l u m e of s a t u r a t e d c l a y , w h i c h
although having a much higher p o r o s i t y , binds the water
more strongly. T h e r a t i o of t h e v o l u m e o f w a t e r
r e l e a s e d p e r u n i t v o l u m e Df r o c k i s c a l l e d t h e s p e c i f i c
yield.

T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p o r o s i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y , and* s p e c i f i c y i e l d i s
illustrated f o r v a r i o u s s e d i m e n t p a r t i c l e s i r e s in F i g u r e 2 . T h e
o b j e c t of p r o u n d w a t e r investigations is to locate those formations
which have t h e most advantageous hydraulic p r o p e r t i e s , i.e. larger
porosity, good permeability end a high specific yield. The best
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are often encountered in recent sediments w h e r e little
c o m p a c t i o n h e s o c c u r r e d a n d m u c h of t h e o r i g i n a l l o o s e s t r u c t u r e of
deposition i s still p r e s e n t . H o w e v e r , given the r e l a t i v e l y small

Groundwater Survev (K) Ltd 10 Well Siting Guide

 abstraction requirements of handpumped wells ^generally less than 2
(n3/h) c e r t a i n consolidated s e d i m e n t s , v o l c a n i c s , as well a s weathered
and f r a c t u r e d bedrock rones c a n usually also provide suitable
abstraction potential. T h e a q u i f e r p o t e n t i a l o f t h e m a j o r reel; t y p e s
it. d e s c r i b e d i n m o r e d e t a i l i n A p p e n d i x i .

100

Grainsize in mm

Figure 2 Porosity, perm-eabi 1 ity and specific yield as a

function of grain size (Blankwaardt, 1984)

H a n d p u m p e d w e l l s u s u a l l y d e r i v e t h e i r w a t e r f r o m r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w and
unconfined aquifers. In s o m e s i t u a t i o n s t h e h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e ,
c a u s e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e Df c o n f i n i n g layers above the principal water-
b e a r i n g z o n e , m a y s u f f i c i e n t l y r a i s e t h e w a t e r level a b o v e t h e i n i t i a l
s t r u c k level t o e r e s t or s t a t i c w a t e r level w i t h i n t h e r e a c h of a
handpump. T h i s i s u s u a l l y n o t e v i d e n t f r o m s u r f a c e i n d i c a t i o n s and i s
difficult to determine with hydrogeological and geophysical
investigations.

2.3 Water Quality

A proper h y d r o Q e o l o g i c e l k n o w l e d g e of t h e project region i s important

to u n d e r s t a n d local water quality properties and variations. T h e
neology, type and location of an aquifer c a n strongly affect t h e
groundwater quality. Groundwater may b e chemically and biologically
polluted by a number of geological and human factors which render it
u n s u i t a b l e for d i r e c t h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n .

E x c e s s i v e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e in volcenic and basement rock

environments, where the rock material i s phvsically and chemically
unstable and dissolves easily in t h e available groundweter.

Sroundviater Survey (K) Ltd 11 Well Sitino Guide

 C o n n a t e w a t e r i& w a t e r t r a p p e d in s e d i m e n t s at t h e t i m e of t h e i r
d e p o s i t i o n . U s u a l l y t h i s is s e a w a t e r w h i c h f i l l e d t h e p o r e s of
marine s e d i m e n t s during their d e p o s i t i o n . Such water can over
time become even more saline than seawater.

In a r i d and se&ii-arid e n v i r o n m e n t s s h a l l o w a q u i f e r s may b e c o m e

s a l i n e d u e to e v a p o r a t i o n , w h e r e b y t h e r e m a i n i n g water will
c o n t a i n i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of d i s s o l v e d s a l t s .

In a r e a s of d e n s e p o p u l a t i o n or i n d u s t r i a l activity, human and

animal w a s t e way c o n t a m i n a t e shallow a q u i f e r s .

T h e W o r l d H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n h a s p u b l i s h e d a l i s t of g u i d e l i n e s w i t h
m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of p o t e n t i a l p o l l u t a n t s to w h i c h
d r i n k i n g w a t e r s h o u l d c o n f o r m for h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n ( W H O , 1 9 8 4 ) .

2.4 Well Hydraulics

G r o u n d w a t e r m o v e s , in p r i n c i p l e , just l i k e s u r f a c e w a t e r f r o m a h i g h
e n e r g y l e v e l tD a l o w e r e n e r g y l e v e l . W h e r e w a t e r is u n c o n f i n e d
i.e., under atmospheric pressure c o n d i t i o n s , the gravity difference
w i l l b e t h e c a u s e Df s u c h w a t e r m o v e m e n t . Where permeability is p o o r
t h e f l o w v e l o c i t y will be s m a l l e r t h a n w h e n t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y is g o o d .

Consider radial f l o w of g r o u n d w a t e r to a p u m p e d w e l l : t h e l e v e l of t h e
g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e a r o u n d t h e w e l l d r o p s u n t i l it r e a c h e s a p o i n t w h e r e
the gradient in t h e w a t e r t a b l e b e c o m e s s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e , so as t o
i n c r e a s e t h e v e l o c i t y end a m o u n t of t h e g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w to t h e w e l l ,
s u c h t h a t it r e a c h e s e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h t h e a m o u n t a b s t r a c t e d by t h e
p u m p . If t h e a q u i f e r is l i m i t e d , t h i s e q u i l i b r i u m n a y not be a c h i e v e d
and t h e w e l l will be p u m p e d d r y . T h e e x t e n t of t h i s d r o p in t h e w a t e r
l e v e l at t h e well lor d r a w d o w n ) is s i g n i f i c a n t for t h e c h o i c e Df p u m p
w h i c h will be i n s t a l l e d in t h e w e l l .

S u c c e s s in well s i t i n g c a n o n l y be d e t e r m i n e d by t e s t p u m p i n g . This
a s s e s s e s w h e t h e r t h e w e l l will p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e q u a n t i t i e s of w a t e r .
By p e r i o d i c a l l y m e a s u r i n g t h e d r a w d o w n w h i l e p u m p i n g at a c o n s t a n t r a t e
u n t i l e q u i l i b r i u m is r e a c h e d , t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y of t h e a q u i f e r can be
estimated. If, in a d d i t i o n , m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e t a k e n in o n e or m o r e
n e a r b y o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e c o n e of d e p r e s s i o n , t h e
c a l c u l a t e d t r e n s r a i s s i v i t y b e c o m e s m o r e r e l i a b l e and t h e g r o u n d w a t e r
s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y Df t h e a q u i f e r can be c a l c u l a t e d . Drawdown c u r v e s can
a l s o s h e w ' if t h e a q u i f e r is h c f t o q e n e o u s ( f l o w c o n d i t i o n s c o n s t a n t
t h r o u g h o u t t h e a q u i f e r ) or if i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s , s u c h as w a t e r - b e a r i n g
j o i n t s and f r a c t u r e s or imperiseable l a y e r s a r e e n c o u n t e r e d ( K r u s e m a n
end d e R i d d e r , 1 9 7 0 ) . '

A s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n of s u c h t e s t i n g is o f t e n s u f f i c i e n t for h a n d p u w p
a b s t r a c t i o n and can be u n d e r t a k e n by f i t t i n g a s u i t a b l e p u m p on t h e
well and m e a s u r i n g t h e y i e l d and t h e d r a w d o w n o v e r a p e r i o d of s e v e r a l
h o u r s of i n t e n s e p u m p i n g t o s e e t h e w e l l m e e t s t h e r e q u i r e d d i s c h a r g e
criteria <B1enkwaardt, 19B4>.

Sroundwater Survey (K) Ltd 12 Hell Siting Guide

 A s e c o n d c r i t e r i o n for a s u c c e s s f u l well is t h e q u a l i t y of t h e w a t e r ,
T h i s can b e m e a s u r e d w i t h an e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y ( E C ) m e t e r by
p r e f e r e n c e at t h e end of the test puitiping. When e x p l o r i n g an u n k n o w n
a q u i f e r , s a m p l e s s h o u l d as a r u l e b e t a k e n and sent for a full c h e m i c a l
and bacteriological analysis t o ensure compliance with t h e national
s t a n d a r d s a n d t h e W H Ogui deli n e s a s d e s c r i b e d in t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n .

Radius of influence
Static level
_"ST =

Drawdown
Cone of depression
-Pumping level

Figure 3 T h e g r D u n d w a t e r t a b l e a r o u n d a p u l p e d well
(Blankwaardt, 1984)

Under n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s t h e d i a m e t e r Df t h e w e l l b o r e is of much l e s s
i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e y i e l d of t h e well than t h e l e n g t h over w h i c h t h e well
p e n e t r a t e s t h e a q u i f e r . H o w e v e r , i n a q u i f e r s of p o o r p e r m e a b i l i t y , a n
i n c r e a s e in t h e well d i a m e t e r i n c r e a s e s t h e well s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y . T h i s
can s e r v e a s 3 b u f f e r s u p p l y w h i c h will r e f i l l w h e n t h e p u « p i s not
o p e r a t i ng.

The very b a s i c d e s c r i p t i o n on t h e o c c u r r e n c e of g r o u n d w a t e r
g i v e n in t h i s c h a p t e r is m e a n t o n l y t o p r o v i d e t h e l a y m a n -
r e a d e r s o m e b a c k g r o u n d n e c e s s a r y for t h e d i s c u s s i o n in t h e
next c h a p t e r s . S o m e f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n of a q u i f e r t y p e s a n d
h y d r a u l i c p r o p e r t i e s is g i v e n in A p p e n d i x 1, albeit still at
a very e l e m e n t a r y l e v e l .

For a n y f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of all g r o u n d w a t e r
r e l a t e d p h e n o m e n a t h e r e a d e r is r e f e r r e d t o t h e e x c e l l e n t
h a n d b o o k s w h i c h h a v e been listed in t h e S e l e c t e d L i t e r a t u r e
(fippendi >: 4) and many p u b l i c a t i o n s l i s t e d i n t h e R e f e r e n c e s
of V o l u m e I.

Groundnater Survey (K) Ltd 13 Well Siting Guide

 3 Well Siting for Low-Cost Water

3.1 Successful Siting

The o b j e c t i v e of e s i t e i nvesti oati on i s t o cain s. proper under s t a n d i n g

of t h e o c c u r r e n c e of g r o u n d w a t e r in t h e p r o j e c t a r e a . It i & i m p o r t a n t
that well sites a r e c h o s e n p r i n c i p a l l y on h y d r o g e D l o g i c a l g r o u n d s t o
h a v e t h e g r e a t e s t c h a n c e of o b t a i n i n g an a d e q u a t e yield. ft successful
b o r e h o l e is o n e w h o s e yield and water q u a l i t y satisfy t h e needs of B
particular oroject. Compared to engine-driven pumps, handpumps have a
low yield. T h e r e q u i r e d l i f t , i.e. t h e h e i g h t to which t h e water h a s
to b e pulped to t h e s u r f a c e a l s o a f f e c t s t h e m a x i m u m p o s s i b l e y i e l d .
The a c h i e v a b l e r a t e of d i s c h a r g e will b e less when t h e required lift is
g r e a t e r , a s i l l u s t r a t e d in t h e graph b e l o w . Given t h e limited
d i s c h a r g e p o s s i b l e with hendpuitsps, g r D u n d w a t e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s should
f o c u s not only on l o c a t i n g a d e q u a t e q u a n t i t i e s of w a t e r , but also on
f i n d i n g s i t e s with nii ni mum lift r e q u i r e m e n t s and with s u f f i c i e n t
p e r m e a b i l i t y to m i n i m i z e water t a b l e d r a w d o w n , In g e n e r a l , and a s
i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 4 , a r a n g e of 2.0 cubic m e t e r s per hour (m'/h)
from s h a l l o w a q u i f e r s t o 0.5m 3 / h for high l i f t s are r e a s o n a b l e y i e l d s
for h a n d p u m p a b s t r a c t ! o n . a l t h o u g h in arid e n v i r o n m e n t s u s e r s may
c o n s i d e r less than 0.5 m 3 / h even a c c e p t a b l e .

30
per mini;

25 - 1.5

u
20

15
r V Good

1.0
h i

a
o
2
o
10
0.5
I
f t

—
M
Q
2 5 Unacceptable —ii •,

"Q5 i f 1 1 1 0
o
10 20 30 40 50 60
Lift (meters)

Figure 4 Relation between pumping lift and discharge rates

(Arlosoroff et al., 1V87)

6roundi<ster Survey (K) Ltd 14 Well Sitino Guide

 P r o p e r well s i t e s s h o u l d b e :

f r e e f r o m p o l l u t i o n of animal and h u m a n w a s t e ;

p r o t e c t e d from t h e risk of f l o o d i n g ;

p r o t e c t e d from e r o s i o n c a u s e d by a n i m a l s ;

w i t h i n e a s y a c c e s s to t h e local community (and for t h e d r i l l i n g

rig).

S i n c e t h e well will u s u a l l y be under t h e c a r e of the local c o m m u n i t y ,

t h e u s e r s ' full a g r e e m e n t should b e s o u g h t for the s i t e l o c a t i o n . This
r e q u i r e s p r o p e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e local c o m m u n i t y on t h e w e l l -
i n v e s t i a t i o n p r o c e s s to avoid p o t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t s r e g a r d i n g o w n e r s h i p ,
o p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e new w e l l ( s ) , 3

3.2 Hell-Siting Techniques

Groundwater exploration has several l e v e l s of i n v e s t i c a t i e n . Eech

level is f u r t h e r d i v i d e d into s e v e r a l a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h complement-and
sometimes overlap each other. Each s u c c e s s i v e level of i n v e s t i g a t i o n
a d d s m o r e d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on the s u b s u r f a c e s i t u a t i o n , but t h i s
gain in knowledge increases t h e c o m p l e x i t y and c o s t of t h e
i n v e s t i gat i o n .

D e p e n d i n g on t h e f i n d i n g s of e a c h p r e v i o u s l e v e l , the h y d r o g e o l o g i s t
h a s t o e v a l u a t e w h e t h e r he h a s e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n Dn w h i c h tD d e c i d e on
a well s i t e or if he n e e d s m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n . To keep the i n v e s t i g a t i o n
c o s t a s low as p o s s i b l e , the h y d r o g e o l o g i s t s h o u l d avoid u n n e c e s s a r y
d e t a i l in t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . At t h e same time, quite Dften,
e x p e n d i t u r e on p r o p e r g r o u n d w a t e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s can r e d u c e t h e t o t a l
cost per well d u e to a h i g h e r s u c c e s s r a t e and a r e d u c t i o n in t h e
r e q u i r e d d e p t h of d r i l l i n g . T h i s a s p e c t will be d i s c u s s e d in m o r e
d e t a i l in s e c t i o n 3 . 3 .

A l o g i c a l and l o w - c o s t a p p r o a c h to well s i t i n g involves the following

c o n s e c u t i v e l e v e l s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n :

Level i: I n v e n t o r y of E x i s t i n g D e t a
Geological Data
H y d r o l o g i c a l and C l i m a t i c D a t a A n a l y s i s
A n a l y s i s of E x i s t i n g Well D a t a

Level 2: Remote Sensing Interpretation

Satellite Imagery
Aerial P h o t o g r a p h y

Level 3: Hydrogeological Fieldwork

Geomorphologieel Analysis
Water P o i n t s I n v e n t o r y and Monitoring
Hydro-Climatic Monitoring

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd 15 Hell Siting Euide

 L e v e l 4: Geophysical Surveying
Electrical Resistivity
Seismic Refraction
Electromagnetic Profiling (EH)
VLF" p r o f i 1 i ng

L e v e l 5: Exploratory Drilling
Hand Drilling
Machine Drilling
Geological Logging
Geophysical Logging
Test Pumping
Water Saspling

A s y s t e m a t i c s t e p - b y - s t e p a p p r o a c h to w e l l s i t i n g f u r n i s h e s t h e m o s t
relevant infDrastion at t h e l o w e s t c o s t and m i n i m i z e s drilling
expenses. W h e n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n p h a s e is s k i p p e d a l t o g e t h e r and
S D - c a l l e d ' w i l d c a t ' ( i . e . r a n d o m ) d r i l l i n g is c a r r i e d out (either due
t o u n f a m i 1 i a r i t y v u t h t h e i n v e s t i g a t e on p r o c e s s or b e c a u s e i n v e s t i g -
a t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o o e x p e n s i v e ) , t h e c h a n c e s of d r i l l i n g a
s u c c e s s f u l w e l l are u s u a l l y s m a l l e r t h a n w i t h p r o p e r h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s in t h e p r o j e c t a r e a .

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , b e c a u s e of u n f a m i 1 i a r i t y of p r o j e c t m a n a g e r s w i t h b a s i c
hydrogeological p r i n c i p l e s , all t o o o f t e n a h i g h - t e c h a p p r o a c h i s
c h o s e n in w h i c h m u c h of t h e f i r s t t h r e e l e v e l s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n is
s k i p p e d or i n a d e q u a t e l y u t i l i z e d a n d o n l y g e o p h y s i c a l t e c h n i q u e s a r e
employed. This means that very useful and i n e x p e n s i v e i n f o r m a t i o n i s
n e g l e c t e d , u n n e c e s s a r i l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e c o s t of w e l l s i t i n g .

A general o v e r v i e w of t h e p u r p o s e of e a c h l e v e l of i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d
their a p p l i c a b i l i t y to p a r t i c u l a r g e o l o g i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t s is d i s c u s s e d
below. T h e d e c i s i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n
n e e d s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t i . e . , t o h o w n a n y l e v e l s and w h e t m e t h o d s a r e
most s u i t a b l e , d e p e n d s on s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t p a r a m e t e r s and f i n a n c e .
Further technical i n f o r i t a t i o n on t h e m o s t c o m m o n g e o p h y s i c a l m e t h o d s
c a n b e f o u n d in A p p e n d i x 2 and in t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

I n v e n t o r y of e x i s t i n g data

A s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t of h i g h l y u s e f u l d a t a c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o p o s e d
C W S p r o j e c t a r e a m a y be a v a i l a b l e f r o m p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s c a r r i e d
out in t h e a r e a by v a r i o u s g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s or p r i v a t e
c o m p a n i e s . T h e r e f o r e , it is o f t e n w o r t h t h e e f f o r t t o tract: d o w n
past geological studies, hydrolooical and c l i m a t i c m o n i t o r i n g ,
d a t a , and, b o r e h o l e record files. The acquisition of such
i n f o r m a t i o n may i n v o l v e some b u r e a u c r a t i c hurdles. In m o s t
countries water-supply projects require government permission;
once this has been obtained permission to use existing government
d a t a is u s u a l l y r e a d i l y g i v e n and at low c o s t . V e r i f i c a t i o n of
e x i s t i n g d a t a in t h e f i e l d is c h e a p e r a n d r e q u i r e s l e s s t i m e t h a n
having to start from the b e g i n n i n g . O n e s i m p l e e x a m p l e is t h e
n e e d for p r o p e r t o p o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n .

Survey (K) Ltd 16 Nell Siting Guide

 In m e d i u m to l a r g e p r o j e c t s , t a r g e t p o p u l a t i o n s , i n-f r e s t r u c t u r e
and a c c e s s r o u t e s , as well as e x i s t i n g water s u p p l i e s and proposed
new well s i t e s s h o u l d be p r o p e r l y i d e n t i f i e d . T h i s is e s s e n t i a l
for the s u c c e s s of a w a t e r - s u p p l y s c h e m e . For this p u r p o s e
a v a i l a b l e t o p o g r a p h i c m a p s at an a p p r o p r i a t e s c a l e can often be
o b t a i n e d from the r e l e v a n t g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t .

Data from e x i s t i n g b o r e h o l e s in the p r o p o s e d p r o j e c t area are of

special i n t e r e s t as they may supply much useful i n f o r m a t i o n on the
g e o l o g y and g r o u n d w a t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , for e x a m p l e where the
a q u i f e r s are l o c a t e d , what the yield and the water g u a l i t y i s , how
much the d r a w d o w n is d u r i n g p u m p i n g and how the g r o u n d w a t e r l e v e l s
f l u c t u a t e over the y e a r . If t h e . d a t a i n d i c a t e r e l a t i v e l y u n i f o r m
and praniisiriQ hydr ooeol O Q J cal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in the p r o j e c t a r e a .
further d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s (nay not even be n e c e s s a r y .

C l i m a t i c and h y d r o l o g i e s ! date, give an i m p r e s s i o n of t h e amount of

r e c h a r g e w h i c h can be e x p e c t e d in t h e p r o j e c t a r e a . Even if no
i nf or (set i on is a v a i l a b l e from b o r e h o l e s in the a r e a , the c h a n c e s
of s t r i k i n g w a t e r in high rainfall a r e a s O S O Q O mm per y e a r ) are
much belter t h a n in dry a r e a s , so that often i n v e s t i o a t i o n l e v e l s
1 - 3 are s u f f i c i e n t for b o r e h o l e l o c a t i o n in t h o s e a r e a s .

The a v a i l a b l e data can u s u a l l y be c o l l e c t e d by an i n s i s t e n t and

p e r s u a s i v e m e m b e r of the p r o j e c t t e a m . The e v a l u a t i o n of the data
r e q u i r e s insight into the h y d r o g e o l o p i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of such
d a t a . R e f e r e n c e can be m a d e to the c o l l e c t e d data t h r o u g h o u t the
i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; for e x a m p l e , g e o l o g i c a l m a p s may be Df help during
the aerial p h o t o g r a p h and s a t e l l i t e i m a g e r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and
e x i s t i n g b o r e h o l e data help c a l i b r a t e g e o p h y s i c a l m e a s u r e m e n t s .

Remote Sensing Interpretation

R e m o t e S e n s i n g in well s i t i n g is a m e t h o d of c o l l e c t i n g i n d i r e c t
i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the o c c u r r e n c e of g r o u n d w a t e r from a i r c r a f t
or s a t e l l i t e s . It c o n c e r n s r e c o r d i n g s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s of the
earth in the v i s i b l e and near v i s i b l e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c wave
r a n g e s . The p r e s e n c e Df g r o u n d w a t e r can be i n f e r r e d from the
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t o p o g r a p h i c a l , v e g e t a t i o n a l and g e o m o r p h o l o g i c a l
f e a t u r e s . The e d v s n t a o e of r e m o t e s e n s i n g lies in the r e l a t i v e l y
cheap and quick o v e r v i e w which can be o b t a i n e d of 3 l a r g e a r e a , by
which main f e a t u r e s of interest to the o c c u r r e n c e of g r o u n d w a t e r
can be i d e n t i f i e d .

S a t e l l i t e i m a g e r y is ideal for o b t a i n i n g e general o v e r v i e w of the

t o p o g r a p h i c and g e o m o r p h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a (large)
project area at the b e g i n n i n g of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o c e s s , the
p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e of w h i c h is to d e f i n e smaller areas as
p r i o r i t y t a r g e t s for m o r e l o c a l i z e d f o l l D w - u p s t u d i e s . The
s a t e l l i t e i m a g e s , w h i c h cover large a r e a s , are e s p e c i a l l y useful
in h i g h l i g h t i n g regional s t r u c t u r e s such as major f a u l t s , w h i c h
are often m e r e d i f f i c u l t to r e c o g n i z e on aerial p h o t o g r a p h s .

S a t e l l i t e i m a g e s can be o b t a i n e d as p r i n t s , film (positive or

n e g a t i v e ) , or c o m p u t e r c o m p a t i b l e t a p e s ( C C T ) . The latter is the
most e x p e n s i v e -format and only used by h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d a g e n c i e s

Broundwater Survey (K) Ltd 17 Hell Siting Guide

 with sophisticated professioriel •computer and p r i n t i n g e q u i p m e n t .
However, prints, negatives, o r slides are quite adequate in most
groundwater investigation projects. Imagery can b e ordered from
catalogues from several distribution c e n t r e s 4 . Interpretation of
the satellite images i s carried out with t r a n s p a r e n c y o v e r l a y s o n
the images, o n which the significant -features are hand drawn and
later transferred t oproject ares maps. Data interpretation will
need t ob e carried out b y 3n experienced h y d r o g e o l o g i s t .

However, satellite image interpretation should never b e the sole

b a s i s for well s i t i n g i n g r o u n d w a t e r e x p l o r a t i o n , s i n c e r e s o l u t i o n
is t o o p o o r for t h e i n d i c a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c sites- Further detail
can b e provided b y aerial p h o t o g r a p h y . Such desk studies should
always b everified b yhydrogeological fieldwork.

Compared t osatellite imagery, aerial photography i s c a r r i e d out

at r e l a t i v e l y l o w altitudes, providing larger-scale images
(usually greater than 1:60 000 a n d p r e f e r a b l y in t h e Drder of
1:25 000 t o 1:12 5 0 0 ) . Vertical aerial photographs are taken in
overlapping series along a flight line, allowing adjacent images
to b e viewed stereoscGpical1y (i.e. three dimensional1y) , which
greatly improves the ease of interpretation. A s with satellite
imagery, t h e features of interest a r e drawn on a transparent
overlay b y the h y d r o g e o l o g i s t . This c r e a t e s a n i n t e r p r e t i v e map of
the project area which highlights regions favourable t o
groundweter occurrence.

Aerial photography i n the context o f grDundwater exploration can

serve two purposes. Primarily it i sused for the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
of f e a t u r e s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i n o c c u r r e n c e o f g r o u n d w a t e r . Through
an a n a l y s i s o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f p h o t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( t o p o g r a p h y ,
lineation, drainage pattern, texture, erosion, tonal variation,
v e g e t a t i o n and land u s e ) , d i f f e r e n t t e r r a i n c o n d i t i o n s and their
boundaries can b e identified. Each element should b e considered
individually a n d in combination t o identify likely signs of
groundwater occurrence. Faults and a s s o c i a t e d f r a c t u r e z o n e s , for
example, form narrow elongated areas o f weakness with the more
solid parent rock and are common areas o f p r e f e r e n t i a l groundwater
accumulation. Erosion and w e a t h e r i n g penetrate more deeply into
these zones, forming long, straight valleys. From aerial
photographs, fault systems can b e identified b y their accompanying
valleys a sdark lineations, due t o increased soil m o i s t u r e and
vegetation density or through sharp discontinuities in the surface
geology.

Secondly; aerial p h o t o g r a p h y may p r o v i d e much needed topographic

and d e m o g r a p h i c information concerning the project area a n d t h e
distribution of the target population Df the planned water-supply
system, especially if n o appropriate topographic maps a r e
available. This will help t o locate the well i n a suitable place
for the local c o m m u n i t y . In the latter c a s e , it i e i m p o r t a n t that
relatively recent pictures b eobtained, since demographic patterns
m a y b e s u b j e c t t o r a p i d c h a n g e . F o r geoitior p h o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n
the age of the photographs is generally n o t significant. For
larger projects it may b ebeneficial and c o s t - e f f e c t i v e t o engage
the services Df a I D C B I company t o acquire a new series of aerial
photographs covering the project area.

Grour.dttiter Survey (K) Ltd IB Hell S i t i n g Guide

 A e r i s 1 p h o t o p r s p h s a r e w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e , c o o p e r a t i v e l y cheap a n d
can b e used for h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t w i t h o u t the need
f or e x p e n s i v e e n d sophi eti caterf e q u i p m e n t . R o u g h , b u t g e n e r a l l y
a d e q u a t e (napping c a n b e d o n e by h a n d . Detailed ortho-topographic
capping requires professional expertise.

Hydrogeoloqical Fieldwork

The o b j e c t i v e of h y d r o g e o l ogi cal f i e l d work i s t o OEE-E&S. t h e

p o t e n t i a l p r e s e n c e o-f g r o u n d w a t e r in t h e u n d e r l y i n g rock by en
e v a l u a t i o n of g r o u n d s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A n u m b e r of useful
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m a y a l r e a d y h a v e b e c o m e e v i d e n t from the t w o
earlier levels of investigation described above. The
hydrogeoloqical fieldwork provides- the opportunity, where
p o s s i b l e , t o c h e c k t h e f i n d i n g s of t h e i n v e n t o r y of e x i s t i n g data
and of t h e r e m o t e s e n s i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in t h e f i e l d . Based u p o n
the -field i n vest i get i on e n d t h e p r e v i o u s l e v e l s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
the p r o j e c t area c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o w a t e r a v a i l a b i l i t y ; o n e s
( h i g h , mediuff: a n d l o w p o t e n t i a l ) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e x p e c t e d
a v a i l a b i l i t y of g r o u n d w a t e r .

When n o i n v e n t o r y of e x i s t i n g d a t a c a n b e m a d e a n d n o rei&ote
sensing material i s a v a i l a b l e , t h e hydrocjeol ogical field check
s h o u l d he u n d e r t a k e n on i t s o w n . In such a cs.se, fieldworl; n e e d s
to be m o r e e x t e n s i v e s i n c e a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w o b t a i n e d froiti t h e
p r e v i o u s l e v e l s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s a b s e n t .

The b a s i c e l e m e n t s t o b e c h e c k e d d u r i n g fieidworl: a r e :

GeDinorphol ogy I d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d conf irmeti Dn (i.e. with r e g a r d

to r e m o t e s e n s i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) of rock a n d soi 1
t y p e s , g e o m e t r y of l a y e r s , d e p t h a n d e x t e n t of
weathering and faulting and fracturing, to identify
potential aquifers and zones of p r e f e r e n t i a l
g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w . W h e r e p o s s i b l e hand d r i l l i n g and
test p u m p i n g a r e c a r r i e d o u t t o a s s e s s s h a l l o w
groundwater occurrence. T h e t o p o g r a p h y should b e
t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , as g m u n d w o t e r f l o w g e n e r a l l y
follows surface topography - significant storage is
m o r e l i k e l y in v a l l e y s t h a n on steep s l o p e s or hill
tope - V e g e t a t i o n cover o f t e n p r o v i d e s i m p o r t a n t
clues concerning geology end (shallow) groundwater.
Erosion material will a c c u m u l a t e in lower a r e a s ,
w e a t h e r i n g will b e m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t and s u r f a c e
r u n o f f will flow t o w a r d d e p r e s s i o n s w h e r e m o r e
i n f i l t r a t i o n c a n b e e x p e c t e d t h a n on s t e e p E l o p e s .

Water A v a i l a b i l i t y T h i s s h o u l d b e seen a s a COIR pi e m e n t t o t h e

i n v e n t o r y of e x i s t i n g w a t e r s o u r c e s c a r r i e d o u t
under i n v e s t i g a t i o n level 1. Field v e r i f i c a t i o n of
w a t e r l e v e l s , y i e l d a n d q u a l i t y of w e l l s , s p r i n g s ,
s e e p a g e s e n d s u r f a c e Woter s o u r c e s a r e s t r o n g l y
recommended for m o r e p r e c i s e and u p - t o - d a t e
information. In a d d i t i o n , local d r a i n a g e end
v e g e t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n p r o v i d e m o r e detail

Greund^ter Survey (K) Ltd 19 Hell Siting Guide

 on p o t e n t i a l s h a l l o w qrounriwater o c c u r r e n c e . In
t h e c a s e of a l a r g e p r o j e c t o r o n - g o i n g p r o g r a m m e
w i t h m a n y p l a n n e d w e l l s it i s r e c o m m e n d e d t h e t a
m o n i t o r i n g networt: o f e x i s t i n g w e l l s b e set u p .
Regular checking D-f w a t e r level and quality
f l u c t u a t i o n s will i m p r o v e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
p r e s e n c e and m o v e m e n t of g r o u n d w a t e r .

Huaan Resources T h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n i s l i k e l y t o k n o w d e t a i l s of
local s u r f a c e and spring-water occurrence end
regime. settlement p a t t e r n s , water r e q u i r e c e n t s ,
present and alternative sources, available inputs
snd p r e f e r r e d well s i t e s . If t h i s i s t h e f i r s t
v i s i t b y t h e s i t i n g t e a m t D t h e p r o j e c t a r e a , it i s
vital that special attention b e paid t o making
contacts within t h e target population, involving
t h e m in t h e well s i t i n g p r o c e d u r e and d e c i s i o n -
making process.

Hydrogeological fieldwork s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d out b y or u n d e r t h e

a u s p i c e s of a t r a i n e d h y d r o g e o l o q i s t . If e n o u g h e v i d e n c e i s f o u n d
of h i g h p o t e n t i a l g r o u n o w s t e r a r e a s a well s i t e m s y b e s e l e c t e d
without t h e need for additional investigations. If p r i m a r i l y
unconsol ideted material i s encountered isuch as river or h i l l - s i d e
d e p o s i t s ) hand drilling is recommended t o locate the optimal well
site (DHV, 1 9 7 8 ; Blankwaardt, 1984). In s i t u a t i o n s where
additional i n v e s t i g a t i o n s are r e q u i r e d , h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l fieldwork
serves as t h e basis f o r s e l e c t i o n of s i t e s f o r d e t a i l e d
geophysical surveys. It i s g e n e r a l l y t o o t i m e c o n s u m i n g a n d
expensive t o cover t h e whole project area s y s t e m a t i c a l l y with
geophysical measurements.

Geophysical Fieldwork

W i t h g e o p h y s i c a l m e t h o d s , p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s Df s u b s u r f a c e r o c k s
are measured. T h e principal a i m of g e o p h y s i c a l f i e l d w o r k i s t o
i n v e s t i g a t e s u b s u r f a c e g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s b y m e a n s pf o b s e r -
v a t i o n s of p h y s i c a l v a r i a b l e s at t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . I n d i r e c t l y
t h i s p r o v i d e s i nf or ttiat i on o n g e o l o g y a n d s t r u c t u r e of t h e
underground,

A large n u m b e r of different techniques a r e available for

g e o p h y s i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , e a c h of w h i c h h a s s p e c i f i c a d v a n t a g e s
and disadvantages. Commonly-used methods for prDundwster
investigations are the Electrical R e s i s t i v i t y , Seismic R e f r a c t i o n ,
E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c (EM) and t h e V e r y L o w F r e q u e n c y ( V L F ) E M m e t h o d s .
For i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c o v e r i n g l a r g e r e g i o n s G r a v i m e t r i c and A i r b o r n e
Geophysical m e t h o d s can b e applied. Regional g e o p h y s i c a l c o v e r a g e
car. p r o v i d e a g o o d b a c k g r o u n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g against which areas
for m o r e d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e s e l e c t e d . H o w e v e r , an
a i r b o r n e s u r v e y i s g e n e r a l l y too e x p e n s i v e f o r C W S p r o j e c t s t o
undertake, and on i t s own lacks t h e resolution required for
d e t e r m i n i n g i n d i v i d u a l well s i t e s . M o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n i n d i v i d u a l
t e c h n i q u e s is given in Appendix 2.

Groundwater Survey IK) Ltd 20 Hell Siting Snide

 Geophysical m e t h o d s p r o v i d e at b e s t o n l y i n d i r e c t i nf o r m a t i on
c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o-f g r o u n d w a t e r . T h e g a t h e r e d d a t a n e e d s
to b e e v a l u a t e d c a r e f u l l y and w h e r e p o s s i b l e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h o t h e r
available hydrogeological information to ensure t h e correct
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n Df m e 2 s u r e m e n t s . T h e n e e d for c a l i b r a t i o n o-f t h e
geophysical data can b e a major reason for proceeding to the
exploratory drilling l e v e l of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a s d e s c r i b e d i n
the next s e c t i o n .

T W D basic geophysical t e c h n i q u e s can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d :

the sounding technique which provides quantitative depth

i n f o r m a t i o n b e l o w t h e s t a t i o n of m e a s u r e m e n t , s u c h a s
t h e t h i c k n e s s e s and d e p t h s b e l o w g r o u n d l e v e l of t h e
individual layers;

the profiling technique which provides qualitative

i n f o r m a t i o n on lateral c h a n g e s in t h e s u b s u r f a c e rock
t y p e s and s t r u c t u r e s , w i t h o u t m u c h d e t a i l o n d e p t h s and
thi c k n e s s e s .

The electrical and electromagnetic methods a r e based on

rneasur einent s of n a t u r a l or induced e l e c t r i c f i e l d s . Usually
v a r i a t i o n s in e l e c t r i c a l conductivity either vertically or
h o r i z o n t a l l y c a n b e c o r r e l a t e d t o v a r i a t i o n s in l a y e r i n g o r
s t r u c t u r e Df t h e u n d e r g r o u n d . It p r o v i d e s i n d i c a t i o n s for t h e t y p e
of r o c k and t h e p r e s e n c e of g r o u n d w a t e r .

Resistivity Soundings and t h e Seismic Refraction method a r e

c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n in g r o u n d w a t e r
investigations. Both methods can, with certain adaptations in
technique and field layout, provide both depth and lateral
information. The resistivity method has the added advantage that
the resistivity values observed provide information on lithology
and groundwater quality. H o w e v e r , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n Df
resistivity field data c a n be subject t o different equivalent
s o l u t i o n s if n o a d d i t i o n a l data are available to correlate layer
d e p t h s and t h i c k n e s s e s .

A r e c e n t i n n o v a t i o n of t h e r e s i s t i v i t y s o u n d i n g m e t h o d i n v o l v e s
t h e u s e of t w o m u l t i - c o r e c a b l e s and a m i c r o p r o c e s s o r c o n t r o l l e d
s w i t c h b o x <the O f f s e t - W e n n e r t e c h n i q u e 8 ) , which has i n c r e a s e d the
a c c u r a c y a n d speed of f i e l d w o r k . More advanced techniques
suitable for quantitative information are Shallow Seismic
Reflection and Transient or T i m e - D o m a i n Electromagnetics
( T E M / T D E M ) . A s t h e s e m e t h o d s ere still in the e x p e r i m e n t a l p h a e e
a s far a s t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n for h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i s
concerned, their u s e for relatively shallow groundwater
p r o s p e c t i n g f o r h a n d p u m p e d w e l l s i s n o t e x p e c t e d in t h e n e a r
future.

T h e s t r e n g t h of E M end VL.F p r o f i l i n g m e t h o d s i s t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o
map qualitative c o n t r a s t s i.e., conductive versus resistive r o n e s ,
which can b e p i n - p o i n t e d with good lateral accuracy. This combines
with the a d v a n t a g e that they are very fast in their a p p l i c a t i o n in
t h e f i e l d . C o n d u c t i v e z o n e s , s u c h a s f a u l t s and f r a c t u r e d z o n e s ,
buried river channels and contact zones between different rock

Eroundtsster Survey IK) Ltd 21 Nell Siting Guide

 t y p B E a r e o f t e n t h e b e s t p l a c e s t o •find w a t e r . T h e d e p t h oi
p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e E N equipment which c a r r i e s i t s o w n t r a n s m i t t e r
is g e n e r a l l y m u c h b e t t e r t h a n that Df a V L F i n s t r u m e n t , b e c a u s e it
o p e r a t e s at m u c h lower frequencies and can therefore penetrate
deeper. T h e VLF receiver i s , moreover, dependent on t h e
availability of a strong external l o n g - w a v e radio t r a n s m i t t e r .

To c a r r y o u t a q u i d : r e c o n n a i s s a n c e of en area of i n t e r e s t , a
c o m b i n a t i o n of a p r o f i l i n g t e c h n i q u e w i t h d e p t h s o u n d i n g m e t h o d i s
uiDst l i k e l y t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n f o r l o c a t i n g a w e l l .
F r o m t h e I n v e n t o r y S t u d y o n W e l l S i t i n g T e c h n i q u e s it a p p e a r s that
in p r a c t i c e t h e c h o i c e a n d a p p l i c a t i o n of different geophysical
techniques is often made irrespective of t h e geological
environment encountered. However, certain techniques may yield
better results than others depending on the geological situation.
A g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w of c o m p a r a t i v e a d v a n t a g e s i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 2 .

Table 2 Suitability of cDiion geophysical tethods in different hydrogeologkal environments

Resistivity ! Seistic Electro- ! VLF

Environient Snundino ! Profilino i Refraction •aqnetics j

UncDnsoli dated
Seditents

Consolidated
SediaenU

Seditents
fresh/salt Mater

VDkanics

8ase»ent
depth to bedrock

Baseient
faults/fractures
++ very suitable + suitable o not very suitable

Given t h e relatively & i ir> p 1 e o p e r a t i o n o f m o d e r n geophysical

equipment, field practice does not necessarily require t h e daily
supervision of a g e o p h y s i c i s t . Geophysical fieldwork should,
however, be preceded by a hydrogeological r e c o n n a i s s a n c e of t h e
area t o determine where t h e geophysical measurements are to b e
c a r r i e d out. F u r t h e r p r e p a r a t i o n s i n v o l v e t h e proper s e l e c t i o n of
the geophysical method t o b e used t o prepare a proper layout for
the geophysical fieldwork and, where necessary, the training of a
field team in t h e u s e of t h e e q u i p m e n t . For projects where a
l a r g e n u m b e r of w e l l s a r e p l a n n e d it m a y p r o v e e f f i c i e n t t o d e c i d e
on a s t a n d a r d i z e d geophysical layout a n d field practice. An
e x a m p l e i s described in C a t e Study 2 in t h e next chapter. This
does, however, increase t h e need for proper hydrogeologieel site

Groundwater Survey (K) ttd 22 Well Biting Guide

 s e l e c t i o n in advance to make sure that the geophysical survey
t a k e s into account the individual c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each site.

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e field data is also a s p e c i a l i z e d job, which

n e e d s an e x p e r i e n c e d g e o p h y s i c i s t or h y d r o g e o l o g i s t . Interpret-
ation of R e s i & t i v i t y end Seismic R e f r a c t i o n is n o w a d a y s usually
c a r r i e d out with the help of a c o m p u t e r . With the current
g e n e r a t i o n of small p o r t a b l e c o m p u t e r s , it can be completed in the
field, t h u s speeding up g e o p h y s i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c o n s i d e r a b l y .
D e p e n d i n g on t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y Df the s i t e for the g e o p h y s i c a l
wort: and the c o m p l e x i t y of the g e o l o g y , o n e team can often carry
out one or more s i t i n g s per day.

Dowsing or Water D i v i n i n g may also be c o n s i d e r e d an e x p l o r a t i o n

m e t h o d , a l t h o u g h its role in g r o u n d w a t e r e x p l o r a t i o n r e m a i n s
c o n t r o v e r s i a l to many h y d r o g e o l o g i s t s and g e o p h y s i c i s t s . Recent
s c i e n t i f i c appraisal of dowsing s u g g e s t s that it might be based on
a human r e s p o n s e to c h a n g e s in the e a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d , similar
to the p r i n c i p l e s of n a v i g a t i o n a p p l i e d by w h a l e s and homing
p i g e o n s * . The method itself is c e r t a i n l y l o w - c o s t , r e q u i r i n g only
e forked stick or hand a n g l e s and a human operator s e n s i t i v e tp
m a g n e t i c a n o m a l i e s . In many p l a c e s d o w s i n g h a s been used as the
sole i n v e s t i g a t i n g method without any of the p r e c e d i n g levels of
investigation. This may e x p l a i n its frequently inadequate
performance. If applied along the l i n e s suggested by a few
h y d r o g e o l o g i s t s as a b i o p h y s i c a l p r o f i l i n g m e t h o d , it somewhat
r e s e m b l e s the m a g n e t o m e t r i c method in field p r a c t i c e . P e r h a p s Dn
t h i s b a s i s dowsing could play a s c i e n t i f i c a l l y - a c c e p t a b l e role in
the well siting p r o c e s s as a p r o f i l i n g t e c h n i q u e . If this is t h e
c a s e , just as with any g e o p h y s i c a l m e t h o d , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the
1
m e a s u r e m e n t s ' should be carried out within the context of the
larger h y d r D g e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Exploratory Drilling

The p u r p o s e of e x p l o r a t o r y drilling is to gather data front a test

b o r e h o l e to e v a l u a t e the p o t e n t i a l for p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s in the
a r e a . Two basic levels of d r i l l i n g can be c o n s i d e r e d , hand
d r i l l i n g <as an adjunct to h y d r o g e o l o g i cal fieldworl:) and m a c h i n e
d r i l l i n g . A l t h o u g h m i l l i o n s of b o r e h o l e s have been drilled by
hand in South East A s i a , in Africa hand d r i l l i n g has been limited
in its a p p l i c a t i o n to relatively shallow g r o u n d w a t e r in
u n c o n s o l i d a t e d or r e l a t i v e l y soft rock such as decomposed
regolith.

V a r i o u s p r o c e d u r e s are commonly used to gather information from a

test h o l e :

Geological logging During t h e d r i l l i n g operation the drilling

supervisor or hydrogeologist regularly
c o l l e c t s r o d : s a m p l e s which are brought to the
s u r f a c e , to d e t e r m i n e the r o d : t y p e s , s e q u e n c e
and t h i c k n e s s of the v a r i o u s l a y e r s . The
d e p t h ( s ) at which water is e n c o u n t e r e d is also
noted ('1ogged').

6roundt»ater Survey (Kl Ltd 23 Well Siting Guide

 Geophysical logging Directly after the hole is drilled, and before
any casing and screen are installed, the hole
can be logged geophysically (e.g. resistivity,
SP, gamma ray and temperature measurements are
Biade, either continuously and written Dn a
recorder, or stepwise whereby readings are
taken at regular i n t e r v a l s ) . This is used to
accurately determine geological boundaries,
thicknesses of layers, litholDgy, porosity and
water quality. It is often vital for proper
well construction.

Test pumping Pumping tests are conducted to determine the

performance characteristics of the well and
the hydraulic parameters of the aquifer. For
the former the yield and drawdown are recorded
over a certain tine period to measure the
productive capacity of the well. The latter
requires careful monitoring of the drawdown at
set rates of discharge in the pumped well and
nearby observation wells and provides
information on the transmissivity and storage
capacity of the aquifer. Aquifer tests,
whereby observations are done also in nearby
piezometers, are particularly important where
large scale abstraction from the aquifer is
envi saged.

Water sampling Borehole water should be sampled and tested

for chemical and biological constituents.
Excessive mineralization and contamination may
require treatment or, where this is not
possible, nay prohibit abstraction from the
aquifer. Biological contamination from human
and animal waste is a particular risk when
shallow aquifers are used. The use of such
aquifers should be avoided in densely
populated areas.

It is recommended that also production wells be geologically and

geophysically logged and pumping and water quality tests be
carried out. This optimizes well construction and provides data
for any additional wells to be drilled in the area (see Appendix
3).

In case the information can be acquired by exploratory hand

drilling in relatively soft rock, geophysical investigations are
usually not necessary. Several hand drilled holes can be easily
and cheaply made to determine the best site for a production well,
which will be dug or drilled by hand as well. Whether or not hand
drilling is possible depends on local geological conditions and
Mill be made in the hydrogeological investigation p h a s e , when
information is obtained on the local geology and confirmation is
sought on shallow water levels and water quality. Particle size

6roundwater Survey (K) Ltd 24 Nell Siting Guide

 s i s of d r i l l s s n i p l e s i s r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e a n d p r o v i d e s an
i n d i c a t i o n of t h e c l a y c o n t e n t . B a s e d on t h e p u m p i n g test, the
calculation o-f a q u i f e r permeability and s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y will
d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a h a n d - d u g or h a n d - d r i l l e d well will be m o r e
suitable (hand-dug •for g r e a t e r w e l l s t o r a g e in l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y
a q u i f e r s ) . A well siting flow chart with test hand d r i l l i n g used
in a C W S p r o j e c t in T a n z a n i a i s s h o w n in F i g u r e 5 . ft w e l l s i t i n g
flow chart for a CWS p r o j e c t in Z i m b a b w e ( C a s e S t u d y 1) w h e r e
g e o p h y s i c s w a s u s e d i s s h o w n in F i g u r e 6.

Grcundaater Survey (K) Ltd 25

 li the »•!« within
t 2 km of tht vilb

Arc (here pollution

like CjtlicpOQl O
within 100m at ih* No (uiiiblt for
Well comtruction
y«

Ate theie pollution

nvct^ury on drying
out duiing dry teuan

l i There *n old rivfrtMd

liiutitd on ihe b»nkj on
(he rivtfi ?

It the ute t pool

V** 1

ltwrvtiy.ilton with twim liolet

to t>e carried out according lo
the loltowing pattern

Irtvettigttion with bort hotti n with bqrv holri

according to ih* fallowing

• fJI"
pAQl
lOntlS OI
9 • * P'*«
ipnnj

Antlyte the wa

wiltr mrel tht rel»b«n1 watu quality no-, X

I l i pumping u t t y«ld m o i , ihjn 200 I'hi I no—•• X

t tttititf #rt #)ui(fi of ntori' 1'ij

W*i turvty *K>t* hole drillirtQ ptnlirtU' wwith h

machine dull only 1

'•! muii' thjn

H»nd d
Hand Onlled well H+nJ dug well
1 ?5m int 0 I5rn mi dn £tthtt hand dug well,
or machine drilled
well at 0 Ibm inl,di«

F i g u r e 5 Well s i t i n g f l o w chart w i t h h a n d d r i l l i n g
(DHV, 1 9 7 B )

SrouniJwflter Survey (K) Ltd Hell Sitinc Guide

Is there an existing YES Is the source of yes Is the source of yes . No Action
source within 2 kis? adequate yield? adequate quality?

no no no

Ask people where v no Can it be yes > Protect or rehabilitate

they want supply protected? existing source

Is the site generally yes

suitable?

no
>
I& there another If it is at
suitable area shown Y BS
» Is the site free no ^ serious risk no Seek alternative tD
by air phctos or froi flooding? can it be groundwater source
hydrogeol. survey? protected?

no yes yes

Seek alternative to Is the site at no Is the air photo

grcundwater source sand river? and hydrogeological no
survey adequate?
yes

Use resistivity to yes

detenine channel
depth Is the rainfall Analyse geology
•ore than 700 ••? and geciorphology
i and choose suitable
Estiiate throughput yes geophysical survey
= K*i*A and storage > techniques
Is the site free froi
*
• pollution or can it *
Is the yield be protected?
adequate?

yes

Is the site free

froi pollution or no no yes
can it be protected1'
\ i
yes Seek alternative to Is the water table shallow
groundwater source and is the ground soft
but stable?
Design abstraction
works and iipleient yes no

Instruct hand-dug Drill

well teai borehole

Figure 6 Well siting flow chart with geophysics

<Hydrotechnica, 1985)

Greundvtiter Survey <K) Ltd 27 Wei) Siting Guide

 3.3 Feasibility of Well Siting

In roost c a s e s f i n a n c i a l considerations determine whether D T not

g r o u n d w a t e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s should b e carried out b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i n g a
w e l l " 7 . T h e f i n a n c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c a l a s p e c t s Df t h e s i t i n g p r o c e d u r e
have t o b e c o n s i d e r e d c a r e f u l l y and a d e c i s i o n reached o n w h e t h e r the
investigation is cost-effective or n o t - Well siting i s not just
c a r r i e d o u t t o m a k e e a c h w e l l y i e l d a c r e w a t e r , b u t in p a r t i c u l a r t o
r e d u c e the overall cost of well c o n s t r u c t i o n b y increasing the s u c c e s s
r a t e for all t h e w e l l s c o n s t r u c t e d .

Box 2
Feasibility Exaiple 1

If in area A the chance of encountering adequate Mater

supplies by drilling to a depth !D) of 50 aeters vRA) is 90
percent and in area B this <R|) is 50 percent, the average
cost of drilling a successful well in area B (CB) Mill be
nearly twice as high as in A (C»), assuaing basic drilling
costs (C4) are the sase i.e, tl00/i:

C» = <Cd t D)/R. = 5000/0.90 * I 5555

C, = (C* * Dl/fi. = 5000/0.50 = $10000

Hell siting is needed especially in area B to increase the

success rate of drilling to loner the average cost of a
well. If a full hydrogeological and geophysical
investigation is able to raise the success rate in area B
by 251 to 751 (R.1) at a cost (C,l of $1000 per site, the
overall reduction in well costs becones apparent:

C B = <Cd * D + C.)/R«' = 15000 + 1000J/0.75 = t 9000

The use of well siting represents a saving of 20 cercent,

including the cost of siting. It is evident that in area ft
a sinilar siting expense to raise the success rate to 100
percent (.RA'> would not be justified as the overall cost
per well «ould actually increase due to the cost of siting:

CA = (Cd * D t C.J/fi*' = (5000 t 10001/1.00 = i 6000

Case Study 2 in Chapter 4 suggests that savings through

siting cay also be effected because hydrogeological and
geophysical investigations often locate water at shallower
depths, thus reducing the required drilling depth and
costs. If the required drilling depth is reduced by 30
percent (D 1 ), well siting also becomes cost-effective in
area A:

CA = • D1 t C.l/SV = (3500 + 10001/0.90 = * 5000

Sroundwater Survey (K) Ltd 28 Hell Siting Guide

 In s r e s s o f l i m i t e d r a i n f a l l t h e chance of striking water without
proper hydrogeolDgicsl i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i s u s u a l l y iiffiited. T h i s m a y b e
e x p r e s s e d a s t h e s u c c e s s r s t e o-f w e l l c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h a t r e g i o n u n d e r
those particular c i r c u m s t a n c e s . The simple example presented in Box 2
i l l u s t r a t e s the effect this h a s D n the cost of well c o n s t r u c t i o n .

The example above shows that the financial rationale for the use of
well site- i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i s directly related t o the cost of well
c o n s t r u c t i e n i n a n 3.rea. If t h e well c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m m e i s a local
community initiative without external funding, the funds are likely t o
be very limited and t h e hand drilling or digging option will often b e
the only alternative. Consequently, a s construction costs decrease,
e x p e n d i t u r e o n well siting will need t o b e justified b y higher
i n c r e a s e s in the r a t e of s u c c e s s , a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Pox 3 ,

Bo; 3
Feasibility Exaiple 2

In ares I the funds for well construction art lieited and

hand dipping is considered the only feasible option. The
cost of digging (Cd) is estimated at $20 per i e t e r , the
expected rate of success (Rx) at finding water at 25 leters
below ground level (D) without well siting is 50 percent
and the cost of a s u p l e site investigation (C.) $400. TD
warrant the use of well siting, the cost of construction
including the cost of siting should be less than the
construction cost without siting. The oininua inproveeent
in rate of success required can then be calculated as
follows;

(Cd t D' + C.l/IV ( (C t D)/R»

H the depth (D'l renains the saie, then the success

rate with siting (R x 'l needs to be:

(C * D1 • C.) (20 * 25 + 400)

I V > (C d * D ) / R x - (20*251/0.50 =0.90

The i n c r e a s e i n t h e s u c c e s s r a t e ( f i x ' - R*) h a s t o be

g r e a t e r t h a n 40 p e r c e n t . I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t when t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t and r e q u i r e d d e p t h a r e l o w , t h e s i t i n g
c o s t s h o u l d b e low a s w e l l .

These examples show t h a t t h ef i n a n c i a l f e a s i b i l i t y Df w e l l s i t i n g i s

c l o s e l y t i e d t o a n u m b e r o f v a r i a b l e s i . e , t h e c o s t Df c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e
w e l l , t h e cost of well s i t i n g a n dt h ehigher success r a t e athieveable
through well s i t i n g . Proper accounting requires that t h ecost of a
successful well s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h ec o s t o f a n yu n s u c c e s s f u l d i g g i n g o r
drilling attempts. If t h ecost of s i t i n g a well i s taken a s a fixed
percentage of t h etotal cots of well c o n s t r u c t i o n (say 10A), i t follows
that where t h ec o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s a r el o w t h emargin f o r investment i n
well siting i s narrower than where t h econstruction costs a r e high.
Sifcilerly, where s i t i n g c a n improve t h e success rate significantly
( e x p r e s s e d e s a r e d u c t i o n i n t h er e q u i r e d depth of d r i l l i n g o r d i g g i n g

G r c u n d w s t e r S u r v e y (K) Ltd 29 Hell S i t i n g Buide

 per w e l l 8 ) the m a r g i n for i n v e s t m e n t in w e l l s i t i n q is w i d e n e d . The
c o s t of w e l l s i t i n q i s n a t u r a l l y a l s o an i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e . W h e n t h e
sitinq costs are high t h e c o r o p a r a t i v e a d v a n t a g e of s i t i n g i s r e d u c e d ,
if t h e y a r e l o w , t h e a d v a n t a g e is g r e a t e r .

T h e e v a l u a t i o n of a c t u a l c o s t s a n d b e n e f i t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t of
i n v e s t i g a t i o n n e c e s s a r y , d e p e n d s v e r y m u c h on l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
I n f o r m a t i o n on the e x i s t i n g s u c c e s s r a t e of d r i l l i n g w i t h o u t a n y s i t i n g
a n d t h e p o s s i b l e i n c r e a s e in s u c c e s s r a t e u s i n g v a r i o u s l e v e l s of
i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l n e e d to b e a c q u i r e d f r o m a v a i l a b l e d a t a f r o m e a r l i e r
p r o j e c t s in t h e s a m e a r e a or f r o m a r e a s w i t h c o m p a r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s .

T h e c a s e s t u d i e s p r e s e n t e d in t h i s r e p o r t i l l u s t r a t e s o m e of t h e b a s i c
variables involved in t h i s e v a l u a t i o n . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e
r a i n f a l l r e g i m e of t h e p r o j e c t a r e a c a n s i g n i f i c a n t l y influence the
success rate. In h i g h r a i n f a l l areas (e.g. >i000 mm) the wildcat
s u c c e s s r a t e ( i . e . w i t h o u t s i t i n q ) is u s u a l l y m u c h h i g h e r t h a n in l o w
rainfall a r e a s , a n d t h e e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e in t h e s u c c e s s r a t e w i l l
subsequently be much s m a l l e r , allowing for l e s s e x p e n d i t u r e on t h e
siting process.

In g e n e r a l it c a n b e s a i d t h a t t h e c o s t Df i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h
t h e l e v e l of i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e f i r s t t h r e e l e v e l s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n
(data i n v e n t o r y , r e m o t e s e n s i n g , and h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l f i e l d w o r k ) i n v o l v e
r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e e x p e n s e in t e r m s of e q u i p m e n t a n d p r o b a b l y l e s s t h a n
o n e d a y of e x p e r t h y d r o g e o i o g i c a l a d v i c e p e r s i t e . T h e i n v e n t o r y Df
w e l l s i t i n g in C W S in A f r i c a ( s e e V o l u m e 1 of t h i s s t u d y ) w o u l d c o s t in
t h e o r d e r of $ 1 0 0 t o $ 2 0 0 p e r l e v e l , d e p e n d i n g on t h e d e g r e e of d e t a i l
( s o m e w h a t h i g h e r in W e s t A f r i c a a n d l o w e r in S o u t h e r n A f r i c a ) .

T h e c o s t of t h e f o u r t h level of investigation is generally

s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r d u e to t h e h i g h c a p i t a l c o s t of t h e g e o p h y s i c a l
e q u i p m e n t and the need for a p r o f e s s i o n a l s u p e r v i s o r (basic, duty free
c o s t of R e s i s t i v i t y a n d E M e q u i p m e n t U S $ 1 0 0 0 0 - $ 2 0 0 0 0 ; V L F $ 5 0 0 0 ;
Seisiiiics u p w a r d of $ 1 5 0 0 0 ) . T h e c o s t of a g e o p h y s i c a l s u r v e y p e r s i t e
is d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s a n d d e p e n d s o n t h e t y p e of g e o p h y s i c s , t h e
i n t e n s i t y Df t h e s u r v e y , l o g i s t i c s , e t c . T h e i n v e n t o r y of w e l l s i t i n g
p r a c t i c e s ( V o l u m e 1) r e v e a l s a v e r a g e i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o s t s of $ 6 5 0 p e r
s i t e (for l a r g e p r o j e c t s ) , w i t h a m a x i m u m r e p o r t e d c o s t of $ 3 0 0 0 f o r a
c o m b i n a t i o n of R e s i s t i v i t y , S e i s m i c s , E M , V L F , G r a v i t y and M a g n o m e t r y ,
a n d m i n i m u m r e p o r t e d c o s t of $ 5 0 p e r s i t e f o r R e s i s t i v i t y o n l y . It i s
c l e a r h o w e v e r , t h a t f o r t h e s i t i n g of a f e w w e l l s it is n e e d l e s s l y
e x p e n s i v e to p u r c h a s e g e o p h y s i c a l e q u i p m e n t . R e n t a l of e q u i p m e n t , or
h i r i n g t h e s e r v i c e s of a l o c a l g e o p h y s i c a l c o n s u l t a n t is u s u a l l y a
c h e a p e r o p t i o n f o r s m a l l p r o j e c t s . T h e u s e of p r o f e s s i o n a l g e o p h y s i c a l
equipment without t h e s e r v i c e s of a g e o p h y s i c i s t or h y d r o g e o l o g i s t
f a m i l i a r w i t h g e o p h y s i c s m a y l e a d t o an i n e f f e c t i v e u s e of t h e
e q u i p m e n t and u n r e l i a b l e d a t a i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

A s s u m i n g g e o p h y s i c a l s e r v i c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e , an i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n c l u d i n g
g e o p h y s i c s (a n u m b e r of r e s i s t i v i t y s o u n d i n g s and a f e w h u n d r e d m e t e r s
of r e s i s t i v i t y , EM or V L F p r o f i l e ; or 3 or 4 s e i s m i c s p r e a d s ) is l i k e l y
t o b e in t h e o r d e r of $ 1 0 0 0 p e r s i t e for s m a l l p r o j e c t s i n v o l v i n g o n l y
a f e w s i t e s a n d m a y d r o p b e l o w t h a t for l a r g e r p r o j e c t s .

L e v e l 5 of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n , (machine) test d r i v i n g , is v e r y

e x p e n s i ve due to t h e h i g h o p e r a t i n g c o s t s of a m o d e r n d r i l l i n g r i g ( s e e
A p p e n d i X 3) . D e p e n d i n g on t h e t y p e of d r i l l i n g , ( h a n d d r i l l i n g n o t

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd 30 Hell Sitinq Guide

included) the basic drilling cost may be estimated at $50 - *200 per
metre (low in Southern Africa, high in West A f r i c a ) , excluding casing,
screens, developing, testing, snd handpump. Only the largest projects
where the cost of drilling exploratory holes can be written off against
a large number o-f production holes will it be financially attractive to
engage in such test drilling. When more than one well is needed in a
certain area, the first -few can be considered test holes, tD be sited
and used to provide information about the aquifer and to calibrate
geophysical soundings, before a decision is made concerning the
location of the remaining holes. When water is struct; in adequate
quantities such test holes can subsequently be turned into production
wel1s.

The decision concerning the feasibility of well siting may also depend
on economic variables such as government sponsoring of, for example,
the acquisition of hydrogeologitel information, Dn the local
availability of equipment and skilled personnel and/or the availability
Df foreign exchange to purchase the required services and equipment on
the international market.

Survey (K) Ltd 31 Hell Siting Guide

 4 Cage Studies

4.1 A c c e l e r a t e d D r o u g h t R e l i e f P r o g r a m m e , Zimbabwe* 7

A c o m m u n i t y w a t e r s u p p l y p r o g r a m m e in V i c t o r i a P r o v i n c e , Z i m b a b w e w a s
c a r r i e d out d u r i n g 1 9 8 3 a n d 1984 t o h e l p a l l e v i a t e the e f f e c t s of a
t h r e e y e a r - l o n g d r o u g h t in t h e a r e a . Hydrotechnica, a UK groundwater
c o n s u l t a n t , s u r v e y e d a total of 331 s i t e s o v e r an e i g h t m o n t h p e r i o d .
T h e g e o l o g y of the p r o j e c t area c o n s i s t s p r i m a r i l y of g r a n i t e and
g n e i s s B a s e m e n t , w i t h the p r e s e n c e of s i g n i f i c a n t d y k e s and f a u l t s . By
t h e end of t h e p r o j e c t 2 8 2 s u c c e s s f u l b o r e h o l e s had b e e n c o m p l e t e d w i t h
an o v e r a l l s u c c e s s r a t e of 7 6 7. . A rapid survey approach was
d e v e l o p e d and c a r r i e d out by an e x p e r i e n c e d g e o p h y s i c i s t / h y d r o g e o l o g i s t
assisted by t w o unskilled l a b o u r e r s . T h e survey routine included
aerial photographic interpretation, r e c o n n a i s s a n c e field i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
and g e o p h y s i c s w h e n n e c e s s a r y (in a r e a s w i t h m o r e than 7 0 0 m m a n n u a l
rainfall, geophysics was considered u n n e c e s s a r y ) . Three sites were
i n v e s t i g a t e d per d a y . If a s u i t a b l e s i t e c o u l d b e l o c a t e d o n a h y d r o -
g e o l o g i c a l or air p h o t o b a s i s o n l y , n o a d d i t i o n a l t i m e w a s s p e n t on
further investigation with geophysical m e t h o d s .

Two geophysical t e c h n i q u e s were used, e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c profiling with a

S e o n i c s E M 3 4 and e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y s o u n d i n g s w i t h an A B E M S A S 3 0 0
terrameter and a B G S 2 5 6 multicore cable using the Offset Wenner
t e c h n i q u e . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the r e s i s t i v i t y d a t a w a s s p e e d e d up b y
u s i n g a m i c r o c o m p u t e r in the f i e l d w i t h s o f t w a r e e s p e c i a l l y d e v e l o p e d
for t h i s p r o j e c t 1 0 . T h e a v e r a g e s i t i n g c o s t w o r k e d out at u S $ 5 8 0 per
s i t e w i t h t w o r e s i s t i v i t y s o u n d i n g s and 0 . 5 km of EM p r o f i l i n g a n d
a m o u n t e d t o a b o u t 10 7. of the total b o r e h o l e c o s t . An a n a l y s i s of t h e
siting methods shows increasing success rates with each additional
i n v e s t i g a t i o n level ( T a b l e 3 ) :

Table 3 S u c c e s s r a t e s for s i t i n g t e c h n i q u e s
Technique P e r c e n t a g e Df S u c c e s s f u l B o r e h o l e s

Social/Logistical 50
Air P h o t o I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 61
Hydrogeology 66
EM 82
Resistivity 85
EM and R e s i s t i v i t y 90

Geophysical investigations include the previous levels

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd 32 Well Siting Guide

 The average success rate of 76 X for the whole project could in fact
have been improved by applying the two geophysical methods at all sites
thus increase the siting success rate to 90X. As Figure 7 shows, this
would have resulted in an additional saving of Z* 1350 (=U5 $800) per
borehole, which would have made it cost-effective to employ an
additional siting team at US *5B0 per site to complete the
investigstion within the same time period.

90

to -Victorio Drought Relief Project

7;

S
or

S*
t 3:'
s

B0OO SOD t)3D HOD COB omo

COS! PtR WATERPOJNT IN J

Figure 7 Effective cost of a successful borehole using different

siting techniques

A discussion of three of the site investigations, as an example of

typical siting situations and taken from the Programme's main report is
presented below end refers respectively to a detailed account Df siting
based on aerial photograph interpretation, a siting with resistivity,
and a combined siting with EM and resistivity.

liapuvire School

The initial assessment of this area was carried out using aerial photo-
graphs. The photographs were used in determining the most likely areas
for a borehole site and for an assessment of the potential resources.
The relevant details identified from the aerial photographs are shown
in Figure 8 and their interpretation in Figure 9.

GeonorpholDgy

The variety of landfDrms in the area is diverse and this results in a

large number of possible borehole sites. Figure 9 shows a selection of
sites that could be considered fDr further investigations in the
field. They include sites in fault zones, at the base of Basement
outcrops, associated with dykes and a variety of locations within the
valley systems. The original air photo reconnaissance of the area was

Sroundxeter Survey IK) Ltd 33 Hell Siting Guide

 c o n d u c t e d to s i t e a b o r e h o l e for M a p u v i r e s c h o o l .

The air p h o t o g r a p h can b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o d i s t i n c t a r e a s w i t h a

n o r t h e a s t - s o u t h w e s t b o u n d a r y l i n e r u n n i n g from c o r n e r to c o r n e r of
t h e p h o t o g r a p h . In t h e s o u t h e a s t p a r t of t h e air p h o t o , t h e 3 r e a is
d o m i n a t e d by h i g h l a n d t e r r a i n and s t r a i g h t n a r r o w v a l l e y s y s t e m s . To
t h e n o r t h w e s t t h e r e is a d r a m a t i c c h a n g e in the l a n d s c a p e w h e r e a w i d e
p l a i n is d i s s e c t e d by m e a n d e r i n g r i v e r s . T h e r e is a l s o a c o m p l e t e
c o n t r a s t in t h e a e r i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of e x p o s e d b e d r o c k . In t h e
s o u t h e a s t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80*/. of t h e a r e a is o u t c r o p . In t h e n o r t h w e s t
h o w e v e r t h e p h o t o g r a p h i n d i c a t e s t h a t o u t c r o p may be p r e s e n t in l e s s
than S O X of t h e a r e a . T h e c o n t r a s t is t y p i c a l of a c h a n g e in b a s e m e n t
g e o l o g y w i t h g r a n i t e in t h e s o u t h e a s t and g n e i s s in t h e n o r t h w e s t . The
b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e t w o is l o c a t e d a l o n g t h e b a s e of g r a n i t e h i l l s .

B a s i c i n t r u s i v e s in t h e form of d y k e s can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i n the

g n e i s s as d a r k b a n d s o r i e n t a t e d e a s t - w e s t in the e x t r e m e n o r t h of the
p h o t o g r a p h . T o t h e s o u t h of t h e m a i n d y k e , a s e c o n d d y k e i s not so
c l e a r l y d e f i n e d and w o u l d n e e d v e r i f y i n g in t h e f i e l d , u s i n g the EM
profiling technique.

T h e f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n f r o m a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e g e o m o r p h o l o g y s u g g e s t
that t h e g n e i s s is m o r e f a v o u r a b l e in t h i s a r e a for g r o u n d w a t e r
d e v e l o p m e n t b e c a u s e t h e r e g o l i t h c o v e r is m o r e e x t e n s i v e , and t h e r e f o r e
probably thicker.

O n e of t h e m a j o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s . i d e n t i f y i n g t h e c h a n g e in
g e o l o g y in t h i s p h o t o g r a p h is g e o l o g i c a l structure. The granite
h i g h l a n d is d e e p l y d i s s e c t e d by joint and f a u l t s y s t e m s . T h e r e a r e t w o
s e t s of j o i n t s p r e s e n t , t h e m a i n set o r i e n t e d at 3 2 0 ° and t h e s e c o n d
o r i e n t e d at c l o s e t o t h e r e g i o n a l m e a n . T h e j o i n t s end a b r u p t l y at t h e
granite/gneiss boundary. T h e o n l y v a l l e y p r e s e n t in t h i s s e c t i o n of
t h e g r a n i t e is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y n a r r o w and s t r a i g h t and c o i n c i d e s
w i t h a m a j o r j o i n t , or p e r h a p s a f a u l t . T h i s v a l l e y p r o v i d e s t h e o n l y
a r e a w h e r e any s i g n i f i c a n t t h i c k n e s s of r e g o l i t h is p r e s e n t . The
r e m a i n i n g j o i n t s i d e n t i f i e d f r o m t h e p h o t o s h o w l i t t l e d e v e l o p m e n t in
t e r m s of w e a t h e r i n g . In t h e g n e i s s , e v i d e n c e of a joint s y s t e m is m u c h
l e s s d e v e l o p e d . O n e f a u l t can be i d e n t i f i e d , o r i e n t e d at 2 0 ° , f r o m t h e
d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e m o s t n o r t h e r l y d y k e . The e a s t e r n e x t r e m i t y of t h e
s o u t h e r n d y k e a l s o a p p e a r s to end at t h e f a u l t .

Hydrology

The two rock types show d i s t i n c t i v e d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s . The geological

structure dominating the granite landscape has also a profound effect
on t h e h y d r o l o g y and h y d r o g e o l o g y . T h e j o i n t s form the b i g g e s t l i n e of
w e a k n e s s in an o t h e r w i s e m a s s i v e , r e s i s t a n t i n t r u s i o n . Consequently
t h e r i v e r s and d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l s o c c u r a l o n g the j o i n t s and it is t h e
erosion along the joints that makes the geological s t r u c t u r e such a
d o m i n a n t l a n d s c a p e f e a t u r e . The d r a i n a g e s y s t e m t h e r e f o r e e x h i b i t s a
p a r a l l e l or t r e l l i s p a t t e r n . T h e d r a i n a g e d e n s i t y is a l s o u n e v e n , w i t h
a v e r y low d e n s i t y o c c u r r i n g t o w a r d s t h e c e n t r e Df the i n t r u s i o n and a
very high density near the g r a n i t e / g n e i s s boundary. The high density
r e l a t e s to t h e g r e a t e r r a t e of r u n o f f e x p e r i e n c e d on the s t e e p e r s l o p e s
a l o n g the b o u n d a r y of t h e g r a n i t e i n t r u s i o n . T h i s h a s a l s o r e s u l t e d in
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a b r a i d e d c h a n n e l s y s t e m at t h e b a s e of t h e g r a n i t e
h i l l s w h e r e s e d i m e n t d e p o s i t i o n is h i g h , c o m p e l l i n g t h e c h a n n e l s to
b e c o m e w i d e r and s h a l l o w e r .

Groundwater Survey <K> Ltd 34 Hell Siting Guide

 In t h e g n e i s s t h e d r a i n a g e d e n s i t y is high and f a i r l y even a c r o s s t h e
area. T h e lack of s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l and t h e r e l a t i v e l y H a t
t o p o g r a p h y h a s p r o d u c e d a d e n d r i t i c d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n , w i t h the m a i n
river f o l l o w i n g a ffieandering c o u r s e t o w a r d s t h e s o u t h w e s t . Tributaries
j o i n i n g from t h e s o u t h a r e still i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e g r a n i t e h i g h l a n d a n d
are s u b - p a r a l l e l . T h e s o u t h e r n i n t r u s i v e dyke m a y h a v e d i v e r t e d t h e
river fron the f a u l t .

Conclusions

The e x t e n s i v e cover of r e g o l i t h over t h e g n e i s s is a p p a r e n t from t h e

v e g e t a t i o n . L a r g e p o r t i o n s of t h e area s h o w s e v i d e n c e of a r a b l e land
with a well d e v e l o p e d f i e l d system. V i l l a g e v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s can also
be e a s i l y l o c a t e d and a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e most f e r t i l e a r e a s w h e r e
water supplies front springs or s h a l l o w w e l l s a r e a v a i l a b l e .
U n c u l t i v a t e d areas a r e p r e s e n t mostly along t h e v a l l e y c e n t r e s , w h i c h
are p r o b a b l y p r o n e t o f l o o d i n g from t h e r i v e r s and w h e r e steep
g r a d i e n t s leading to h i g h r a t e s Df e r o s i o n occur m a k i n g them u n s u i t a b l e
for b o r e h o l e s .

The final s i t e c h o s e n f o r t h e M a p u v i r e School b o r e h o l e i s ideal in many

r e s p e c t s . From a l o g i s t i c a l point of v i e w it could not have been
nearer tD t h e - r e q u e s t e d site being only 3 0 - 4 0 « from t h e school
b u i l d i n g s . S e c o n d l y t h e s i t e is r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e for l a r g e d r i l l i n g
r i g s without d i f f i c u l t y . G e o m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y t h e b o r e h o l e is sited at
the head of a t r i b u t a r y v a l l e y . T h e h e a d s of v a l l e y s are o f t e n
i n d i c a t i v e of p o t e n t i a l l y thick r e g d i t h devel o p m e n t . T h e w e a t h e r e d
m a t e r i a l t r a n s p o r t e d from t h e g r a n i t e m o u n t a i n s t o w a r d s the g n e i s s
p l a i n also i n c r e a s e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t Df thick r e g o l i t h a n d p r o b a b l y
enhances permeability.

If t h e site near t h e school h a d been i n a d e q u a t e t h e r e w e r e several

alternatives available. T h e first o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e w e r e t h o s e w h e r e
g r o u n d w a t e r flow w a s known t o b e u t i l i z e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r . T h e s e
can b e i d e n t i f i e d by t h e dark p a t c h e s on t h e air p h o t o g r a p h (vleis) a n d
by t h e p r e s e n c e of small v i l l a g e g a r d e n s each s u r r o u n d e d by f e n c e s of
t h o r n b u s h . H a n d - d u g w e l l s are often p r e s e n t in t h e s e a r e a s . S e c o n d l y ,
the c e n t r e and s i d e s Df a t r i b u t a r y v a l l e y or even t h e i n t e r f l u v e s
b e t w e e n t w o v a l l e y s c o u l d b e i n v e s t i g a t e d near t h e s c h o o l . F u r t h e r
o p t i o n s could b e i n v e s t i g a t e d in r e l a t i o n t o t h e d y k e s . T h e f a u l t e d
d y k e at t h e n o r t h e r n e d g e of t h e air p h o t o s h o w s p a r t i c u l a r p r o m i s e in
offering a suitable borehole site. In c e r t a i n a r e a s of V i c t o r i a
P r o v i n c e a dyke o f f e r e d t h e only s u i t a b l e p l a c e for l o c a t i n g a
groundwater supply. H a d t h i s been t h e case at M a p u v i r e S c h o o l , t h e
s i t e m a y have been less then ideal for t h e school c h i l d r e n b e c a u s e of
t h e longer w a l k i n g d i s t a n c e i n c u r r e d . It would still h a v e been w i d e l y
a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e c o m m u n i t y a s a w h o l e , h o w e v e r , and would h a v e
p r o v i d e d a p e r m a n e n t a n d c l e a n water s u p p l y in t h e a b s e n c e Df a
suitable alternative.

The lack of s u i t a b l e w a t e r s u p p l i e s w i t h i n the g r a n i t e i s r e f l e c t e d by

the lack of c u l t i v a b l e soil and by t h e m a r k e d d e c r e a s e in p o p u l a t i o n .
The area i s g e n e r a l l y i n h o s p i t a b l e w i t h only t h e n a r r o w v a l l e y s
o f f e r i n g any c h a n c e of c u l t i v a t i o n . It w a s g e n e r a l l y found that such
v a l l e y s o i l s were v e r y c l a y e y and when i n v e s t i g a t e d using EM m e t h o d s ,
e x h i b i t e d very high c o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e s . This g r e a t l y h a m p e r e d t h e
l o c a t i o n of t h e a s s o c i a t e d fault z o n e s b e c a u s e t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n t r a s t
b e t w e e n the clay s o i l s and the bedrock is s o great that l i t t l e else

Sroundttater Survey Hi) Ltd 35 Hell Siting Guide

can be distinguished. It was also thought that the joint zones in this
area are poorly d e v e l o p e d , offering little potential for a groundwater
supply. In many cases the bedrock is massive and the thickness of clay
regolith less than 7in. ft more s u i t a b l e alternative to a borehole in
these areas m a y be a hand-dug well.

OISSECTEO
GNEISS
PLATEAU.

MOUNTAINOUS
GRANITE
TERRAIN

••*• KRAALS ^ ^ DARK (VLEI) AREAS RIVERS AND STREAMS RCAOS

0ASIC INTRUSION (DYKE) 52S2 POSSIBLE BASIC INTRUSION { OYKE)

Figure 8 Aerial photograph interpretation 1: General

details present on the air photo

Sroundwater Survey (K) Ltd Zb Well Siting Suide

 Outcrop cfcw to t u r t n
in wrftey- wry tfvAw

LEGEND

(3? F«lds generally under cultivators ® — Find bmhafe site RC — Srte near rlocr OBVIOOTC*
HH — Srttolh«*5o»valleyo(bOM
m _ Othtr ssfcded pottntkJl
BlaA fertile soils associated with w
borehole sites.
village vegetable oanfere and D — Siteupstnamolilyte
presance & woter K — S i t e at base g( topple
o _ Potential hand dug
— Basic intnjsion I — Siteininterfluvt
— Possible basic intrusion _ Majtx p n t C — Site at centre of volley
— Gneiss/Granite boundary - Minor joint S — Site on vdley side
F — Siteonfouttarjant

Figure 9 Aerial p h o t o g r a p h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n 2: Potential

borehole sites

37
 The a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s a r e t h u s u s e d at t w o l e v e l s . T h e f i r s t level
p r o v i d e s an o v e r a l l p i c t u r e of t h e g r o u n d w a t e r p o t e n t i a l in t h e a r e a .
A s e c o n d level of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in g r e a t e r d e t a i l is, however,
required around t h e proposed site. F i n a l l y , it i s l i k e l y that
appropriate geophysical techniques are necessary to confirm the exact
location and viability of drilling a b o r e h o l e . The decision concerning
w h a t g e o p h y s i c a l t e c h n i q u e t o u s e c a n b e i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e •following
table:

Table 4 Appropriate geophysical siting techniques for different

geooorphological Basement environaents

Landform Method Landform Method

V shaped valley Watershed EM & R

(head, sides and centre) Flat Plai n EM & R
Basin shaped valley Outcrop EM / R
(head) Dyke EM
<side and centre) EM Fault or Joint EM

Salani Kraal

B o r e h o l e E E C 176 shown in F i g u r e 10 i s sited in t h e c e n t r e of a broad

shallow v a l l e y , w h e r e it w a s anticipated that deep r e g o l i t h would be
f o u n d . T h e first sounding at A showed m a s s i v e bedrock at only 4m with
an o v e r l y i n g clayey r e g D l i t h , clearly u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . T h e second
s o u n d i n g at B indicated a sandy regolith with 30m depth to b e d r o c k .
D r i l l i n g at this site actually proved 23m of gneiss r e g o l i t h above
fissured gneiss r e s u l t i n g in a good specific capacity of 0.182 1/s/m.

Magudu School

M a g u d u school (Figure 11) is an e x a m p l e of deep regolith associated

with t h e b a s e of a Basement o u t c r o p . T h e area s u r r o u n d i n g t h e o u t c r o p
is flat with sparse v e g e t a t i o n and little hydrogeological e v i d e n c e to
aid t h e borehole s i t i n g . An EM p r o f i l e w a s initially conducted from
the base of t h e o u t c r o p northward t o w a r d s t h e centre of t h e v a l l e y .
The p r o f i l e revealed three distinct a n o m a l i e s and t w o r e s i s t i v i t y
s o u n d i n g s revealed that t h e second s i t e h a d a c o n s i d e r a b l e depth of
r e g o l i t h which w a s confirmed by the b o r e h o l e . A specific capacity of
0.051 1/s/m w a s o b t a i n e d .

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd 38 Hell Siting Suide

 SALANI KRAAL EEC 176
UN 436 506

Gneiss
No major structures
Grassland with some cultivation
Dendritic drainage

approx 1:50 000

1 Borehole

Res

+ 20000

RESISTIVITY DEPTH SOUNDINGS BOREHOLE LOG

* field data —theoretical curve
res (a)
Gneiss regolith Gn.

-1

Fissured gneiss
Gneiss

10 CO Specific Ccpacity
10 WO
RESISTIVITY (chm m) RESISTIVITY (ohm m) 0 1

Borehole siting in valleys - centre.

Figure 1 0 Borehole siting with Resistivity

Survey (K) Ltd 39 Well Siting Guidt-

 MAGUDU SCHOOL EEC 043

UM 124 996

Gneiss
At edge of outcrop.

appro x 1 ;SC 000

40
COIL SPACING = 20tn
30

20

I 10

TBorehde

3000
RESISTIVITY DEPTH SOUNDINGS BOREHOLE LOG
* field data —theoretical a r v e
res(a) toctric
retlbl ^""if
Gneiss regolith Gn.
250 90
1- -1
?
/ x
24

6* V
220 Fissired gneiss
-10 t
lli
O

wo
JLJU

Specific ccvacity
10 100 10 0 0511s" nr<
RESISTIVITY (<*vn ml RESISTTYITY lohw ml

Borehole siting odiocent to a bornhardt.

F i g u r e 11 B o r e h o l e s i t i n g w i t h E M a n d R e s i s t i v i t y

Survey (K) Ltd 40 Biting &uidt

 4.2 Rural Domestic Hater Supply and Sanitation Programme, Kenya 11

The Lake Basin Devel oprcent Authority (LBDA) h a s initiated a C W S

programme in Nyanza Province in Western Kenya with the aim of improving
the generally poor water supply situation through t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of
handpumped water s u p p l i e s . In 75"/. of the province very few permanent
surface water r e s o u r c e s are found. Whenever the groundwater t a b l e c a n
be found at Iese than 2 0 meters below ground level hand dug wells a r e
considered. In the western part of the province t h e water table is
lower and machine drilled boreholes have to be c o n s t r u c t e d . T h e
province is ntsinly underlain by volcanic rocks of Precambri an and
Tertiary age and about 157. Precambrian g r a n i t e s and d o l e r i t e s and some
Pleistocene s e d i m e n t s . The area has been subject to e x t e n s i v e tectonic
activity since late Tertiary times. Based on the assumption that t h e
»ost productive aquifers in hard rock usually occur in f a u l t s and
fracture r o n e s , a survey method h a s been developed for t h e p r o g r a m m e by
DHV Consulting Engineers of the N e t h e r l a n d s t o accurately locate
prospective borehole sites in the -field. This c o m p r i s e s of t h e
following two c o m p o n e n t s :

Mapping of faults and fracture zones by weans of r e m o t e sensing}

Geophysical surveys carried out along p r o f i l e s a c r o s s the most

promising of the interpreted faults and fracture z o n e s .

Regional structures and major faults show up clearly on s a t e l l i t e

i m a g e s . On aerial p h o t o g r a p h s fault systems can b e identified as darl;
lineations d u e to increased soil moisture and vegetation d e n s i t y . S o
far in about half the area <6000ki» a ) over 3000 fault s t r u c t u r e s have
been identified. It has proven essential that such features be
accurately located in the field, as a location error of 10m can result
in a dry hole. T h e standard field survey per site c o n s i s t s of 2
electromagnetic profiles of about 4 0 0 to 6 0 0 meters l e n g t h , 1
resistivity profile (Wenner array) and 3 to 5 r e s i s t i v i t y s o u n d i n g s
(Schlurcberger array) evenly spread and generally p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e
profiles (see Figure 1 2 ) .

The equipment consists of an ABEM SAS 300B Terrameter and a GeDnics EM

34-3. The latter proved especially sensitive to narrow a n o m a l i e s
caused by fault and fracture z o n e s . T h e spool separation v a r i e s
according to local c o n d i t i o n s . The resistivity data are interpreted on
e aicrD-computer with a special curve-fitting s o f t w a r e package and
evaluated together with the plotted profiling data in terms o f :

the presence and depth of different zones Df w e a t h e r i n g ;

the depth to the unweathered bedrock;
the thickness Df a q u i f e r s ;
the presence and accurate location of (sub)vertical d i s -
continuities a& f a u l t s , intrusive dykes and lithological
boundaries;
the salinity Df the groundwater.

Based on this evaluation t h e most suitable well location and well type
(hand dug or drilled) is selected. Figure 12 shows the R e s i s t i v i t y / E M
survey layout for Omboga Secondary School site to i l l u s t r a t e t h e
importance and accuracy Df this standard survey approach.

Groundwater Survey (10 Ltd 4] Well Siting Guide

 SITE: OMBOGA SECONDARY SCH. SITE No: KB-18
KENDU DIVISION SOUTH NYANZA OlSTRlCT

MAP SHEET 1T6 3 GRID REFERENCE 6SO S - 9 9 5 1 0

LOCATION SOUTH KARACHLONtO SUB-LOCATION NO«TH KAMENYA

Vf V V V V V
V V V V V
|VES-3

2;====- "~ Wikonditli

OMBOGA SCHOOL
COMPOUND

-m- *» EM and GE Profiles

| *. Vertical electrical sounding

Interpreted fault zone

Recommended borehole location

Figure 12 Schematic layout of thegeophysical survey at Oaboga

Secondary School

Survsy Ltd 42 Wei 1 Siting Guide

 The Oraboga Secondary School is situated in a dry area and the nearest
perennial water sources ^r& a well and a river at 4 and 6 kilometres
distance respectively. The study of aerial photographs revealed the
possible existence of a fault just south of the school and a detailed
geophysical survey w a s carried out to locate this structure. Tt\&
resistivity soundings revealed the existence of a narrow dolerite dyke
in this mainly granitic area. The EM profiles in particular indicated
the occurrence of a pronounced fractured zone along the
granite/dalerite contact (see Figure 1 3 ) . The location and slope of
this sub-vertical zone was assessed and a borehole location selected
near VES-4 (see Figure 14>. The borehole drilled at this location to a
depth of 52 meters struck water at various levels with a static water
lavel of 24 meters below ground level. A subsequent pumping test
resulted in only 2.5 meters drawdown at a discharge of 12 m'/h (or l.~3
1/s/m).

p«3l:»'Horiwr«l w At tO

Figure 13 Resistivity and EM profiles at Omboga School

Km

•Do

F i g u r e 14 R e s i s t i v i t y s o u n d i n g s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and b o r e h o l e location
a t OiBboga S c h o o l

Grcundaater Survey (K) Ltd 43 Mell Siting Bui da

 A fault structure was also interpreted for the following two sites
located at 2 kilometers distance from each other in Tertiary Basalts.
At the God Bim school a successful borehole was drilled exactly on a
fault with a maximum yield of 24 m'/h. At the Otati school the 85m
deep borehole was erroneously drilled 30 metres away from the
interpreted fault structure and w a s dry, while a later borehole
relocated on the fault proved successful (see Figure 1 5 ) .

Nd-91 God Bin School Nd-52 Otati Pr School

3
-JO

lOOO 3< 1CO0 0

X '00
X
I
o
' \

• " — .
/ 1
1 1
/ V - EH - »rof

. at - I V , *
•
» £

£
1
••x
A

V
4 V J—V
»

to
- " - CE-'rcl tilt

>
K
10 10

£
> *
Uf

T T
i u

If 1 T 1

100 lot (00

VCS-) ^rfitat tttctncat • >••• mttrprttttf towlt

Figure IS Hydrogealogical cross sections interpreted froa the

geophysical data for God Bia School and Otati Primary School
in Tertiary volcanics

T h e s e e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e h o w t h e s t a n d a r d s u r v e y a p p r o a c h of t h e R u r a l
Domestic Water Supply and Sanitation Programme has led to a significant
i n c r e a s e in t h e d r i l l i n g s u c c e s s r a t e ( 2 6 % ) a n d a s i m i l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t
r e d u c t i o n in t h e d e p t h of d r i l l i n g (447.), both f a c t o r s s t r o n g l y
r e d u c i n g t h e cost of d r i l l i n g per well (by £37.) a s T a b l e 5 s h o w s . It
should b e noted that f o r 14 of t h e IS d r y h o l e s listed in t h e t a b l e t h e
g e o p h y s i c a l s u r v e y s h o w e d n o p o s i t i v e e v i d e n c e of a fault or f r a c t u r e
z o n e , b u t in most of these c a s e s t h e d e c i s i o n to g o ahead with d r i l l i n g
in spite of t h i s w a s based o n s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c r i t e r i a .

6rcLnd«ater Survey (K) Ltd 44 Well Siting Guide

 Nutber oi Success Mean Depth Hean Yield Drilling cost per
Rock tyoes boreholes Rate \l) Ubali UVd) productive well
Existing Boreholes:
Tertiary Volcanics 36 44 126 140 17700
Nyanjian Volcanics 19 63 116 95 10600
Granites 7 43 70 43 10200
Sub Total 62 52 117 113 226700

Programs Boreholes;
Tertiary Volcanics 60 78 69 340 5400
Nyaruian Volcanics !! 91 54 94 3700
Granites 10 60 a65 140 6350
Sub Total 81 78 270 5200

T h e P r o g r a m m e g i v e s a s o m e w h a t o p t i m i s t i c b r e a k d o w n of t h e s i t i n g c o s t s
w h i c h i s s h o w n in T a b l e 6. D e p r e c i a t i o n t i m e is r e l a t i v e l y long and
t h e e x p a t r i a t e i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e p r o g r a m m e , o f f i c e c o s t s a n d o v e r h e a d s
are not i n c l u d e d . H o w e v e r , even when i n c l u d i n g these additional s i t i n g
c o s t s ( i n c r e a s i n g d r i l l i n g c o s t by a b o u t IB '/.) t o t a l s i t i n g and
d r i l l i n g c o s t s per well remain s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s t h a n for the
n o n - p r o g r a m m e b o r e h o l e s . T h e u s e of r e m o t e s e n s i n g a n d g e o p h y s i c s
a p p e a r s t h e r e f o r e to be well j u s t i f i e d and c o s t - e f f e c t i v e .

Table 6 Breakdown of cost for groundxater surveys (US $)

Total Depreciation Annual Cost/site

Descriotion Cost Tiae Cost (250 s/year)

Equipient (duty free):

1 ABEH SftS 300 Terraietsr 12500 60 aonths 2500 10
t Geonics EN 34 22000 60 4400 13
1 coBputer t printer t
plotter + software 17200 60 3440 14
1 4x4 car 13750 60 3750 15
6 capping sets 5000 24 2500 10
1 stereoscope + aerial
!c satellite photos 1500 60 320 1

Personnel (Kenyan!:
1 geologist 7500 30
1 field teanleader 3750 15
4 surveyors 7500 30
2 casual labourers 1250 5

Running Cost:
petrol + iaintenancs car 7500 30
materials 2500 10
Total: 76950 46910 138

Sraundvtater Survey (K! Ltd 45 Nell Siting Guide

I
I
 4.3 Rural Water S u p p l y P r o g r a m m e , Nigeria13

An e s t i m a t e d 60'/. of the p o p u l a t i o n of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 rail lion in K a n o

S t a t e in n o r t h e r n N i g e r i a live in small rural v i l l a g e s d i s p e r s e d
t h r o u g h o u t the S t a t e . H i s t o r i c a l l y they w e r e served by a p p r o x i m a t e l y
7 S 0 0 h a n d - d u g w e l l s , many of w h i c h fell into d i s r e p a i r or n e e d e d
d e e p e n i n g . A c o n s i d e r a b l e number fall dry in the dry s e a s o n . In 19B2
a Rural Water S u p p l i e s P r o g r a m m e w a s s t a r t e d by the K a n o S t a t e
Agricultural and Rural D e v e l o p m e n t A u t h o r i t y (KNARDA) to p r o v i d e
v i l l a g e s with less than 2 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s with h a n d p u m p e d g r o u n d w a t e r
s u p p l i e s . T h r o u g h the w i d e s p r e a d d r i l l i n g of 1000 small d i a m e t e r
b o r e h o l e s and the i n s t a l l a t i o n of h a n d p u m p s in t h e s e and in
r e h a b i l i t a t e d open w e l l s it p l a n n e d to b r i n g c l e a n , p o t a b l e w a t e r to
b e t w e e n 0.8 and 1 m i l l i o n rural d w e l l e r s . Sir M. M a c D o n a l d and
P a r t n e r s of the UK w e r e c o n t r a c t e d for a p e r i o d of four y e a r s to
p r e p a r e and m a n a g e the overall rural water p r o v i s i o n and to c a r r y out
the s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and the p r e p a r a t i o n and s u p e r v i s i o n of the
d r i l l i n g and p u m p - i n s t a l l a t i o n c o n t r a c t s .

K a n o S t a t e c o v e r s an area of 43 0 7 0 s q u a r e k i l o m e t e r s and can be

d i v i d e d into two d i s t i n c t g e o l o g i c a l p r o v i n c e s , the B a s e m e n t C o m p l e x
c o n s i s t i n g p r i m a r i l y of g r a n i t e s u n d e r l y i n g t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of t h e S t a t e
and the s e d i m e n t a r y C h a d F o r m a t i o n c o m p r i s e d of g r a v e l , s a n d s and c l a y s
in the n o r t h e a s t e r n q u a r t e r . Mean annual r a i n f a l l in the s o u t h is
1000mm c o n c e n t r a t e d from May to O c t o b e r and in the n o r t h 6 3 5 m m from
J u n e to S e p t e m b e r .

A p p l i c a t i o n s for well s i t e s w e r e p r o v i d e d by K N A R D A and f o r w a r d e d to

the C o n s u l t a n t { G r o u n d w a t e r D e v e l o p m e n t C o n s u l t a n t s <Int> L t d , U K , for
Sir M. M a c D o n a l d & P.) w h o then paid a p r e l i m i n a r y visit to the s i t e s
to i d e n t i f y , l o c a t e and a s s e s s the s i t u a t i o n . The initial a s s e s s m e n t
w a s i n f l u e n c e d by the f o l l o w i n g n o n - h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s :

the v i e w s of the V i l l a g e and/or Ward H e a d ;

the l o c a t i o n of e x i s t i n g open w e l l s ;
p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e s of p o l l u t i o n ; a m i n i m u m d i s t a n c e of 25 m e t e r s
from any c o m p o u n d w a s adopted and ' s a l t y ' water areas a v o i d e d ;
the a v a i l a b i l i t y of s u i t a b l e land ( p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t in the
crop-growing season);
t o p o g r a p h y - low lying a r e a s may be s u b j e c t to w a t e r - l o g g i n g in
the wet season w h i l e high a r e a s r e s u l t in deep water l e v e l s ;
a c c e s s for d r i l l i n g e q u i p m e n t and pump m a i n t e n a n c e tearas.

In the Chad F o r m a t i o n and the t r a n s i t i o n zone w h e r e s h a l l o w s e d i m e n t s

o v e r l i e the B a s e m e n t C o m p l e x a field visit w a s c o n s i d e r e d a d e q u a t e for
s i t i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e b o r e h o l e location, without the use of
g e o p h y s i c s . F i g u r e IS s h o w s the terras used to r e p o r t the f i n d i n g s of
the field visit and the d r i l l i n g r e c o m m e n d a t i o n sent to K N A R D A .

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd 46 Well Siting Guide

 KANO STATE AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY
RURAL WATER SUPPLIES PROJECT

ZONE:

REFERENCE NUMBER:

LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA:

Ref. Nr: Full Name: Date:
DISTRICT:
Local Government Area:
VILLAGE NAME: Those Present: Who Meet With:

MAP NUMBER: Access Road:

GRID REFERENCE: Settlement Pattern:

AIR PHOTO NUMBER: Geomorpholoijy:

EXISTING SITUATION:
Background Questions:

Nr. of concrete wells: Dead concrete?

POPULATION: Nr. of self dug wells: Dead self dug?
Depth all same: Yes/No How many spans?

HYDROGEOLOGICAL ASSL3S1 Taste all same: Yes/No Taste is?

Dry season yield all sane: Yes/No Perennial/intermittent/dry?
Bottom material all same: Yes/No
ACCESS FOR DRILLING CON! Bottom material described as:

• Are wells on oneside of the

settlement better than elsewhere? Yes/No Where?
RECOMMENDATION:
Other Sources
Fetch from outside village Yes/No Where?
DATE OF VISIT: • Previous investigation? Yes/No By whom?

Well Inspection
Chosen well is Public/Private/Concrete/Unlined/in use/almost dead/recently cleaned.
Chosen well has a dry season yield which is perennial/intermittent/dry?
SWL is m(from datum at )= m(G.L.)

Soil description:

REMARKS

OFFICE: Map Sheet Nr:

Air Photograph:
Approximate Grid Ref:
Population :

SKETCH OVER

Figure 16 Preliminary Site Investigation Report and Site RecoiBsnendation

Form

Groimdaater Survey (K) Ltd 47 *!eS! Siting Suide

 The more detailed site investigation process in t h e Basement area
involved t w o stages. Firstly a study of available b o r e h o l e r e c o r d s
from which a picture emerged showing that aquifers were often narrow,
discontinuous and more difficult to find than o r i g i n a l l y a n t i c i p a t e d .
Secondly, interpretation of aerial p h o t o g r a p h s and remote sensing
imagery provided basic information on t h e overall geomorphology at a
s c a l e of 1 : 2 5 0 0 0 0 . F e a t u r e s at t h e i n d i v i d u a l v i l l a g e l e v e l , h o w e v e r ,
could not b e distinguished. Full recent (1982) aerial photography of
Kano State w a s available on a 1:25000 scale, a n d used a s an aid t o
village location, since access tracks, official buildings and even some
individual compounds were visible a n d an evaluation concerning t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n and a c c e p t a b l e size of t h e local p o p u l a t i o n could b e
made. However, stereoscopic interpretation showed l i t t l e of t h e
structural features of t h e Basement Complex, s i n c e it w a s m o s t l y
covered by regolith. In p r a c t i c e t h e interpreted fracture
intersections and lineaments rarely contained features that appeared
f a v o u r a b l e w h e n c a r e f u l l y e x a m i n e d b y g e o p h y s i c s tin c o n t r a s t t o C a s e
Study 2 ] . The structural analysis of t h e geology therefore played a
very limited r o l e in t h e l o c a t i o n of b o r e h o l e s i t e s .

T h e t h i r d s t e p in t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d t h e c o m b i n e d u s e
of t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c t r a v e r s i n g ( E M T ) m e t h o d w i t h v e r t i c a l e l e c t r i c a l
s o u n d i n g s <V£S) with a G e o n i c s E M 3 4 and an ABEM S A S 3 0 0 T e r r a m e t e r
respectively. In a r e a s with a thick w e a t h e r e d layer covering the
Basement t h e resistivity soundings provided enough information to
define a borehole site. This involved up t D t e n soundings evenly
spaced over t h e area or specially located to examine features
identified by the aeri3l photo interpretation. An acceptable site
should have a minimum saturated thickness of 10 metres, indicated b y
r e s i s t i v i t i e s Df b e t w e e n 1 5 a n d 3 5 0 Qhnt.ra ( d e p e n d i n g on t h e electrical
c o n d u c t i v i t y of g r o u n d w a t e r ) . A typical e x a m p l e i s shown in F i g u r e 1 7
for T a n a g a r , p r e d i c t i n g a s u i t a b l e w a t e r - b e a r i n g layer from 6 t o 3 0
meters below ground level. T h e 3 & m b o r e h o l e d r i l l e d at t h e s i t e a n d
s c r e e n e d f r o m 2 2 t o 3 2 m b g l h a d a s p e c i f i c c a p a c i t y of 0 . 5 3 l/sfx.

1000 1 1 1 11 11 1 i l l ' 11
- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Mf
a) 21/031 TANAGAfr

1.- - * - 1.
- • * . _
Latt data deti ~
A •""not rijt at 45*
».•
t (a)
A
I111 1 1

»-*

10 1 1 1 1 11 11 l I i i 11 | I 1 1 1 I1 1
1 10 AB/2 (ml ,00 1000
KEY TANAGAR MODEL
Laylr Rtjittivity I ohmm ) Thickntss [ n 1"
X for MN/2 . 0 S m 1 210 2
3 lor MN/2 • 5 ID 2 105 V
3 40 24
• tor MN/2 >10 m
4000 IE* 06
modilltil eurvt
dip* to gto»ltctrie bostmtnt • 30 n

F i g u r e 17 Example of a R e s i s t i v i t y sounding

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd 48 Well siting Suide

 In areas with thin weathered layers and many rise1 •.rops a combined
r e s i s t i v i t y and e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c approach was c; which exploited
the different operating c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s oi the t> • *: r u in e n t s. With
the EM 34 it is possible to either measure with ..Is nor i zontal1y
and coplanar on the ground (vertical d i p o l e ) or standing on the
rim and coplanar (horizontal d i p o l e ) . The verti : ;;Die m e a s u r e m e n t
has greater penetration depth than the horizontal ..nd a c o m p a r i s o n
of the two can d e t e r m i n e which a n o m a l i e s ire • >j by deep-seated
c o n d u c t o r s . Thus when the conductance reading c+ vertical dipole
e x c e e d s the horizontal r e a d i n g , then the ma •itribution to the
apparent conductivity d e r i v e s from c o n d u c t o r s dee; an about 40'/. of
tha coil spacing.

The field procedure was as f o l l o w s :

- The location and direction of the Eii trav:, line was selected
based upon community p r e f e r e n c e , local oqy, groundwater
quality and other information from shallow w- in the area,
- Coil spacing was s e l e c t e d , based on known to groundwater.
Where the depth to static water level is than 15 m, a 20 m
coil spacing was u s e d , but where greater 15 m, the coi1
spacing was 40 ra.
- The distance between stations was usually s ^ n to be 20 a,
being sufficient to detect water-bearing zon_ narrow as 5 m.
- The t r a v e r s e s were carried out with the , -;r ahead of the
t r a n s m i t t e r , in order that the d i s t a n c e met?; the receiver can
be used to set out the correct s p a c i n g s for i -averse.
- At every station two readings were taken, of the vertical
dipole (horizontal C D J I S ) and one of the hor? • 1 dipole.
- The o b j e c t i v e of the traverse was to reft for adequate
c o n d u c t a n c e at d e p t h ; this is normally indie -.-,' v31 ues of the
vertical dipole being greater than those of :rizontal dipole.
- When a feature was located, its centr unt a id way on a
straight line between the two coils was c a r : / located to the
nearest 5 m or even 2.5 m if the feature ••• 3 r y narrow. This
centre point was marked and a short orthogc- ':•-averse was made
to locate the two diroensional centre point.
- Having located the two-diinensi onai c e n : joint, a v1 E S was
carried o u t , either parallel to the main tra, line, or in case
of marked anisotropy parallel to the structu- hrike.
- The VES was extended until there were s u f ; /: da13 to define
the rising liftb on the apparent resis: curve. The
resistivity sounding was carried out to c h ;• . .•:» suitability of
the feature and to predict the t h i c k n e s s •,ny water-bearing
layer and the depth to bedrock. The latter i important factor
in cost control since drilled depths could bi dieted to within
a metres.

This combined method is illustrated in Figure 18 ••• •? M a s a y a site.

;
A p r e l i m i n a r y survev at Masaya had shown the main ^.Tient to be in a
problem area: several dug wells had ended in hc< :cfc at 10 metres
d e p t h . Grani te o u t c r o p s occur around the villa" i six preliminary
VES had confi rmed the poor p r o q n o s i s . Subsequent • •> EH profile of
550 m e t r e s 1 ong was made from the northern side ;; ? /ill age towards
the floodplai n of the D o g w a l o River, one kilometr ••> s y , with a coil
s e p a r a t i o n of 20 m e t e r s and a station interval • >:fi. A feature of
approx i mat ely 30m long was found, centered on -tion 48+5. The
sounding carr ied out at that location predicted Z • to bedrock with

Broundwater Survey (K) Ltd Well Siting Guide

 the main prebasement layer having a resistivity of 55 Ohm.m. Upon
drilling a high yielding zone was found between 13 and 26 meters in
weathered and pink granite with a specific capacity of 0.15 1/s/m. A
sketch of the area and a summary of the geophysical results are given
in the accompanying first two pages of the borehole completion record
in Figure 19.

EMT

VES KEV

10
10
AB/2(m) 100

Figure 18 Example of EM/RS data for H a s a y a , Nigeria

Survey (K) Ltd 50 Mel 1 Siting Guide

 BOREHOLE COMPLETION REPORT SUMMARY BOREHOLE Z3/011
NUMBER
Sheet three of five I
F.
BOREHOLE Z3/011
BOREHOLE COMPLETION REPORT SUMMARY
C1. Co
Sheet two of five

RANO STATE AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY

,12. Existing wells
RURAL WATER SUPPLIES
Well nr. WL(m) BOREHOLE
BOREHOLE COMPLETION REPORT SUMMARY Z3/011
1 dry NUMBER '•
5.
£ ISheet one of five)
U

.1 Contractor : Mitsui & Co- Ltd, Consultant Sir M. MacDonald & Partners
CS. Co Tokyo Cambridge.
Frou A. GENERAL DETAILS
li •0.87
KUDU
18.0 B- TOPOGRA A1. Local Government An,n
22.2 1. Topography ond A2. Site MASAYA

Undulat ing t opogrc A3 Location 5 km South of Birnin Kudu on tar road t o Gwaram and Maiduguri
-lor 9° 29' 30" E l l ^ ' O O " N
CS. Lit River Dogwalo in t A4 Map sheet number. 105 AS Grid reference.
Fron A6 Air photo number- A7 Line number.
A8 Settlement pnttern A9 Approximate population^ 630
)3
7.1 AX) Other water sources
so
Ms wells with water; most supplies come from the River Dogwalo, 1 km t o North
10..
Alt Location plan

13.5 to Birnin Kudu L km

Fract
2 Geophysics
6 VES in 1983 arou
River Dogwalo t
l e s s than 17 m. E
Frorr dge of flood plain
from the main set t l

im erval. 20mH ma
u.;
at si ati
VES 7 on t he cent r

CC The late data rise

In depth to geoelect ri<
Pu no p. VES 7 chosen as t h To Gwaram, Maiduguri.
Tirne
0-5 1km

Legend:
Hand dug well 1 Geophysical sounding / traverse
Road 12 Village 0 Rock outcrop
Track • Borehole ;>:": Sand dune
River / stream

Figure 39 Site description based on gecphysical survey in Borehole

eti on Report *or Masaya, Nigeria

Survey (K) Ltd 51 Siting Guide

 The o v e r a l l s u c c e s s r a t e of t h i s R u r a l Water S u p p l i e s Programme can be
s e e n in T a b l e 7 b e l o w .

Table 7 Drilling results for the Rural Water Supplies Program. Kano State
Nuiiber of Abandoned Static Hater Hean Depth Specific Capacity S U C C E S S Rate
SeoloQv Boreholes Boreholes Level (sbal) (fibal) U/s/i) a)
Base*ent Coiplex:
w/ geophysics 429 65 15.1 t 0.17 84.3
w/o geophysics 195 50 19.1 t 0.16 73.0
subtotal 614 115 16.2 42.3 0.17 31.2

Sediaentary Formation:
w/o geophysics 506 5 21.4 48.9 0.97 99.0

t Ho distinction between the depth of gecphysically sited and ether boreholes was given in the flepcrt

Out of 1120 b o r e h o l e s 429 w e r e g e o p h y s i c a l l y investigated using the

EM/RS m e t h o d , w h i l e an a d d i t i o n a l 97 s i t e s were r e j e c t e d on g e o p h y s i c a l
grounds. G e o p h y s i c a l s i t i n g m e t h o d s were only used in t h e Basement
Complex. However, a s p o i n t e d o u t i n Box 4 , t h e o v e r a l l s u c c e s s r a t e in
Basement c o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e been improved by applying geophysics for
all Basement s i t e s . Tb,e d a t a shows t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n not to u s e
g e o p h y s i c s in the sedimentary formations w a s justified since the
success rate i s nearly iOOX.

Sox 4

Success Increase

The difference of nearly 121 in success rates between

siting with and without geophysics in the Basesent
Ceipiex suggests that geophysical siting would have been
justified for all Base*ent boreholes,fit$240 per jieter
of drilling and 135 boreholes of an average 42.3 meters
depth the present drilling costs vtere t 1 378 120.
With a success rate of 34.31 Kith the use of geophysics
enly 160 boreholes would have had to be drilled to get
the sane nuiber of 135 successful wells. The savings in
drilling cost would then have amounted to S85 - 160 - 25
holes x 42.3 aeters » $240 = *253 800. Subtracting
siting costs of 1600 per site, the total savings would
aaount to *253 800 -(160 t $600) = 1157 300, which is
$1170 per successful well or a reduction of 11.51 on the
original drilling cost per borehole.

Sroundwater Survey (K> Ltd 52 Well Siting Guide

 4.4 Rural Water Supplies Developaent Project, Kenya 1 3

In W e s t e r n K e n y a , K E F I N C D , a j o i n t v e n t u r e of t w o F i n n i s h e n g i n e e r i n g
f i r m s in c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e K e n y a n M i n i s t r y of W a t e r D e v e l o p m e n t , h a s
b e e n e n g a g e d s i n c e 1 9 8 0 in a C M S p r o j e c t p r i m a r i l y f u n d e d b y F i n n i s h
development a i d . T h e s e c o n d p h a s e , frofn 1 9 8 3 - 1 9 3 3 , a i m s at t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 6 5 0 w a t e r s u p p l y p o i n t s c o m p r i s i n g 8 0 0
protected springs, 730 hand-dug wells and 7 2 0 boreholes (the latter t w o
equiped with h a n d p u m p s ) .

T h e p r o v i s i o n of a d e q u a t e a n d s a f e w a t e r s u p p l i e s in t h e f i r s t p l a c e
i n v o l v e s s u g g e s t i o n s f r o m t h e local c o m m u n i t y f o r s i t e s f o r w e l l s a n d
spring protection according to t h e local needs (approximately 200
p e o p l e p e r w a t e r p o i n t ) . A b a s i c i n v e n t o r y of e x i s t i n g w a t e r r e s o u r c e s
at t h e p r o p o s e d s i t e i s c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e C o m m u n i t y D e v e l o p m e n t T e a m .
O n t h e b a s i s of t h e s e f i n d i n g s a n d in c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e l o c a l
population a decision is made whether to construct a spring protection,
a h a n d d u g well or a b o r e h o l e . If s p r i n g s p r o v e i n a d e q u a t e o r n o t
p r e s e n t in t h e a r e a , d u g w e l l s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e n e x t o p t i o n . T h e
community m e m b e r s make recomniendations concerning t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of
d i g g i n g in l i g h t of t h e i r k n o w l e d g e o f l o c a l g r o u n d w a t e r l e v e l s 3 n d
p a r t i c i p a t e irt t h e f i n a n c i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e w e l l s . If l i t t l e
information is available concerning t h e subsurface conditions a single-
channel Bison 1550 seismograph and hammer can be used to investigate a
l i m i t e d a r e a ( a v e r a g e of 50s> p r o f i l e ) o p e r a t e d b y t h e w e l l - d i g g i n g
d e p a r t m e n t , b u t u s u a l l y t h e case is handed over to t h e special seismic
s u r v e y t e a m t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e a r e a f o r t h e l o c a t i o n of a m a c h i n e -
d r i l l e d b o r e h o l e . S e l e c t i o n of an a p p r o p r i a t e l o c a t i o n f o r t h e s e i s m i c
s o u n d i n g s i s m a i n l y b a s e d on t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of a r e l a t i v e l y f l a t
p i e c e of land n e a r t h e t a r g e t c o m m u n i t y . A e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s a r e n o t
analysed and n o h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l fieldwork i s carried out.

T h e s e i s m i c r e f r a c t i o n m e t h o d , u s i n g an ftbem T r i o 12 channel
seismograph, is used for locating deeply weathered zones and fractures
in t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y B a s e m e n t r o c k s a s t h e m o s t p r o m i s i n g s i t e s f o r
b o r e h o l e s in t h e p r o j e c t . R o u t i n e l y e a c h s e i s m i c p r o f i l e i s 2 0 0 m l o n g ,
i n v o l v i n g t w o s p r e a d s of i 0 0 m w i t h a g e o p h o n e s p a c i n g of 1 0 .Deters, a n d
t w o p r o f i l e s a r e m a d e at e a c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i t e . F o r o n e s p r e a d o n e
or t w o near •shots, l o c a t e d b e t w e e n g e o p h o n e s 1 - 2 a n d 11 - 1 2 , a n d t w o
far s h o t s 1 0 0 m f r o m t h e n e a r s h o t s a l o n g t h e p r o f i l e a r e u s e d . T h e
s h o c k w a v e s are g e n e r a t e d by explosives. The fieldwork routine is
c a r r i e d o u t by a c r e w of a b o u t 4 t o 8 u n s k i l l e d ( b u t e x p e r i e n c e d )
w o r k e r s s u p e r v i s e d b y s e v e r a l p r o j e c t - t r a i n e d t e c h n i c i a n s . E a c h h a s an
a p p o i n t e d task and o n e 200m p r o f i l e c a n b e c o m p l e t e d within 1 - 2
h o u r s . T h e p h o t o g r a p h i c p r i n t s o t t h e d a t a (see e x a m p l e in F i g u r e 2 0 )
are sent t o t h e head o f f i c e for i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , while t h e p r o f i l e s a r e
m a r k e d in t h e f i e l d w i t h w o o d e n or b a m b o o s t a k e s a n d o n a f i e l d s k e t c h .

T h e 100ni s e i s m i c s p r e a d g i v e s i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e o v e r b u r d e n t o
a iTiaximum d e p t h of 7 0 m e t e r s . Where t h e overburden is less than 40m
thick the above described shot and q e o p h o n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n m a k e s it
p o s s i b l e to c a l c u l a t e t h e r o c k v e l o c i t i e s a n d l a y e r t h i c k n e s s e s a t
every qeophone location (this is a distinct advantage over a
resistivity sounding which provides only information on o n e location,
i.e. t h e array c e n t e r , for each s o u n d i n g ) . A small c o m p u t e r , plotter
and u n c o m p l i c a t e d s o f t w a r e m a k e t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e f i e l d r e c o r d s
a s i m p l e m a t t e r . T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s b a s e d on a s i m p l i f i e d t h r e e -

Srcundnater Survey !K) Ltd 53 Hell Siting Guide

 layer geological model comprising a l o w - v e l o c i t y , d r y weathered zone,
an i n t e r m e d i a t e - v e l o c i t y , saturated weathered/fractured zone and a
high-velocity, fresh-rock base layer. T h e v e l o c i t i e s o-f t h e s e i s m i c
p u l s e s v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e n s i t y o-f t h e l a y e r a n d t h e p r e s e n c e o r
a b s e n c e o-f g r o u n d w a t e r . A s i m p l e g r a p h i cal / m a t h e m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s o-f
the arrival t i m e s of t h e s e i s m i c p u l s e s a t t h e v a r i o u s q e o p h o n e
locations allows t h e layer velocities to b e c a l c u l a t e d 1 4 . Data
acquisition and processing is fully carried out by a project-trained
team, but data interpretation is done by a Finnish geophysicist in t h e
project office.

••••••••••••111

MMMMHlHUf

••••SSiSB
si
Figure 20 Two sasple seismograms

F i g u r e 2 1 s h o w s t h e r e s u l t s of a 1 0 0 m s p r e a d a t S e g a l o c a l i t y . Between
g e o p h o n e s 6 - 7 a n d 1 0 - 11 r e d u c e d v e l o c i t i e s w e r e o b s e r v e d a n d
i n t e r p r e t e d a s a f r a c t u r e d z o n e s i n t h e b e d r o c k . D r i l l i n g in b e t w e e n
g e o p h o n e s 6 a n d 7 r e s u l t e d in a h i g h c a p a c i t y a r t e s i a n w e l l .

T h i s c a s e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s v e r y w e l l t h e m a j o r a d v a n t a g e of t h e s e i s m i c
refraction method over t h e resistivity m e t h o d , in t h a t a c o m p l e t e
p r o f i l e of t h e s u b s u r f a c e i s o b t a i n e d , s h o w i n g t h e l a y e r i n g u n d e r e a c h
geophone position. With a resistivity sounding at t h e same location
only t h e position of t h e layers near t h e center of t h e spread would b e
k n o w n , a n d it w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e t o p i n p o i n t t h e f r a c t u r e d z o n e .

I n t e r p r e t i n g t h * u e i s m i c p r o f i l n d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 2 2 t h e g u o p h y s i ci at
r e p o r t e d t h a t the* r e c o r d i n g d i d n o t g i v t a n y e v i d e n c e of a w a t u r -
b e a r i n g z o n e a t t h e Kalalaini P r i m a r y S c h o o l . S i n c e w a t e r w a s u r g e n t l y
needed drilling proceeded at t h n location o n t h e profile where t h e
o v e r b u r d e n w a s t h e t h i c k e s t , b u t r e s u l t e d in a d r y b o r e h o l e .

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd 54 Well Siting Guide

 artesian bh dry bh
i

100 m 100 m

Figure 21 Seismic record tor Figure 22 SeiSinic record at

Sega Village water supply Kalalami Primary School

55
 T a b l e a g i v e s an o v e r v i e w of t h e o v e r a l l drilling results a c h i e v e d by
the project from 1933 - 198& and c o m p a r e s t h e s e i s m i c a l 1 y s e l e c t e d
s i t e s with t h e n o n - s e i s m i c s i t e s .

Table B Borehole characteristics sited with and without Seisiic Refraction

Total no. Ho. dry Success (lean depth Hean depth Mean Specific capacity (*)
of b/h dry b/h rate (X) good b/h dry b/h 3.K.L. (1/5/1)
SeoloQV S N/S «i N/S S N/S S N/S S H/S S N/S c
i

N/S
Baseient 207 23 25 4 88.0 31.3 51.2 43.2 59.0 71,3 10.1 a.7 .106 (39) .150 (9)
Volcanics** 88 7 18 2 79.5 71.4 54.8 58.6 76.1 67.5 20.6 25.5 .125 (14) .219 (1)
Sediients 79 16 4 1 94.9 93.7 51.0 53.1 63.5 100 14.0 10.0 .236 (43) .136 (13)

Total*** 374 46 47 7 87.4 84.3 51.9 49.1 65.9 74.3 13.2 13.0 .146 (146) .173 (23)

S: Hith seisiic investigations H/S: Without seisiic investigations b/h: borehole

t (satple size) ** including dolerite dykes t*» excluding boreholes abandoned for technical reasons

While t h e T a b l e shows t h a t well siting with the seismic r e f r a c t i o n

method i s v e r y s u c c e s s f u l ( a v e r a g e 37.4'/. d r i l l i n g s u c c e s s r a t e ) , i t i s
noteworthy that without seismics drilling is on a v e r a g e 8 4 . Q'/.
successful ( o n l y 2.6X l e s s than with s i t i n g ) . The g u e s t i o n a r i s e s
whether under such circumstances it is really necessary to use
g e o p h y s i c a l methods a t a l l s i n c e t h e s m a l l d e c r e a s e i n d r i l l i n g c o s t s
due t o t h e h i g h e r success rate does not cover the costs o-f t h e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o s t p e r w e l l ( s e e Box 5 ) .

Sox 5
Drilling versus Siting Cost

Hith a basic drilling cost of 140 per leter and an average

Nell depth of 50 leters (little distinction between sited
and non-sited boreholes), the drilling cost per seisiically
investigated well atount to;

C. * $40 x 50i / 0.874 = 12288

For a borehole drilled without a seisuic survey the costs

are:
Cn/. = 140 x 50» / 0.848 = 12358

The difference is only 170, not enough to cover the

approxiaately $400 cost of seisiic investigations per site
(which includes transport, eguipsent write-off, explosives,
local and expatriate salaries and overheads). In 1937
seisiic surveys were used for all new borehole sites with a
success rate of 90.1 percent. The increase of 5.3 I over
non-seisiic sites is however still inadequate for a cost-
effective justification of geophysics:

C. = 140 x 50i / 0.901 - 12220

This leans that boreholes drilled on the basis of a seismic

survey are more expensive than boreholes without.

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd Well Siting Guide

 It c o u l d be a r g u e d t h a t t h e n e a r n e s s in s u c c e s s r a t e s w i t h and w i t h o u t
s e i s m i c s u r v e y is an i n d i c a t i o n of the c o r r e c t d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e
need for just a h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l s u r v e y and an a d d i t i o n a l s e i s m i c
s u r v e y . H o w e v e r , t h e a b s e n c e of a d e t a i l e d h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l s t u d y and
t h e r e l a t i v e l y r a n d o m { i . e . l o g i s t i c a l ) a p p r o a c h to t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e
s e i s m i c s u r v e y s s u g g e s t s that t h e c o m p a r a t i v e a d v a n t a g e p r o v i d e d by
s e i s m i c s is in t h i s c a s e only m a r g i n a l . T h e d e c i s i o n to u s e g e o p h y s i c s
w a s p r i m a r i l y b a s e d on t h e r e s u l t s of a p i l o t s t u d y c a r r i e d out at t h e
s t a r t of t h e o f f i c i a l p r o j e c t w h i c h s h o w e d a m u c h b e t t e r c o m p a r a t i v e
a d v a n t a g e of s e i s m i c s u r v e y s 1 3 . Given the fact that the region
r e c e i v e s a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t of r a i n f a l l (for most of t h e p r o j e c t a r e a
m o r e t h a n 1 5 0 0 m m per y e a r ) , a 1 0 0 0 m m m a x i m u m a n n u a l r a i n f a l l l i m i t
could probably be a p p l i e d as a r u l e - o f - t h u m b b e l o w w h i c h the
a p p l i c a t i o n of g e o p h y s i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s w o u l d b e u s e f u l .

W h i l e it is c l e a r t h a t under t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e n e e d
for t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of s e i s m i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s i s d o u b t f u l ,
t h i s c a s e i l l u s t r a t e s v e r y well t h e s i m p l i c i t y , g o o d r e s o l u t i o n and
s p e e d of f i e l d w o r k .

Broundwater Survey (K) Ltd 57 Hell Siting Guide

 Not<

1. D ft C Grey et al., 1985, The expanding role of the hydrogeologist in the provision of village
water supplies: an African perspective.' Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 13, 13-24,

2. S 5 0 Foster, 1984. 'African Groundwater Oeveloptent - The Challenges for Hydrogeoiogkal

Science,' In: Walling et al. eds., 1984, 3-12 (see Appendix 4).

3. C van Hi jit and J T Visscher, Hay 1987. "Handpuip Projects: Avoiding Neglect.' World Hater,
10, 4, 44-46.

4. EROS Data Center, User Services: Sioux Falls, SB 57198 USA

European Space Agency, Earthnet User Services: Via Galileo Salilei, 000 44 Frascati ITALY
Regional Centre for Services in Surveying, Happing It Retote Sensing, Box 13113, Nairobi, KENYA
Spot Itage: 16 bis, Avenue Edouard-Benin, 3.P. 4359, 31030 Toulouse cedex, FRANCE

5. R D Barker, 19B1. 'The Offset Systei of Electrical Resistivity Sounding and i t s Use ttith a
Hulticore Cable.' Geophysical Prospecting, 29, 129-143.
ibid, 1985. 'Offset Spacing Aids Resistivity Work.' World Water, 8, 9, 47-48.

i. T Williajson, 19 March 1987. "A Sense of Direction for Dowsers?'. New Scientist.

7. J L Farr, P R Spray and S S D Foster, 1982. 'Groundwater Supply Exploration in Ee»i-Arid

Regions for Livestock Extension - A Technical and Econonic Appraisal.' Water Supply and
lianagesent, 6, 343-353.

8. Total success rate increase can be expressed as a function of H« and a possible reduction in
drilling depth as:
D/R - O'/R'
dR = D/R * 100 it)

9. Based on: Accelerated Drought Relief Progrssie Victoria Province. Government of the Republic of
Zisbabwe. European Econoaic Coaiunity. Hydrotechnica (UK) and B Colquhoun, H
O'Donnell and Partners (Zinhabwe). 1985.
'Improved borehole siting using integrated geophysical techniques' by CC i/ihite. Hater
Services, June 1986.

10. 'Sondage' for Offset Henner systei, Hydrotechnica UK

11. Based on: The Use of Reiote Sensing and Geophysics for Sroundwater Exploration in Nyanza
Province - Kenya. Rv" van Lissa, W.i van fiaanen and FH Qdera. Lake Basin Develapeent
Authority, Kenya. DHV Consulting Engineers, the Netherlands. 1987.

12. Based on: Rural Water Supplies, Final Report. Federal Republic of Nigeria, K'ano State
Agricultural and Rural Developaent Authority. Sir H MacDonaldfcPartners Ltd. 1986.
and: The Coubined ENT/VES Geophysical Hethod for Siting Boreholes - 1983, by S. Beeson and
C.R.C. Jones. GROUND MATER, Vol. 26, No.l, p.54-63.

Graundwater Survey (K) Ltd i58 Hell Siting Guide

 13. Based on: Rural Hater Supply Developsent Project in Western Province of Kenya: First
Upleaentation Phase, Final Report. Kefinco, 1985. Ministry of Hater Development,
Kenya. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Finland.
Boreholes Drilled in 1936. Ibid.
Finnida, 1987. Kenya: Finland - Rural Hater Supply Developient Project in Western
Province. Report of the Revie* Mission. Ministry of Hater Development; Finnida;
UNDP/Horld Bank.

14. R A van Overseeren, 1987. 'The Plus-Minus Hethod for Rapid Field Processing by Portable
Coaputer of 3eis«ic Refraction Data in Multi-Layer Groundwater Studies.' F i r s t Break, 5, 3, 83-
94.
B R Redpath, 1973. Seisiic Refraction Exploration for Engineering Site Investigations.
Springfield, VA: National Technical infomation Service, US Department of Canerce.

15. During the investigation and planning phase of the project 11932-1983) a coiparison of 49
boreholes d r i l l e d without s e i s t i c surveys and 64 boreholes with s e i s i i c investigations shotted
d r i l l i n g success rates of respectively 69.1 and 96.7 percent, a difference of 27.6 percent. On
the basis of these figures and the above-aentioned cost-para«eters the use of geophysical
investigation techniques xould be j u s t i f i e d : C. = $2068 and C / . = $2894, a savings in basic
d r i l l i n g cost of 1826 which Mould easily cover the seis«ic investigation cost (Ovaskainen E,
n.d. Case Study Df the Use of Refraction Seisaic Surveys for the Siting of Boreholes for
Handpunped Supplies i n Hestern Province, Kenya).

16. E P Mright and R Herbert, 1985. 'Collector Hells i n Baseient Aquifers.' Haterlines, 4,2, 3-11.

17. E Schleberger, 1986. Drinking Hater Supply and Sanitation Project in Sri Lanka. Eschborn: STZ.

Sroundwater Survey (K) Ltd 59 Hell Siting Guide

 Alluvial/AUuviui 6, 24, A2, A3, A16 Inventory 4 - 6 , 16, 17, 20, 30, 52, A14
AquifeHs) 10-15, 18, 20, 24, 25, 31, 41, Machine drilling 4, 16, 17, 25, 30, 35
48, 50, A2, A3, A6-A8, A l l , A13, A1S, A16 Hao.net Dietry 21, 24, A13
Bese#ent 23, 32, 34, 34, 44, 48-50, 52, 55, Hagnetotellurids) 22, A13
A7, A13 Mineral is)/Mineralizatjon 12, 25, A2, A4,
Capacity 10, 13, 14, 24, 25, 36, 49, 53, A6, A7, A13
55, A2-A4 flonitoring 17, 2 1 , 24
Conaunity 56, 19, 29, 32, 35, 52 Permeability 10-15, 25, 35, A2, A3, A5-A7, Alfc
Consolidated 11, 23, A3, A17, A18 Aerial Photography 17-20, 32, 33, 36, 41,
Construction 24, 25, 28, 52, A3, A16, A1B 43, 4B, 52, A3, A5, A6, A8
Consultant<s) 4 , 30, 52, 46 Population 5, 13, 18, 19, 2 1 , 35, 46,
Cont&aination 25, A3, A6, A1B 48, 52, A6
CKS 4, 7, 17, 2 1 , 25, 30, 4 1 , 52, A14, A18 Porosity 10-12, 24, A2, A4, A5, A7, A18
Discharge 14, 15, 24, 43, A18 Qualitative Geophysics 22, A8, A11-A14
Drawdown 13, 15, 18, 24, 43, A1S Hater Quality 4, 12-15, 18, 20, 24, 25,
Drilling cost 4 , 4 , 44 A6, A7, A15, Alfc
Electrical conductivity 14, 21, 35, 48, A9 Quantitative Geophysics 22, A3, AS, A11-A14
Electrotagnetics/Eft 17, 18, 2 1 , 22, 30, Recharge B, 10, 13, 18, A6, A7
32-36, 4 1 , 43, 48, 49, 53, 56, Regolith 24, 34-36, 48, A7, All
A5, A6, A8, A11-A14 Resistivity 17, 21-24, 30, 32, 33, 36, 41,
Equip«ent 5, 19, 20. 23, 30, 3 1 , 4 1 , 45, 43, 48, 49, 52, 53, 56, A3, A5,
46, 55, A3, A5, A16, A17 A6, A8, A9, All, A13, A14
Fieldnork 6, 17-21, 23, 24, 30, 52, A5 SedinenMsl/Sediientary 11, 12, 23, 41, 46,
Geology 12, 18, 19, 23, 25, 32, 34, 4B, 49, 50, 55, A2-A5, A7, A13
55, A12 Seisiic(s) 17, 21-23, 30, 52-56, A3, AS, A6,
GeDRDrphoJogy 17-19, 34, 35, 48, A6 AB, A10, All, A13
Geophysical/Geophysics 5, 6, 12, 17, 18, Reiote Sensing 6, 14-18, 20, 30, 41, 45, 48
21-25, 28-33, 36, 41, 43, 44, Siting cost 4, 6, 16, 17, 30
46, 48-50, 55, 56, A3, A5, Siting Success 4, 13, 15, 16, 29, 32, 33,
At, A8, A12, A14, A14-A18 49, 50, 55, 56, A15
Brevity 13, 2 1 , 30, A2, A12, A13 Test drilling 6, 17, 25
Hand drilling 4, 17, 20, 21, 24, 25, 29, Test puiping 43, AB
30, A3, A7, A3 Onconsolidated 11, 21, 23-25, A2, A3, A7,
Hand digging 4 , 5, 25, 29, 35, 36, 4 1 , A17, AiB
46, 52, A7, A16, A17 VLF 17, 21-24, 30, A5, A6, A8, A12, A14
HandpuEp(s) 4 , 5 - 7 , 10-13, 1 5 , 2 2 , 3 1 , 4 1 , Volcanic(s) 6 , 11, 12, 23, 4 1 , 45, 55,
46, 52, A6, A7, A18 A5, A6, A13
Hydrcseelogy 32, 34, A l l , A12 Yield 7, 11-15, 18, 20, 24, 28, 44, 45, A2,
Iipeneable 11, 13, A3, A4, A6, A18 A3, A7, A8, A15, A18

GroundKater Survey (K> Ltd Well Siting Guide

 Appendices

Aquifer Types and Properties A2

1.1 Unconsolidated Sediments A2
1.2 Consolidated Sediments A3
1.3 Volcanics A5
1.4 Basement Complex A6

Geophysical Well Siting T e c h n i q u e s A8

2. 1 Electrical Resistivity A3
2.2 Seismic Refraction A9
2.3 Electromagnetic method (EM) A10
2.4 Very L D M Frequency EM All
2.5 6ravi metry Alt
2.6 Magnetometry A12
2.7 Seismic Reflection A12
2.8 Transient Electromagnetics A12
2.9 Airborne Geophysics A13
2.10 Dowsing A13

Well Construction S< Completion A15

3.1 Hand Dri11 ing A15
3.2 Hand and Machine Digging A15
3. 3 Machine Dri11ing A16
3,4 Well Completion A17

Selected Literature A18

4. 1 Hydrogeology A18
4.2 Remote Sensing A19
4.3 Geophysi cs A19
4.4 Well Construction A19
4.5 Test Pumping A20
4.6 Hater Quality A20
4.7 Handpumps A20
4.8 Management A20

Graundwater Survey (K) Ltd Al Well Siting 6uide

 ftppendix li Aquifer Types and Properties

i.l Unconsolidated Seditents

Origin and Composition

Unconsolidated sediients can bs roughly divided into three groups according to the method of
trsnsportion prior to deposition: fllluviua, transported by water; coiluvim, transported by
gravity; and eolian deposits, transported by wind. The force of loving water erodes the bed and
sides of the gully through which water flows, especially where water velocities are high, and aoves
the erosional debris downstreaa. When the transport capacity of the river is superseded, excess
Material is deposited by the river; the heaviest saterial, i.e. sand and gravel is deposited first
within the channel; the lightest i.e., clay and silt, further downstreai on the flood plains. The
greatest erosion and transportation of sediaents takes place under flood conditions. High water
velocities and great water volutes result in an increase in both the size and VDluae of aaterials
that can be transported. When a steep river valley suddenly widens, as at the foot of a fountain
range, the speed of the water suddenly decreases and nuch of the sediaent load is deposited in a
typical cone or fan shape, called alluvial fans; these are usually excellent aquifers. Flaodplains
are also caaaon alluvial landforas which occur in the lower (downstream) reaches of rivers and larger
strea»5. Deposition of sediments occurs on the inside of the bends as sand-bars: erosion occurs on
the outside Df bends. Abandoned seanders (oxbow lakes) slowly silt up with very fine grained
saterial. The coarse naterials Df the streat beds and sand bars are nost favourable as aquifers,
with high natural porosities. Foraer streaa channels oftsp. fora elaborate systess below the surface
of a present floodplain, and can yield substantial aaounts of potable water. Colluviua is the na*e
given to erosional taterial, such as rockfalls, landslides and other debris froa lountain and hill
slopes, mainly transported to the place of deposition by gravity. Mater, but also temperature,
gravity, vegetation, tectonic and chenical factors break down the original parent aaterial into loose
particles which subsequently roll down and accuaulate as scree or talus slopes at the foot of hills,
ssountains or escarpaents. The iineralcgical cotpositicn of colluviua depends on the parent rock
uaterial. Dunes are coaaon wind-borne (eolian) deposits which accumulate along seashores and in
deserts, and are tainly coaposed of quart: sands of coarse texture and good perseability.

Hydraulic Properties

The porosity of alluviua is usually very high, ranging coaaonly froa 25 to 65 I and depends on the
type, sorting, and packing of the constituent materials. Non-clayey river deposits are usually well
rounded, with high porosities and good peraeability. Where such deposits are aixed with clay the
porosity and perseability is sharply reduced. The specific yield of unconsolidated sedisents is
generally higher than that of other aaterial. Colluviua usually has high porosity and is very
peraeable, resulting in high potential infiltration rates. Given the relatively large size of the
particles coapared with alluvia*, little water is retained as soil aoisture and aost percolates to
the groundwater. Hind-borne sand particles are well sorted with porosities between 35 and 40 X .
Permeability is also good, provided that little cenentation has taken place.

Recharge

Recharge to alluvial deposits is often substantial due to the penanent or interaittent flow of
nearby streaas or rivers, where significant asounts of water percolate into the river banks and bed.

Sroundwater Survey (K> Ltd A2 Well Siting Guide

 The oroundwater flow also tends to follow the topography and accuaulate in alluvial sediments in
valleys. Direct recharge to buried river channels nay be less significant due to overlying days and
silts. Ceposits at the foot of hills and sountains often benefit froa steep catchient areas froi
which lost water runs off and infiltrates into the colluvium at the foot of the slope. The yield of
such aquifers can be substantial, in particular if underlain by an impermeable base, and springs say
occur on the down-slope side of the colluvial deposits. The availability of fresh groundwater in
eolian deposits will depend on the aaount of rainfall the area receives (ainisal in desert regions),
the depth to the grcundwater table, and evaporation. Coastal streams aay also he a source of
recharge to frssh grouridwater bodies below the dunes. Significant grcundwater bodies in arid regions
aay be due to infiltration under previous, aore humid cliaatic conditions.

Hater Quality

The poor biological quality of river water is often a major reason for seeking alternative water
sources froa groundwater. Where the distance fro* a river to a well constructed in the river bank is
small and the permeability good, groundwater quality will be similar to that of the river. However,
sand has a good filtration capacity, so locating a well at some distance from the river channel can
effect natural filtration of the groundwater. Biological contamination froi huian and animal sources
is a significant danger in most uncor.solidated environments, since the groundwater table is often
near to the surface. With a shallow groundwater table and little recharge, evaporation »ay cause
significant salinization of the groundwater, Sroundwater abstraction froa coastal dunes presents a
particular challenge in maintaining adequate quality, since the fresh water floats on saline
seawater. Well construction and abstraction rates need to be carefully regulated to avoid upconing
of saline water with the subsequent deterioration of water quality.

Groundwater Investigation

Unconsolidated sediients can generally be identified relatively easily on aerial photos and in the
field. Due to their low topographic position aquifers are often near to the surface in soft
material, where test drilling is easily and cheaply carried out by hand. In arid areas lines of
denser vegetation are indicative of near-surface groundwater in dry riverbeds. Hhen hand-drilling
equipment is available, geophysics are generally not necessary. However, in complicated Hcodplain
areas or with alluvial fans geophysical profiling aethods help establish the extent of the 3lluvial
deposits and the location of buried river channels. Seismic and resistivity techniques are useful
(but ;iore burdensose in their application! where quantitative infGraation is sought concerning the
thickness of unconsolidated sediments and the topography of underlying formations.

1,2 Consolidated Sediments

Origin and Composition

Consolidated sediuentary rocks are foraed from material eroded froa pre-existing rocks, transported
and deposited elsewhere, which over time and with the pressure of overlying layers have been hardened
into consolidated rocks. Sandstones and limestones are important as aquifers. Sandstone, as the
name indicates, is a consolidated product of sedUented sands. The sediaents were laid down in beds
which vary in thickness from a few centiaeters to Jiany meters. Extended sandstone beds are most
comnonly of uarine origin. The original layering is often disturbed by tectonic activity, folding
and fracturing it. Limestone and Dolomite have a high calcium and magnesiui carbonate content and
are nostly foraed by chemical or biochenical processes in a warm fresh water or marine environnent.

Sroundwater Survey (K> Ltd A3 Nell Siting Guide

 Hydraulic Properties

The porosity of the various types of sandstone ranges fro* a high 30 I to a low I X . This is a
function of sorting, grain shape, packing, and the dsgree of ceientation. The last factor is the
sost itportant, as it not only ceaents the individual particles together but also reduces the
porosity by filling the pores. CeaenUtion aay be caused by clay linerals present in the original
deposits. Silica or carbonate cenent nay be present in the connate porewater, or be introduced as
precipitates by circulating groundwater originating froa elsewhere. Secondary porosity,
i.e. fissures and solution cavities, account for sDnetises excellent aquifer characteristics if
significantly developed by tectonic activity or weathering. The aain feature which stakes groundwater
abstraction froa liiestone attractive is the developient of secondary porosity through fissuring
(mostly along bedding planes) and dissolution (testification). Hhen groundwater, which is
undersaturated with CaCQj, coaes in contact with lisestone, it will dissolve the rock until
equilibriu* is reached. The aore groundwater flowing through joints and bedding planes, the stronger
the dissolving action. This can eventually result in large caverns and underground channels in the
liiestone, suitable for high capacity groundwater abstraction. In huaid tropical regions, liiestones
aay weather very rapidly because of the increased acidity derived frot the rapid decay of overlying
vegetation.

Recharge

Recharge by fresh water is essential to replace the connate saline water of tarine sedisents. Where
adequate rainfall and percolation occurs for has occurred in the past), a significant body of fresh
water nay be found floating on the fossil saline water in a siiilar tanner to that described for
fresh-water lenses in dunes. Recharge to a liaestone aquifer depends on the infiltration capacity of
the surface soils. However, in the case of karst terrain, surface depressions (sinkholes) lay
concentrate recharge along joints and fractures. The flaw of such water will be strongly controlled
by the joints and fracture systeas, with little recharge to pri»ary pores.

Mater Quality

The cheiical quality of groundwater in sediaentary rocks can vary froa highly concentrated brines to
fresh water with less than 100 ppa of total dissolved solids (TDS). Solution of limestone results in
'hardness' of water, but acceptable levels are relatively high (NHO: 500 ppa). ft sore severe proble*
can occur where linestone is exposed at the surface with a highly developed network of joints and
fractures: recharge will be rapid and surface pollution can be a tajor hazard which spreads rapidly
and is difficult to control.

Sroundwater Investigation

Typically, sedimentary rocks are layered as a result of the deposition process. This layering
(stratification or bedding) is often recognizable on aerial photographs and on the ground, as
successive layers with different characteristics. Sandstone, usually hard and resisting erosion,
will forn ridges in the terrain, while interbedded shale is softer and erodes lore easily. Jointing
perpendicular to the bedding planes when well developed say also be visible. The absence of drainage
channels is a coaaon feature and indicates high rainwater infiltration. Identification of a
sandstone layer through geophysical methods is possible when it is thick enough. Strong jointing can
be identified with EM or seisnic equipment, while the presence of water and the presence of and
distinction between fresh and saline water can usually be identified with resistivity soundings.
S«all confining layers of shale at considerable depth, however, are often undistinguishable with all
methods except test drilling. With strong jointing and tectonic activity, such beds can becose
permeable. Mhen not saturated with saline water, sandstone is highly suited to groundwater
developient. Easy to recognize in the field and on aerial photographs is a karstified liaestone
terrain with its »any rcughiy circular sinkholes. Drainage will sostly be through sinkholes with few
surface streaas present. Non-karstified liaestone and doloaite are tore difficult to identify and

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd A4 Dell Siting Guide

 geological fieldwork Mill be necessary. Geophysical recognition will be based on contrasting
characteristics with other formations. The resistivity method Hill be the tost useful in
distinguishing the depth and extent of such contrasting formations. EH and VLF profiling aethods are
of Hsi ted use, except when fracture zones or major Mater-bearing cavities are present.

1.3 Volcanics

Origin and Composition

Volcanic rocks are associated with a number of geological phenoiena. Host obvious is the association
with volcanoes. Lava flows and ash layers can cover large areas, depending on nagia caiposition and
nature of the eruption, often in a typically radial lanner. A second type, perhaps not as easily
recognizable, evolves fra,t the extrusion of aagaa along fissures, often resulting in very thick
plateau basalts, so-called because of their relatively flat appearance and their composition, being
fine-grained (sometimes glassy) igneous, basic rock; A third type sosewbat similar to the plateau
basalt consists of dykes and sills. These are bodies of magma which penetrate fissures and bedding
planes (the first primarily vertical, the second more horizontal), but do not flow out at the
surface. Crystallization results in medium-grained dolerite; therefore dykes and sills are not
classified as volcanic, but as intrusive rocks.

Hydraulic Properties

Volcanic rocks have a wide range of hydraulic properties depending on the lethod of fonatian,
composition and to some degree, age. The porosity of unfractured volcanic rock can vary from less
than 1 I in dense basalt to tore than 85 X in puake (rock with large, but not interconnected
openings due to trapped volcanic gasses). Dykes and sills usually have less than 5 I porosity.
However, although porosities lay be relatively high the permeability, which is lost important to
groundwater flow, is mainly a function of secondary structures. Host iiportant of these are joints
which have developed due to cooling and subsequent shrinkage of the lava, lava tubes (which passed,
but did not fill up with lava), fractures caused by movement in partly-solidified lava floMS and
voids left in between successive lava flows, Weathering nay also increase porosity and pemeability.
Qf specific importance are buried soils (also known as "old land surfaces') where significant
weathering occurred between successive lava flows. Often these buried soils become routes for
preferential groundwater flow, but it is also possible that through the formation of clay layers the
overlying volcanic rock is the more permeable of the t«o and perched groundwater flow occurs above
such buried soils. In thick tectonized volcanic sequences, significant faulting can cause high
vertical permeability, which can lead to very deep groundwater levels often beyond the reach of
handpumps. However, in most cases horizontal permeability is significantly larger than vertical
permeability and a series of confined aquifers is formed. Thus, even when the water struck level is
far below the reach of handpunp abstraction, high pressure heads can reduce the depth to static water
level by more than 50 I . In asany volcanic environments this has resulted in artesian wells (free-
flowing water at ground level). Decomposed volcanic ash layers are likely to form confining layers
as their permeability is limited and dykes and sills often act as groundwater barriers, The
solidified aagma idelerite) itself is often very dense and impermeable, but in the process of
intruding can alter the surrounding rock, making it more liable to fracturing and deep weathering in
the contact zone, and thus forming a potential aquifer.

Recharge

The aaount of recharge in volcanic areas depends primarily on the cliaatic regime. The siie of the
surplus in rainfall over the soil water deficit can roughly indicate the likelihood of significant
recharge. Topographic features may also contribute to recharge as high volcanoes are likely to
attract nore rain than the plains and up-slope infiltration into the various lava flows can support a
significant amount of ground*ater flow down-dip. Flat features suth as plateau basalts and dyke
outcrops in arid plains will have much less recharge and depend mostly on the infiltration of local

firoundwater Survey IK) Ltd A5 Hell Siting Guide

 rainfall along fractures and faults, unless significant surface Hater is present which can percolate
dawn to the groundwater table.

Hater Quality

In high rainfall 3reas water frot volcanic rocks is usually of good cheiical quality. Near hot
springs and in the »ore arid regions, where there is less fresh water recharge, groundttater tends to
be lore lineralhed due to its age and the dissolution of volcanic rock. High fluoride
concentrations are quite often a particular problea. Shallow groundwater levels and high evaporation
rates or sea water penetration in coastal environaents tay lead to salt water contaaination. Hhere
the volcanic rock is very peraeabie biological pollution is possible in areas of dense population and
aninal concentrations. However, groundwater in the vDlcanics is found usually quite deep and thick
overlying layers of tuff (volcanic ash) and soil will prove to be an adequate barrier to such
contamination of deeper aquifers.

6roundwater Investigation

The aost important eleaent in well siting in volcanic areas is to be able to reconstruct the
geoaarphological history of the area as an aid to determining the approximate thicknesses,
composition and ages of the various lava flows, the position of the paleo-topography (ancient
valleys, lakes, drainage patterns, etc.) and buried soils. As volcanic features are usually
relatively large, «any of thea will have been previously studied froa a geological point of view and
collecting existing laps and reports nay provide a substantial aaount of the needed infor*ation,
requiring only field correlation at the project site. Satellite iaagery, but especially aerial
photography of a suitable large scale (e.g. 1:12500) will provide a good overview of the often
couples volcanic sequences. Geophysical investigation techniques are of liaited use in areas of lany
successive lava flows. The resolution of an aquifer zone between individual lava flows is often
insignificant and, for resistivity aeasureients depends largely on the depth, thickness and contrast
of interbedded buried soils. If the latter are too thin they aay not show up on the aeasureaent,
even though it light function as an adequate aquifer. Seisiic refraction aeasureaents will also have
great difficulty in picking up such 'hidden layers', due to a reverse in the energy velocity
sequence. Profiling aethods, such as EM and VLF, can be very useful to locate lateral anoaalies such
as dykes or fracture zones, but are alaost useless with a coaplex of lava flows.

1.4 Baseaent Coiplex

Origin and Composition

Baseaent Shield or Baseaent Couple* is the nate given to areas where hard rock (basically igneous and
netaaorphic) of Precasbrian age is exposed at the surface or covered with a very thin layer of
sediaents. "In situ' weathering at the surface neans that the Basenent is usually covered by a layer
of unconsolidated material, the regolith, and broken rock. In teras of water-bearing layers, aquifers
in a basement area can be divided into two components which aay be present together or independently
of each other, the weathered layer and the fissured and jointed zone in the fresh rock. Faulting due
to tectonic activity aay result in a third aquifer type in which groundwater flow is primarily
restricted to the deep and narrow fracture zones in the fresh rock associated with such faulting.

Hydraulic Properties

The regolith consists of fine-grained and clayey aaterial characterized by high porosity and low
peraeability. The highest groundwater potential in the weathered layer will be where the depth to
bedrock is greatest and the deepest penetration of the reqolith can be achieved. The joints and
fractures which for« the onset of the weathering process in the fresh rock nay give rise to zones of

Groundwater Survey (K> Ltd A6 Well Siting Guide

 high permeability, but usually nith linited storage. However, for handpuip abstraction, tiny
fissures ere often enough to provide a constant supply of water. Especially when such a fractured
bedrock layer is overlain by saturated reaolith, adequate storage will be provided for larger
abstractions. Faults are usually narrow, elongated and fora deep fracture zones in the fresh rock,
which are characterized by high p e n e a b i l i t i e s and tore substantial storage. Shallow subsurface
depressions in the bedrock aay suffer fro* high evaporation rates through capillary action, leaving
l i t t l e and poor quality grouridnater for abstraction. Clay layers in the weathered zone nay lead to
(seii-konfined conditions in which the water level is raised above the initial water struck level.
H the «ater table is relatively shallow U25* btjii, wide diaseter hand-dug wells *ey be t good
option for low perseability regolith, especially where nachine drilling is expensive and the yield of
hand drilling, due to the stall diaieter, too lew 14 .

Recharge

Recharge of the regolith will be l i t i t e d by the soil •oisture deficit, which will bind §ost of the
i r u l t r a t i n g wster to the top soil layers. Direct infiltration through the larger pores and
secondary openings end where the fracture zone is connected to surface outcrops, will provide iDre
significant recharge. As the subsurface bedrock topography does not necessarily follow the surface
topecraphy, rainfall catchnent areas should not be assu«ed indicative of local recharge.

Hater Quality

The quality of groundwater depends basically on two factors: the speed of rechargF and the nearness
to the ground surface. When recharge is little and water stays in the ground for a long tiae,
tineral dissolution of the surrounding rock particles can significantly alter the chemical
composition of groundwater. Iron nay achieve undesirably high concentrations in nany basement
areas. Excessive levels of fluoride, sulphate and tetals are prisarily a function of the parent rock
chetistry. Another source of quality deterioration lay ste» fron high evaporation rates of near-
surface groursdwster. Evsporites fori at and near the surface which during rainfall will be dissolved
and infiltrated in the lower groundwater, causing increased salinity. This should be expected
especially in the tore arid regions. Pollution caused by people and anital waste is also a distinct
possibility where wells are located near population centres and aniial watering places, especially
where groundwater levels are shallow.

Sroundwater Investigation

Surface inforBation does usually not account for the variability of subsurface conditions in basenent
areas. The lajor exception is in the case of faulting, where lineations lay be visible on satellite
imagery, aerial photography and in the field. Depending on the hardness of the regolith, hand
drilling will probably be the cheapest and aost cotprehensive »ethod of identifying aquifers of the
first type, situated in the deepest sections of the weathered »aterial. But it will not be possible
to penetrate the «ore coepect fractured zone. Puaping tests carried out in the hand drilled holes
can then be used to calculate naxiniB yield.

Beophysical investigation eethods tieve proven to be very effective in discerning the two features of
tost interest to the location of adequate quantities of groundwater: deep valleys in the subsurface
bedrock and deep !sub-)vertical faultlines and associated fracture zones. The horizontal fracture
zone on the boundary between regolith and fresh rock is, because of its relative thinness, less
easily detected. 6uslitative profiling methods such as EM, VLF, and ithough »ore cuabersoae)
Resistivity are very useful in pin-pointing lateral changes in the subsurface which are caused by
undulating bedrock and faultlines. However, they are less useful in determining, for exaiple, the
depth of such anomalies. For such quantitative data seiseic refraction or resistivity soundings have
to be used. These last two tethods take tore tiie than the profiling »ethods, but give a better
indication of whether water is present and at what depth it nay be encountered.

Broundwater Survey (K) ttd A7 Hell Siting Guide

 Appendix 2i Geophysical Well Siting Techniques

2.1 Electrical Resistivity Soundings

When carrying out a resistivity sounding, also called vertical electrical sounding (VES), an
electrical current (1) i s passed into the ground through tao Jtetal stakes, the current electrodes.
Subsurface variations in electrical coriductivity determine the pattern of current flow in the ground
and thus the distribution of electrical potential, ft neasure of this is obtained in t e n s of the
voltage drop ldV! between a second pair of jetal stakes, the potential electrodes. Ths ratio (dV/I)
provides a direct leasureient of the ground resistance and fro* this, and the electrode spacing, the
apparent resistivity of the ground can be calculated (see Figure 23).

Figure 23 Scheiatk diagrai of a Resistivity Sounding

A series of aeasursnents jade Kith an expanding array of current electrodes provides infarction on
the vertical variation in resistivity. The ae3sured apparent resistivity curves versus current
electrode half-separation yields a layered earth todel cosposed of" individual layers of specific
thickness and resistivity. Interpretation of the sounding graph i s based upon the convolution lathad
of Ghosh, a satheaatical curve-fitting procsdurs. Without additional data for correlation i t can
easily lead to a fitting solution that does not quite correspond to reality. The layered earth acdel
is actually very such a siaplification of the aany different layers which tay be present. The
various equivalent solutions which can be generated by the computer should therefore be carefully
analyzed.

Broundwater Survey (K) Ltd A8 Bell Siting Guide

 2.2 Seisaic Refraction

The Seisaic Refraction aethod consists of leasuring (at known points along the surface of the ground)
the travel tiies of coapressianal naves generated by an iipulsive energy source. The energy source is
usually a siall explosive charge, or a weight dropping device. The energy pulse is detected,
aaplified and recorded by special equipaent. The signals are picked up by detectors at the ground
surface, called geophones. Froi the detectors the signals are transiitted along uulti-conductor
cables to a recording instruient, or seisaograph. The instant of explosion or "zero-tiae* is
recorded on the saie record which contains the other arriving pulses. The rax data therefore
consists of travel tiies and distances and this tiae-distance infor»ation is then lanipulated to
convert it into the foriat of velocity variations MIth depth.

Seisaic Refraction is one of the aethads suited to Ion-cost groundwater investigation projects at
nediui to large scale, since the lethod is rapid and provides 3 coiprehensive aaount of information
of the project area at a reasonable cost. One or wore sites can be investigated per day, providing
reliable inforaation on the types Df underlying rock and their depth below the surface, as well as on
the likely occurrence of groundwater.

V. = 3.63 Km/sec ' •'*' >**» Of «AV »EF«AC™O

1
AlONC Vi -VjCONMCT

Figure 24 Scheiatic diagraa of Seisiic Refraction Method

Traveltiaes for the various paths are: tt = 0.500 sec; t* = 0.630
sec; t, - 0.588 sec. Uohdy, 1974)

The refraction aethod aakes use of ccapressional waves travelling along the ground surface and the
ones returning to ground surface after being refracted by underlying nore compact layers with the
higher velocities. Close to the point where the energy is released the ground surface waves are the
first to arrive at the geophones. At a certain distance depending on the depth to the first
refractor, waves following longer but faster paths in the subsurface layers overtake the surface
waves. The tine it takes for the refracted waves to travel froa the iipact point to the geophones,
where they are recorded as first arrivals, is a function of the layer velocities and depths below
surface.

By positioning the geophones in line with various shot points a continuous profile aay be obtained
over a large area, ft second aeasureaent line perpendicular to the first can give a three-dlaensicnal
subsurface picture of the site. It is iaportant that the site be relatively flat.

A saall prograsaable calculator or portable coaputer can be carried in the field to obtain fast
interpretations. As with the resistivity lethod, the neasuresent locations should be deterained by a
hydrogeologist, while careful data evaluation should be carried out by a geophysicist-cua-
hydroqeologist.

Groundxater Survey IK) Ltd Well Siting Guide

 2.3 Electromagnetic method (EH)

Electromagnetic techniques measure the apparent conductivity of the sub-surface. A magnetic field is
produced by passing an alternating current through a transmitter coil on the ground surface. This
priaary field generates an electric current in the ground, the strength of which depends Dn the
conductivity of the sub-surface. The strength of the induced secondary field is aeasured by a
receiver coil at a fixed distance. Since no direct contact with the ground surface is necessary,
aeasureaents can be made rapidly and are not hampered by bad contacts in dry surface layers. It is
often utilised as an initial reconnaissance tool, giving a quick impression of subsurface
conductivities. It can also be used to accurately locate specific anomalies, such as faultsd rones,
dykes or buried channels.

Electromagnetic measurements are usually carried out along profile lines, thus obtaining a cross-
section through a certain area. Depth of penetration below ground surface depends on the frequency
of the transmitted current, surface layer conductivity, coil position and the separation between the
coils. Kith most equipment used penetration is commonly in the order of 10 to &0 seters.

A qualitative interpretation of the aeasureaents is obtained by tapping the positions Df the recorded
anomalies on the survey lines, and the observed values of the conductivity of such features. Soie
knowledge of the local hydrogeology is necessary to identify the nature of the anomalies. Simple
interpretations for two or three-layered models can calculated by hand or with computer software, but
the reliability of such aodels depends largely upon available correlation data; for example, from
borehole logs or seismic or resistivity soundings.

TNO people are required to operate the system; one person at the transmitter and one at the
receiver. The operators require little background knowledge and experience and can be trained on the
job. The location and direction of the survey lines should be decided by a hydrogen!ogist, *ho
should also interpret the data.

The tiae required for measuring a traverse depends on the number of readings which are taken at each
station along the profile. Usually several kilometers a day can be measured. This is more than
adequate for one or even two potential borehole sites.

The electromagnetic survey nethod is a quick method of obtaining a qualitative impression of a

relatively large area. It is fool-proof and sisple to operate in the field, and because it does not
require electrical contact with the ground, it can be applied in any place where profiling sith the
electrical resistivity method does not »Qrk properly. Although its quantitative interpretation
capacities are United, the nethcd is suitable for locating narrow conductive zones such as faults or
contact zones, which are potential aquifers in any geological environment. EH can also be used to
establish changes in the thickness of the regolith above basement areas.

2.4 Very Low Frequency EH

The VLF (Very Low Frequency) method Df investigation is based on the sa»e principles as the
electromagnetic sethod, but consists only of a small light-weight receiving instruaent. The signals
Df strong VLF (10 - 30 kHz) radio transmitters induce locally weak secondary electromagnetic fields
in conductive structures below the earth's surface. The VLF receiver measures the secondary field
strength and phase shift near the conductive zone in the underground. In spite of its naie, the
frequency of the signal is luch higher than conventional EH techniques. This implies that such less
penetration is achieved, especially where conductive layers are present at ground surface, At least
two transmitters, in different directions, should cover the project area. A local VLF station nay
also be used. The depth of penetration for the VLF method depends on the signal strength, which
depends on the potter of transmitter and the distance to it, and the strength of the reaction by the
conductor. It is usually Df the order of 5 to 30 metres depth. Some manufacturers also provide a
small portable field VLF transmitter, to be stationed in the survey area.

Sroundwater Survey IK) Ltd A10 Hell Siting Guide

I
 The VLF aethod of qroundwater investigation is based on the profiling technique. Survey lines are
walked (the instrument can be carried by one person), preferably perpendicular to the sain terrain
trends or suspected strike of the geological structures. At regular intervals (e.g. 5 or 10 aeters)
a reading is taken and the result written down or autoaatically recorded by the instrument. The
operator should have soae insight into the structural features of the terrain, unless the survey
lines are predetermined or based on preliainary studies. Several kilaaetres can be surveyed daily
and on-the-job training is easy. Interpretation should be carried out by a hydrogeologist with
knowledge of the local geology.

A qualitative interpretation of the aeasureeents can be obtained by plotting the observed values
along profiles or on a aap. The position and the strike of anoaalies thus beccie apparent. Knowledge
of the local hydrogeology is necessary to identify the nature of the anomalies. A basic quantitative
interpretation of the anoaaly (depth to conductive rone and its conductivity) can be obtained through
a comparison of the intensity of the anoialy with the readings lor the non-anoialDus terrain. Soae
instruaents have an in-built interpretation capacity. Sraphs for calculation by hand, and coaputer
software are also available. Reliability of interpretation is increased when calibrated with other
quantitative data.

At present there is still soae uncertainty concerning whether the signals produced by the lain VLF
stations sufficiently cover all parts of Africa in adequate strength to allow this aethod to be used
in every country on the continent. In the past results with groundwater surveys in West Africa have
not been encouraging. Also tests in East Africa with the new generation of VLF equipaent (A3EM
Kadi), recently entered into the aarket, have been disappointing.

2.5 Graviietry

The Braviaetric nethad is based on aeasuresents of the gravitational field at various locations over
an area of interest. The objective in exploration work is to associate variations with differences
in the distribution of densities and hence of rock types and structural features. Sased on the
aeasureaents, gravity contour lines are drawn to give an igpressian of qualitative lateral variations
in subsurface density of a project area.

The seasureients are carried out with a graviaeter, a highly sensitive spring balance which weighs a
snail internal aass suspended froa a spring. The points of neasureaents are usually predetermined
along survey lines, a grid, or according to topographic features. The aeasureaent points need to be
levelled, or the elevation determined on the basis of detailed (and accurate) topographical saps
(e.g. 1:5000). The spacing between the seasureaents depends on the size of the project area and the
level of detail required. Each neasureaent takes approxiaately 5 to 10 ainutes. Every one or two
hours a reading nust be taken at a base station to calibrate the :ero value.

Qualitative interpretation of the reduced readings is basically a aatter of analysis in the light of
suspected differences in rock densities and the variable thicknesses of contrasting rock forsations.
This requires a good knowledge of the local geology. Also a coaparison with other geophysical tethods
aay assist in the evaluation, gravity data tay Neil be used to extrapolate depth information
obtained by seisaic or resistivity soundings. A quantitative analysis is, however, only possible
with adequate quantitative inforaation for calibration, such as depths to rock interfaces and
densities of rock types.

Field operation needs very precise adjustaents of screws, careful reading of the leasured values and
patience. The variations in observations are very snail and the range of erroneous readings can
easily invalidate the data, Hhen correct operation is aastered, a geophysicist is only required for
the initial layout of the survey and interpretation of the aeasured values. The observation stations
need to be levelled to coapen&ate for topographical variations. The aethod can provide useful
geological background inforaation for large projects, but is not suitable for well siting by itself.

6roundv»ater Survey (K) Ltd Ail Hell Siting Guide

 2.6 flagnetoietry

flaqnetoaetry involves leasureients of the direction and gradient or intensity of the earth's lagnetic
field. Magnetic surveys can be sade on the land surface, fro* the air or fro* a ship, Neasureaents
are sade of either the relative or absolute intensity of the sagnetic field. The intensity of the
measured field depends on the location of the observation point with reference to the variable
saqnetic field of the earth and on the local or regional concentration of magnetic »aterial in the
subsurface, tiagnetosatry is aost useful with basaltic volcanics and in Baseaent areas because the
igneous and aeta&orphic rocks contain a larger proportion of magnetic linerals than lost sediaentary
formations (excepting certain nagnetic gravels and sandsi, and can therefore be used to nap aquifers
in Basalts and above fresh bedrock in Basesent areas. Quantitative interpretation is often
asbiguous, but a general lateral qualitative interpretation siiilar to a gravisetric survey and
resulting in a sagnetic contour nap can help locate lateral anoaalies, revealing differences in rock
types according to their aagnetic properties. Field work is relatively simple and fast, but to be
significant for individual well siting a dense network Df ineasureaents is needed and in practice EH
nethods are often preferred as earth conductivity is easier to interpret than earth nagnetics and
because EM is far superior in sedimentary environsents. Hagnetojietric surveys have been applied
successfully in several African countries (e.g. RSA, Ziibabwe, Zaabia, Botswana and Tanzania) to
locate water-bearing zones associated with intrusives (dolerite dykes) in Baseient rock.

2.7 Seisiic Reflection

By far the tost cosion aethod applied in oil exploration is the Seis»k Reflection Method. Based on
the observation of the propagation of coaoressicnal waves through the underground, it provides
detailed infortstion on layering and structure. With the developoent of high resolution digital
recording equipnent it has only recently becoae suitable for shallow depth studies and as such has
becoie a potential tool for grDundwater exploration. The »ethod is based on the »easure»ent of the
elapsed tiiae fro« the iapact of an explosion at the surface to the arrival of the energy pulse back
to geophones at the earth's surface. The signal is reflected at every layer boundary which has
sufficient acoustic contrast. By recording the arrival tiaes of the prinary reflections the depth of
the reflectors can be deterained and thus the geological structure and stratigraphy inferred. The
fieldwork and instrumentation utilired for shallow reflection is aore or less similar to that used in
seiseic refraction surveys, although digital recording equipaent is required. Processing of data is
highly specialised work for which powerful cotputers and expensive software are needed. The asount
of detail provided aakes this aethod, which is still in the development phase for shallow exploration
purposes, potentially a proiising tool for groundwater investigations.

2.B Transient Electromagnetics

ftnother lethod which night, in the near future, become a useful tod for groundwater investigations
is the transient electromagnetic aethod iTEH), also called the tiise-doaain Ed (TOEft) technique.
Unlike the aore coasonly used frequency-doiain EH sethod described above, the TEH can be used to
carry out quantitative depth soundings such like resistivity soundings, except that there is no need
to change the distance between the trapsaitter and receiver coils to achieve deeper penetration. TEH
is Kore sensitive to conductive zones than the resistivity nethod, thus has less problems with
suppression of ssall conductive layers at depth. Sose problems still liaiit the application of the
T£H sethod to relatively shallow groundwater investigations. For exa«ple, resolution at very shallow
depths, equivalent interpretation alternatives siiilar to resistivity interpretations, Li sited
developnent and distribution of interpretation routines and the rather expensive equipment.

Groundwater Survey (K> Ltd A12 Hell Siting Guide

 2.7 Airborne Geophysics

The application of Airborne Geophysics in groundwater exploration is siailar in principle to the use
of surface geophysics. It utilizes geophysical aethods which do not require contact with the ground
surface. The tost coaaonly used set hods are electrcuagnetics and nagnetosetry, but VLF, grsvi»etric,
radiojietric, and even radar aeasureaents can be applied. Carrying out such observations frci the air
allows relatively large areas to be surveyed quickly. The data thus obtained are suitable priianly
for qualitative interpretation of lateral variations in the conductivity, magnetic field strength, or
whatever variable has been recorded. Froi simultaneous iulti-channel AEH (Airborne EH) recordings, a
(liaited) quantitative interpretation is possible. Depending on the resolution required a survey is
usually flown in parallel lines of 0.5 to 2 ka distance froa each other. The airborne survey is
generally preceded by an initial geological inventory of the area to select the required resolution
and pinpoint areas of specific interest. The airborne data recording is followed by data processing,
interpretation and integration with the existing geological knowledge of the project area. High-
potential areas can be selected for ground follow-up with surface hydrogeological and geophysical
investigations and drilling operations. Airborne geophysics gives a coaprehensive regional
overview.

For airborne geophysics (including data interpretation) costs are in the range of $100 - J500 per
line-kiloaetre and depends on the total length of the required flight lines. It usually covers areas
upwards of several thousand square kilometres. Only very large scale rural water supply progras»es
justify this type of groundwater reconnaissance.

2.10 Dowsing

"Finding sources of water has long been considered a subtle art. Forked sticks called
divining rods have been used since ancient tines to detect the presence of water. (...) The
divining rod will probably retain its ancient appeal. Kith regard to aysticisa and
roiance, it's definitely »ore alluring than the scientific aethod. Prkewise, there's no
way to beat a forked stick, and the diviner can announce his findings clearly right on the
spot with aystical conviction." (A aanufacturer of geophysical instruments)

Scientists have long been skeptical of dowsing (also known as divining, water witching, or the
biophysical aethod). Hany consider it to be nothing aore than self-dscepticn, resulting fraa
autosuggestion, sose relegate it to the rsali of the paranoreal, but others believe it is a loa-cost
and often highly successful aethod to locate potential well sites. One recent report in the latter
category, concerning a rural water-supply project in Sri Lanka 17 , daias that it was the aost
effective sethcd (near 100 I success rate) of locating well sites in teras of:

t general location of possible well

* pin-pointing the site with accuracy of dcwn to 10 ca
* detailing specifications on the width of aquifers
* pin-pointing intersecting points of aquifers
* deteriination cf flow direction of underground water
* establishing the depth of the static water level at points where two or oore
aquifers intersected
t deteraination of the expected yield of water
t general information on the water quality (salt content etc.)
* inforaation en the geological profile to provide a guideline for the drilling
crew.

Sroundwater Survey (K) Ltd A13 Hell Siting Guide

 There are soie grounds for a scientific explanation of the dowsing sethod. Just as sany aniasls have
a sense of naqnetisi to help thei to navigate in the absence of other clues (e.g. hosing pigeons,
bees and whales), the huaan body lay also have ultra-sensitive sensors of this kind. Magnetic (or
other earth-potential) anoaalies, caused by conductors in the subsurface, aay trigger a ausde
reflex, which is accentuated in a sisple toveient of any iapleient held lightly in the dowsers hand.
If dowsing is treated as a profiling sethod, the results will priiarily indicate subsurface anonalies
and additional data will be needed to confiri the exact nature of the anDtaly.

A nunber of dowsers clain, however, that they can predict the groundntater level, quality, and the
potential yield, but there seees tQ be little scientific evidence that these claias can be
substantiated. Reports of controlled eKperiiients into the actual application of the dowsing jethod,
while occasionally showing substantial successes, as in the exaiple mentioned above, have also
indicated expensive failures, suggesting that soae dowsers are less successful than they would like
to believe.

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd A14 Hell Siting Guide

I
I
 Appendix 3i Well Construction and Completion

The largest single cost itei in a handpuap-based coa«unity water supply (CMS) prograiae is alaast
invariably the well construction. The correct choice of construction aethDd can have a considerable
impact on overall costs and thus on the number of water points which can be provided within budget
liiitations.

The lain well construction options which are available 3re hand-dug or sachine-dug wells, and hand-
drilled or aachine-driUed boreholes. Hand digging and drilling is alsost inevitably cheaper than
uachine construction, but also »ore liiited in application because aanpower is used, ft brief
description of these aethods is given below, along with so*e coanents on the hydrogeological
significance of proper well completion.

3.1 Hand Drilling

One of the siiplest and cheapest lethods for site investigation is by drilling stall test boreholes
with hand augers in the isnediate surroundings of a proposed well site. The equipment is
uncoaplicated and its operation easy to iaster. The hand drilling sethod is only feasible where the
subsurface is soft enough to be penetrated by hand augers. The depth to which a hand drill can go is
very liiited in cosparison to lachine drilling, approxiiately in the range of 10 to 15 setres below
the surface. Unconfined aquifers and shallow confined aquifers in alluvius, hill-side debris, and
weathered surface material in different geological environments «ay be investigated with hand
drills. With hand drilling the potential borehole site is investigated along conventional
hydrogeological lines, by taking sasples of the subsurface layers at selected intervals and testing
the characteristics of sny groundwater which is encountered. Depending on the suitability of the
area for hand drilling, this investigation aethod should be conducted as an eleaent of the hydro-
geological investigation stage. it the gathered data provides clear evidence of sufficisnt
groundwater quantity arid of adequate quality, the geophysical investigation stage say be emitted.
Successful testholss can be reaaed into production holes without the need far machine drilling.

3.2 Hand and Machine Digging

Hand-dug wells are relatively shallow to ssdius depth, wide-diaaeter 00.75 i) wells which continue
to he relevant to CHS projects because their construction generally requires only siaple tools and
unskilled labour. Another advantage over boreholes is, that because of the wide diaaeter the wells
have a large storage and can therefore be dug successfully in aquifers of poor permeability. ?u.iping
is basically dene frss the water stored inside the well and not directly froi the aquifer as with the
snail-diaaeter boreholes which have little sell storage. In loose material the wells ire generally
lined with concrete rings to prevent caving in of the sides. Mechanised digging equipient can also
be used, for exaapie traetor-asounted back hoes and pneuaatic chisels. Below the water table in
conditions of excessive recharge dewatering pusps nay be needed to reacve the water during digging.
Because dug wells are often cheaper than .machine-drilled wells the amount of 3oney which can be spent
on well siting is also less. Only ahen etoncaies of scale can be achieved, when a larqer nu»ber of
wells need to be dug, is the use of the «are expensive geophysical techniques justified. In aost
situations, however, near-surface aquifers suitable for well digging are known to the local

Groundwater Survey IK) Ltd fll5 Well Siting Guide

 population, while additional information can often be obtained through manual test drilling as
illustrated in figure 5 in the sain text.

3.3 Machine Drilling

A range of drilling equipsent and services is usually available in aost countries, fras the $1000 set
of hand drilling equipment to a $500 000 multi-purpose rotary rig. Soae projects operate their can
riq, while others find it more cost-effective and less cuaberscae to engage the services of local or
international contractors. Selection of drilling equipnent should be closely tied to the anticipated
geological conditions of the project area, such as rock type (especially hardness) and expected
drilling depths. In addition, care should be taken to ensure that the operational requirements of
the equipment are suited tD available skills and support services.

Table 9 Comparison of different drilling techniques (Arlosoroff et al.. 1987)

„_ Hand digging Hand drilling Percussion Siall Rotary Large Rotary

Approx Capital Cost 11000 tl000-*5000 I20000-J100000 *100O00-»2500OO > $250000

Running Cost very Ion very Ion ION medium very high

Operating Skills very lott very lo*» lediui high very high

Repair Skills very Ian low medium high very high

Back-up Support very low low lediui high very high

Approx Penetration 0.1 - 2 . 0 B I - 15m 1 - 15» 20 - 100* 20 - 100s

Rate per 8hr Day

200»it* Hole tD 15s in fast fast very fast* very fast*

linconsolidated Rock

200sa*f H D I B to 50* in slo* & difficult fairly fast very fast* very fast*
Unconsolidated Rock

200»»« Hole to 50* in impossible fairly fast very fast* very fast*
Semi-consolidated Rock

SOOas Hole to 50a in impossible very slow very fast* very fast*
Consolidated Rock

^Constrained by logistical support i*100i« finished well after screening and gravel packing

Drilling rigs can be classified under percussion and rotary rigs. Percussion rigs have been used for
•any decades in water well drilling and have a relatively simple design which has changed little over
the years. They are durable and easy to service, require only minimally trained operators and are
effective in both hardrock (Basement and volcanics) and unconsolidated sediaents. They are less
suitable for semi-consolidated clayey sediments. Rotary rigs are more complex and use basically t«o
drilling methods: uud-flush drilling and compressed air do«n-the-hole haunter (DTH). Hud drilling
requires a mud puap to circulate the mid down the hole and bring up the rock chippings tD the
surface, while DTH requires a powerful air compressor to drive the hammer and blow the rock chips out
of the hole. The DTH technique is excellent for hard rock, but less suitable for uncQnsolidated and

Groundnater Survey IK) Ltd A16 Hell Siting Guide

 seal-consolidated naterials, while aud drilling is very useful and fast in less hard rock. The s h e
of the rotary rigs detertines basically their possible depth and diaaeter of drilling. For CHS
projects in hard roc!: areas the sialler lulti-purpcse rotary rigs Uuch as the Danda 220) are usually
Bore than adequate. Table 9 gives a basic overview of the various drilling techniques and
requireaents in different geological environments. Inevitably, this table gives a rather siaplified
classification. Everyone faailiar with drilling will realize that a large variation is possible and
depends on local geologic?.! conditions, technical expsrtise available and even the availability of
spare parts iwhich depends quite often on foreign currency regulations).

3.4 Well Completion

ft well site investigation increases the chance of obtaining a good yielding well at the least
expense. This is not only achieved by careful selection of the drilling location. Other factors
such as the well construction deteriine whether an effective abstraction of groundwater and increased
well life is possible.
During drilling a careful record of the various geological formations which are encountered at
various depths aust be kept, as well as a record of the depths at which water is encountered in the
hole. In unconsolidated and seii-consolidated rocks the installation of casing and screens prevents
the hole fro* caving in. The screens allow the water fro* the fomation t.o enter the borehole where
the puip is located and should be installed at the correct depth, i.e. exactly opposite the water-
bearing layers, to facilitate the greatest possible inflow of groundwater. In cases where aquifer
positions are difficult to ascertain frcu the driller's logbook (e.g. where m d drilling is usedi,
several dawn-the-hole geophysical logging sethods can be applied which can pinpoint aquifer depth and
thickness.

In most cases, even in fractured zones in bedrock, it is advisable to install casing and screens and
around the screen a gravel pack; the latter to avoid the influx of snail particles into the well
bore. Such particles carried by the inflowing water can silt up a well, and severely shorten the
puap's life through abrasion. Screens, and a proper gravel pack, followed by well development
virtually solves the siltation problei. A gravel pack is an artificial filter made of well-sorted
gravel or sand particles between the screen and the water-bearing fariation which acts as a barrier
to fines in the foriation. Hell developsent involves Qver-puaping, surging and jetting of water or
air in the well bore. This agitates the gravel pack and surrounding water-bearing formation into a
stable position, increasing the porosity, peraeability and hydraulic radius, and flushes out all
particles sualler than the screen slot openings. Above and below the gravel pack an iaperaeaole seal
of clay or ceaent should be installed to avoid infiltration of contaminated water froa the surface or
froa less-suitable aquifers.

ft final important step in the construction of the well is the execution of a proper pusping test.
Test puaping provides infomation on the specific yield of a well and the drawdown of the water level
in the well at specific abstraction rates. Depending on the discharge which can be achieved with the
test, a decision can be sade as to the type of puap to be installed, the depth of the intake
(cylinder) and its capacity.

Groundwater Survey IK) Ltd A17 Hell Siting Guide

 Appendix 4: Selected Literature

4.1 Hydrogeology

Davis S H and R ] H DeHiest, 1966. Hydroqeology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 463 pp.

General handbook on hydrogeology, with chapters on groundwater q u a l i t y , h y d r a u l i c s ,

exploration and groundwater i n d i f f e r e n t hydrogeological environsenU. Not s p e c i f i c a l l y
oriented towards the t r o p i c s .

v Freeze R A and J A Cherry, 197?. Sroundwater. Prentice-Hall Inc. Englewoods C l i f f s , New Jersey 07632.
604 pp.

• Coaprehensive treatment on hydrogeology giving a broad i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y coverage of groundwater

p r i n c i p l e s . Specific a t t e n t i o n i s given t o groundwater c h e i i s t r y and contamination problems.

Heij 6 J and C R Meinardi, 19B4(?}. A Sroundwater Priaer. Technical Paper Mo. 2 1 . Rijswijfc KL:
IRC. 119 pp.

A basic introduction t o the p r i n c i p l e s of occurrence and «oveient of groundwater and well

hydraulics. Oriented towards CDS p r o j e c t s . Part of a series of hydrogeology related
papers. International Reference Centre for Conunity Water Supply and Sanitation, P0 Box
93190, 2509 AD The Hague, the Netherlands.

Larsson I et a l . , 1984. Ground Water in Hard Rocks. Project 3.6 of the International Hydrologkal
Prograaae. Paris: UNESCO. 228 pp.

Cosprehensive and detailed treataent of the hydrogeology of hard rock areas. Includes
treataent of reitote sensing and geophysical techniques and i s p a r t i c u l a r l y oriented towards
water developsent i n the Third World. UNESCO, 7, Place de Fontsnoy, 75700 Paris, France.

Hailing D E, S S D Foster and P Wurzel, 1984. Challenges in African Hydrology and Kater Resources
(Proceedings of the Harare S y i p o s i u i , July 1984). H a l l i n g f o r d : IAHS Press, I n s t i t u t e of Hydralogy.

Compilation of case studies concerning well s i t i n g and other aspects of CHS p r o j e c t s i n

Africa. International Association of Hydrological Sciences, I n s t i t u t e of Hydrology,
Wallingford, Qxon QXIO 88B, UK.

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 4.2 Reiote Sensing

Greenbaua D, 19B5. Review of Reiote Sensing Applications to Groundwater Exploration in Baseaent and
Regalith. Nottingham British Geological Survey. 36 pp.

Based on applications in tropical Baseient areas. Part of a series of papers on Basesent

hydrogeology. British Geological Survey, Nicker H i l l , Keyttorth, Nottingham NG12 566, UK.

Lillesand T !1 and T W Kiefer, 1979- Reaote Sensing and Iaaqe Interpretation. New York: John Wiley
It Sons. 612 pp.

Standard textbook on Reiote Sensing. Includes a helpful treattent on the interpretation of

aerial photographs in different geological environments, but is not specifically oriented
towards the tropics.

4.3 Geophysics

Carruthers R H, 1985. Review of Geophysical Techniques for Sroundwater Exploration in Crystalline

Baseaent Terrain. Report R6RS 85/3. Nottingham British Geological Survey. 30 pp.

Comprehensive overview of «ost couon geophysical exploration techniques. P r i i a r i l y based

on applications in tropical Baseient areas. British Geological Survey, Nicker H i l l ,
Keyworth, Nottinghat NG12 566, UK.

Telford K h* et a l . , 1976. Applied 6eophvsics. Cartridge: Cartridge University Press. 780pp.

Detailed theoretic treatment of aost geophysical exploration techniques.

Zotidy A ft R, 6 P Eaton, D R Nabey, 1974. Application of Surface Geophysics to Eround-Hater

Investigations. Washington: US Departaent of the Interior, Geological Survey. 114 pp.

Practical and coaprehensive treatient of the Resistivity, Seisaic Refraction, Gravity and
Nagnetic techniques with soae case studies. PrUarily based on the North Auerican
situation. US Bovernaent Printing Office, Washington DC, 20402, USA.

4.4 Hell Construction

Blankwaardt B, 1984. Hand D r i l l e d Hells. A Manual en S i t i n g , Design, Construction and Maintenance.

Dar es Salaa*: Rttegarulila Water Resources I n s t i t u t e . 132 pp.

Detailed lanual on the s i t i n g and construction of hand-drilled wells for low-cost water
developient, based on a CWS project in Tanzania. TOOL Foundation, Entrepotdok 63A/i?ft,
1018 AD ftisterdai, the Netherlands.

Groundwater Survey <KJ Ltd A19 Well Siting Guide

 QHV, 1973. Shallow Metis, ftaersfoort NL: DHV Consulting Engineers. 190 pp.

Detailed aanual on the siting and construction of hand-dug wells especially for
water developaent, based on a Cs3 project in Tanzania.
DHV, P0 Be* 85, 3800 AB Aaersfoort, the Netherlands.

Driscoll F S, 1996. Groundwater and Metis (2nd edition). St Paul USA: Johnson Division. 1039 pp.

The well-known Johnson hendbook on drilling and water sells. Exhaustively revised 2nd edition,
describing alt nachine drilling sethods, aodern well construction, development and coipletisn.
Includes basic infonatian an hydrogeslogy and geophysics. Johnson Division, St Paul, dinnesota
55U2, USA.

4,5 Test Puiping

Kruseaan S P and N ft de Ridder, 1970. Analysis and Evaluation of Pumping Test Data (3d edition),
Wageningen NL: ILRI. 200 pp.

Standard reference book on puiping tests, International Institute for Land Reclasation
and laproveaent, Wageningen, the Netherlands.

4.6 Hater Quality

WHO, 1984. Sidelines for Drinfcing-Hater Quality (Volutes 1 fc 2). Beneva: World Health
Organization.

Reconaended values for water quality deteriinaticn, infor»ation on the selection of

suitable water sources and explanation of the criteria for constituents in water. - SHQ
Publications, Geneva, Switzerland-

4.7 Handpuips

ArlDsoroH S, et al., 1987. Coanunitv Hater Supply. The Handpuap Qation. Washington DC: The Horld
Bank. 202 pp.

Rationalization of the use ot handpuips in CHS projects and a detailed review of sost of
the available handpuap types based on laboratory anci field tests. Publication Sales Unit,
The iterld Bank, Washington DC 20453, USft.

4.8 Banagetent

Grover B, 1983, Mater Supoly and Sanitation Project Preparation Handbook. Technical Paper No 12 (3
volumes). Washington DC: The World Bank.

Manual on the preparation and aanageient of water supply projects in Third World countries
according to World Bank criteria, including several case studies.
Publication Sales Unit, The World Bank, Washington DC 20433, USA.

Groundwater Survey (K) Ltd A20 Well Siting Guide